:Geography (Ptolemy)

Versions of Ptolemy's work in antiquity were probably proper atlases with attached maps, although some scholars believe that the references to maps in the text were later additions.

No Greek manuscript of the Geography survives from earlier than the 13th century.{{sfnp|Dilke|1987b|pp=267–268}} However fragmentary papyri of later somewhat derivative works such as the Table of Noteworthy Cities have been found with the earliest, Rylands Library [https://luna.manchester.ac.uk/luna/servlet/detail/ManchesterDev~93~3~55169~189080 GP 522], dating to the early 3rd century.{{Cite journal |last=Defaux |first=Olivier |date=2020-01-01 |title=Le Papyrus Rylands 522/523 et les tables de Ptolémée |url=https://www.academia.edu/43212361 |journal=Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik}}{{Cite book |last=Defaux |first=Olivier |url=https://topoi.org/publication/43578/ |title=The Iberian Peninsula in Ptolemy’s Geography. Origins of the Coordinates and Textual History |publisher=Edition Topoi |year=2017 |location=Berlin |publication-date=2017 |pages=124}} A letter written by the Byzantine monk Maximus Planudes records that he searched for one for Chora Monastery in the summer of 1295;{{sfnp|Dilke|1987b|p=268}} one of the earliest surviving texts may have been one of those he then assembled.Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana [The Apostolic Vatican Library]. Vat. Gr. 177. Late 13th century{{Cite journal |last=Baigent |first=Elizabeth |last2=Burri |first2=Renate |date=2009 |title=The Rediscovery of Ptolemy's Geography (End of the Thirteenth to End of the Fifteenth Century) |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40234225 |journal=Imago Mundi |volume=61 |issue=1 |pages=124–125 |issn=0308-5694}} In Europe, maps were sometimes redrawn using the coordinates provided by the text,{{sfnp|Milanesi|1996}} as Planudes was forced to do.{{sfnp|Dilke|1987b|p=268}} Later scribes and publishers could then copy these new maps, as Athanasius did for the emperor Andronicus II Palaeologus.{{sfnp|Dilke|1987b|p=268}} The three earliest surviving texts with maps are those from Constantinople (Istanbul) based on Planudes's work.{{efn|They are the Urbanas Graecus 82,Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana [The Apostolic Vatican Library]. Urbinas Graecus 82. Late 13th century the Fragmentum Fabricianum Graecum 23,Universitetsbiblioteket [The University Library of Copenhagen]. Fragmentum Fabricianum Graecum 23. Late 13th century and the Seragliensis 57.The Sultan's Library in Istanbul. Codex Seragliensis GI 57. Late 13th century The Urbanas Graecus is usually considered the oldest,{{sfnp|Dilke|1987b|p=269}}{{sfnp|Diller|1940}} although some argue for the precedence of the Turkish manuscript.{{sfnp|Stückelberger|2006}}}}

File:Rylands Library Greek Papyrus 522.jpg fragment of Ptolemy's Table of Noteworthy Cities]]

The first Latin translation of these texts was made in 1406 or 1407 by Jacobus Angelus in Florence, Italy, under the name {{lang|la|Geographia Claudii Ptolemaei}}.{{sfnp|Angelus|c. 1406}} It is not thought that his edition had maps,{{sfnp|Clemens|2008|p=244}} although Manuel Chrysoloras had given Palla Strozzi a Greek copy of Planudes's maps in Florence in 1397.{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dhgYlhXJy_QC&q=although%20Manuel%20Chrysoloras%20had%20given%20Palla%20Strozzi%20a%20Greek%20copy%20of%20Planudes's%20maps%20in%20Florence%20in%201397&pg=PA114|title=The World Map, 1300-1492: The Persistence of Tradition and Transformation|last=Edson|first=Evelyn|date=2007-05-30|publisher=JHU Press|isbn=978-0-8018-8589-1|language=en}}

Berggren & Jones (2000) place these manuscripts into a stemma whereby U, K, F and N are connected with the activities of Maximos Planudes (c.1255-1305). From a sister manuscript to UKFN descends R, V, W & C, however the maps were either copied defectively or not at all. "Of the greatest importance for the text of the Geography" they state is manuscript X ([https://digi.vatlib.it/mss/detail/Vat.gr.191 Vat.Gr.191]); "because it is the only copy that is uninfluenced by the Byzantine revision." e.g. the 13th-14th century corrections of Planudes, possibly associated with recreating the maps.

Regarding the maps, they conclude that it was unlikely that extant maps survived from which the above stemma descends, even if maps existed in antiquity:

"The transmission of Ptolemy's text certainly passed through a stage when the manuscripts were too small to contain the maps. Planudes and his assistants therefore probably had no pictorial models, and the success of their enterprise is proof that Ptolemy succeeded in his attempt to encode the map in words and numbers. The copies of the maps in later manuscripts and printed editions of the Geography were reproduced from Planudes' reconstructions."{{Cite book |last1=Ptolemy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hug9DwAAQBAJ |title=Ptolemy's Geography: An Annotated Translation of the Theoretical Chapters |last2=Berggren |first2=J. Lennart |last3=Jones |first3=Alexander |date=2002-01-15 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-09259-1 |pages=49–50 |language=en}}

The Geography consists of three sections, divided among 8 books. Book I is a treatise on cartography and chorography, describing the methods used to assemble and arrange Ptolemy's data. From Book II through the beginning of Book VII, a gazetteer provides longitude and latitude values for the world known to the ancient Romans (the "ecumene"). The rest of Book VII provides details on three projections to be used for the construction of a map of the world, varying in complexity and fidelity. Book VIII constitutes an atlas of regional maps. The maps include a recapitulation of some of the values given earlier in the work, which were intended to be used as captions to clarify the map's contents and maintain their accuracy during copying. Book 8 formed the basis for the Table of Noteworthy Cities.

Maps based on scientific principles had been made in Europe since the time of Eratosthenes in the 3rd century BC. Ptolemy improved the treatment of map projections.{{cite book |last=Snyder |first=John |title=Flattening the Earth |publisher= University of Chicago Press |page=6 |isbn=9780226767475|date=1997-12-05 }} He provided instructions on how to create his maps in the first section of the work.

The gazetteer section of Ptolemy's work provided latitude and longitude coordinates for all the places and geographical features in the work. Latitude was expressed in degrees of arc from the equator, the same system that is used now, though Ptolemy used fractions of a degree rather than minutes of arc.{{cite book | last = Talbert | first = Richard | title = Roman Portable Sundials: The Empire in Your Hand | publisher = Oxford University Press | date = 2017 | pages = 119–123}} His Prime Meridian, of 0 longitude, ran through the Fortunate Isles, the westernmost land recorded,{{sfnp|Wright|1923}} at around the position of El Hierro in the Canary Islands.{{Cite book|url=http://iopscience.iop.org/book/978-0-7503-1194-6|title=Time and Time Again Determination of longitude at sea in the 17th Century|last=de Grijs|first=Richard|date=2017|publisher=IOP Publishing|isbn=978-0-7503-1194-6|doi=10.1088/978-0-7503-1194-6ch7}} The maps spanned 180 degrees of longitude from the Fortunate Isles in the Atlantic to China.

Ptolemy was aware that Europe knew only about a quarter of the globe.{{Citation needed|date=December 2020}}

Ptolemy's work included a single large and less detailed world map and then separate and more detailed regional maps. The first Greek manuscripts compiled after Maximus Planudes's rediscovery of the text had as many as 64 regional maps.{{efn|For example, the illustrations for British Library, Burney MS 111,Images from Burney MS 111 at Wikicommons. most of which were inserted into an earlier copy of the Geography during the early 15th century.}} The standard set in Western Europe came to be 26: 10 European maps, 4 African maps, and 12 Asian maps. As early as the 1420s, these canonical maps were complemented by extra-Ptolemaic regional maps depicting, e.g., Scandinavia.

The Geography is spread over 8 books with the main body of the work (books 2-7) is a list of some 8000 toponyms comprising the Oikumene of the second century AD. Book 1 is written in prose and is Ptolemy's explanation of the project, his method and his sources (mainly Marinos of Tyre). Book 8 offers descriptions for each of the maps created in books 2-7 and forms the basis of the Table of Noteworthy Cities. The critical edition was published by Stückelberger, Mittenhuber and Klöti (2006).

Book 1 is a theoretical treatise by Ptolemy outlining the subject matter, previous work and instructing the reader how to draw a world map using his projection systems. The sections are, to use Ptolemy's original titles:{{Cite book |last=Ptolemaeus |first=Claudius |title=Ptolemy's geography: an annotated translation of the theoretical chapters |last2=Berggren |first2=J. L. |last3=Jones |first3=Alexander |date=2002 |publisher=Princeton Univ. Press |isbn=978-0-691-09259-1 |location=Princeton, NJ}}

1. On the difference between world cartography and regional cartography
2. On the prerequisites for world cartography
3. How the number of stades in the earth's circumference can be obtained from the number of stades in an arbitrary rectilinear interval, and vice versa, even if [the interval] is not on a single meridian
4. That it is necessary to give priority to the [astronomical] phenomena over [data] from records of travel
5. That it is necessary to follow the most recent researches because of changes in the world over time
6. On Marinos' guide to world cartography
7. Revision of Marinos' latitudinal dimension of the known world on the basis ofthe [astronomical] phenomena
8. The same revision [of the latitudinal dimension], on the basis of land journeys
9. The same revision [of the latitudinal dimension], on the basis of sea journeys
10. That one should not put the Aithiopians south of the parallel situated opposite to that through Meroe
11. On the computations that Marinos improperly made for the longitudinal dimension of the oikoumene
12. The revision ofthe longitudinal dimension of the known world on the basis of journeys by land
13. The same revision [of the longitudinal dimension] on the basis of journeys by sea
14. On the crossing from the Golden Peninsula to Kattigara
15. On the inconsistencies in details of Marinos' exposition
16. That certain matters escaped [Marinos'] notice in the boundaries of the provinces
17. On the inconsistencies between [Marinos] and the reports ofour time
18. On the inconvenience of Marinos' compilations for drawing a map of the oikoumene
19. On the convenience of our catalogue for making a map
20. On the disproportional nature of Marinos' geographical map
21. On the things that should be preserved in a planar map
22. On how one should make a map of the oikoumene on a globe
23. List of the meridians and parallels to be included in the map
24. Method of making a map of the oikoumene in the plane in proper proportionality with its configuration on the globe (In this section Ptolemy explains two methods for projecting his map)

Western Atlantic fringes, Gaul, Central Europe and the Iberian Peninsula.{{cite web |last1=Thayer |first1=Bill |title=Ptolemy: the Geography |url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Periods/Roman/_Texts/Ptolemy/home.html |access-date=13 April 2023 |website=Lacus Curtius |publisher=University of Chicago}}

Italy, Greece and the major Mediterranean Islands.

North Africa from Morocco to Egypt and Ethiopia.

Covering Anatolia, Asia Minor, the Middle East and Near East as well as Cyprus.

In book 6, Ptolemy covers the Near East, Caucuses and Central Asia.{{Cite web |last=href= |last2=href= |date=160 |title=Ptolemaeus, Geography (II-VI) |url=https://topostext.org/work.php?work_id=209#6.1.1 |access-date=2025-04-24 |website=original translation |language=en}}

India, China, and Sri Lanka.

Descriptions of the maps created by the previous sections with details of day length at solstice, etc. The gazetter of toponyms is thought to have formed the basis for the Table of Noteworthy Cities.

File:PtolemyWorldMap.jpg|The Ptolemy world map, including the countries of "Serica" and "Sinae" (Cattigara) at the extreme right beyond the island of "Taprobane" {{nowrap|(Sri Lanka)}} and the "Aurea Chersonesus" {{nowrap|(Malay Peninsula)}}.

File:Descriptio Prime Tabulae Europae.jpg|1st Map of Europe
The islands of Albion and Hibernia

File:Cosmographia Claudii Ptolomaei ante 1467 (7455967) (cropped).jpg|2nd Map of Europe
Hispania Tarraconensis, Baetica, and Lusitania

File:Gauleptolemee1541.jpg|3rd Map of Europe
Gallia Lugdunensis, Narbonensis, and Belgica

File:Map after Ptolemy's Geographia (Burney MS 111, f.28r).jpeg|4th Map of Europe
Greater Germany and the Cimbric Peninsula

File:Quinta Europa Tabula 1520.jpg|5th Map of Europe
Rhaetia, Vindelicia, Noricum, Pannonia, Illyria, Liburnia, and Dalmatia

File:Ptolemy Cosmographia 1467 - Italy a.jpg|6th Map of Europe
Italy and Corsica

File:Septima Europe Tabula.jpg|7th Map of Europe
The islands of Sardinia and Sicily

File:Sebastian Munster - Tabvla europae VIII (Sarmatia).jpg|8th Map of Europe
Sarmatia in Europe

File:Dacia, 1620 (Münster).jpg|9th Map of Europe
Dacia, Moesia, and Thrace

File:Stefano Bonsignori - Hellenic peninsula- Greece, Albania, Bosnia and Bulgaria - Google Art Project.jpg|10th Map of Europe
Macedonia, Achaea, the Peloponnesus, and Crete

File:Tabula Prima Aphricae.jpg|1st Map of Africa
Tangerine and Caesarian Mauritania

File:Cosmographia Claudii Ptolomaei ante 1467 (7456132) (cropped).jpg|2nd Map of Africa
Africa

File:Tertia Africae Tabula of 1478 after Ptolemy.jpg|3rd Map of Africa
Cyrenaica, Marmarica, Libya, Lower Egypt, and the Thebaid

File:Quarta Africae tabula (7537883120).jpg|4th Map of Africa
North, West, East, and Central Africa

File:Tabula Prima de Asia.jpg|1st Map of Asia
Bithynia and Pontus, Asia, Lycia, Pamphylia, Galatia, Cappadocia, Cilicia, and Lesser Armenia

File:Map after Ptolemy's Geographia (Burney MS 111, f.68v).jpeg|2nd Map of Asia
Asiatic Sarmatia

File:Gerard Mercator. Tabula Asiae III (Armenia, Georgia, Turkey, etc.). 1579.jpg|3rd Map of Asia
Colchis, Iberia, Albania, and Greater Armenia

File:NLI Quarta Asie tabula.jpg|4th Map of Asia
Cyprus, Syria, Palestine/Judea, Arabia Petrea and Deserta, Mesopotamia, and Babylonia

File:Ptolemys Fifth Map.jpg|5th Map of Asia
Assyria, Susiana, Media, Persia, Hyrcania, Parthia, and Carmania Deserta

File:Tabula Sexta de Asia.png|6th Map of Asia
Arabia Felix and Carmania Deserta

File:Thomas Porcacchi. Tavola Settima Dell'Asia Tabula Asiae VII. Padua 1620.jpg|7th Map of Asia
Scythia within Imaus, Sogdiana, Bactriana, Margiana, and the Sacae

File:Octava Asiae Tabula.jpg|8th Map of Asia
Scythia beyond Imaus and Serica

File:Tabula Nona dAsia.jpg|9th Map of Asia
Ariana, Drangiana, Gedrosia, Arachosia, and Paropanisus

File:NLI Decima Asiae Tabula.jpg|10th Map of Asia
India within the Ganges

File:Ptolemy Asia detail.jpg|11th Map of Asia
India beyond the Ganges, the Golden Chersonese, the Magnus Sinus, and the Sinae

File:Map after Ptolemy's Geographia (Burney MS 111, f.1v).jpeg|12th Map of Asia
Taprobana

The original treatise by Marinus of Tyre that formed the basis of Ptolemy's Geography has been completely lost. A world map based on Ptolemy was displayed in Augustodunum (Autun, France) in late Roman times.{{cite web|url=https://www.bl.uk/learning/timeline/item126360.html|title=Ptolemy's World Map|website=www.bl.uk|access-date=2020-01-15|archive-date=2019-04-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190428022008/http://www.bl.uk/learning/timeline/item126360.html|url-status=dead}} Pappus, writing at Alexandria in the 4th century, produced a commentary on Ptolemy's Geography and used it as the basis of his (now lost) Chorography of the Ecumene.{{sfnp|Dilke|1987a|p=234}} Later imperial writers and mathematicians, however, seem to have restricted themselves to commenting on Ptolemy's text, rather than improving upon it; surviving records actually show decreasing fidelity to real position.{{sfnp|Dilke|1987a|p=234}} Nevertheless, Byzantine scholars continued these geographical traditions throughout the Medieval period.Codex Athous Vatopedinus 655: Add MS 19391, f 19v-20 (British Library, London)

Whereas previous Greco-Roman geographers such as Strabo and Pliny the Elder demonstrated a reluctance to rely on the contemporary accounts of sailors and merchants who plied distant areas of the Indian Ocean, Marinus and Ptolemy betray a much greater receptiveness to incorporating information received from them.{{sfnp|Parker|2008|p=118}} For instance, Grant Parker argues that it would be highly implausible for them to have constructed the Bay of Bengal as precisely as they did without the accounts of sailors.{{sfnp|Parker|2008|p=118}} When it comes to the account of the Golden Chersonese (i.e. Malay Peninsula) and the Magnus Sinus (i.e. Gulf of Thailand and South China Sea), Marinus and Ptolemy relied on the testimony of a Greek sailor named Alexandros, who claimed to have visited a far eastern site called "Cattigara" (most likely Oc Eo, Vietnam, the site of unearthed Antonine-era Roman goods and not far from the region of Jiaozhi in northern Vietnam where ancient Chinese sources claim several Roman embassies first landed in the 2nd and 3rd centuries).{{sfnp|Young|2001|p=29}}{{sfnp|Mawer|2013|p=38}}{{sfnp|Suárez|1999|p=90-92}}{{sfnp|Yule|1915|p=52}}

{{See also|Geography and cartography in medieval Islam}}

File:Amirbliulaie.png

Muslim cartographers were using copies of Ptolemy's Almagest and Geography by the 9th century.{{sfnp|Edson|2004|pp=61–62}} At that time, in the court of the caliph al-Maʾmūm, al-Khwārazmī compiled his Book of the Depiction of the Earth (Kitab Surat al-Ard) which mimicked the Geography{{sfnp|Rapoport|2008|p=128}} in providing the coordinates for 545 cities and regional maps of the Nile, the Island of the Jewel, the Sea of Darkness, and the Sea of Azov.{{sfnp|Rapoport|2008|p=128}} A 1037 copy of these are the earliest extant maps from Islamic lands.{{sfnp|Rapoport|2008|p=127}} The text clearly states that al-Khwārazmī was working from an earlier map, although this could not have been an exact copy of Ptolemy's work: his Prime Meridian was 10° east of Ptolemy's, he adds some places, and his latitudes differ.{{sfnp|Rapoport|2008|p=128}} C.A. Nallino suggests that the work was not based on Ptolemy but on a derivative world map,{{sfnp|Nallino|1939}} presumably in Syriac or Arabic.{{sfnp|Rapoport|2008|p=128}} The coloured map of al-Maʾmūm constructed by a team including al-Khwārazmī was described by the Persian encyclopædist al-Masʿūdī around 956 as superior to the maps of Marinus and Ptolemy,{{sfn|al-Masʿūdī|1894|loc=33}} probably indicating that it was built along similar mathematical principles.{{sfnp|Rapoport|2008|p=130}} It included 4530 cities and over 200 mountains.

Despite beginning to compile numerous gazetteers of places and coordinates indebted to Ptolemy,{{sfnp|Rapoport|2008|p=129}} Muslim scholars made almost no direct use of Ptolemy's principles in the maps which have survived.{{sfnp|Edson|2004|pp=61–62}} Instead, they followed al-Khwārazmī's modifications and the orthogonal projection advocated by Suhrāb's early 10th-century treatise on the Marvels of the Seven Climes to the End of Habitation. Surviving maps from the medieval period were not done according to mathematical principles. The world map from the 11th-century Book of Curiosities is the earliest surviving map of the Muslim or Christian worlds to include a geographic coordinate system but the copyist seems to have not understood its purpose, starting it from the left using twice the intended scale and then (apparently realizing his mistake) giving up halfway through.{{sfnp|Rapoport|2008|p=126–127}} Its presence does strongly suggest the existence of earlier, now-lost maps which had been mathematically derived in the manner of Ptolemy,{{sfnp|Rapoport|2008|p=127}} al-Khwārazmi, or Suhrāb. There are surviving reports of such maps.{{sfnp|Rapoport|2008|p=129}}

Ptolemy's Geography was translated from Arabic into Latin at the court of King Roger II of Sicily in the 12th century AD.{{cite journal |last1=Amari |first1=Michele |title=Il Libro di Re Ruggiero ossia la Geografia di Edrisis |journal=Bollettino della Società Geografica Italiana |date=1872 |issue=7 |pages=1–24}}. Cited in {{cite book |last1=Kahlaoui |first1=Tarek |title=Creating the Mediterranean : Maps and the Islamic imagination |date=2018 |publisher=Brill |isbn=9789004347380 |page=148}} However, no copy of that translation has survived.

{{further|Waldseemüller map|Sino-Roman relations|Indo-Roman relations|Europeans in Medieval China|Chronology of European exploration of Asia}}

The Greek text of the Geography reached Florence from Constantinople in about 1400 and was translated into Latin by Jacobus Angelus of Scarperia around 1406.{{sfnp|Angelus|c. 1406}} The reception of the Geography in Latin Europe was diverse. In the first half of the 15th century, Florentine humanists used it mainly as a philological resource to understand the geography of ancient texts; Venetian cartographers attempted to reconcile Ptolemaic maps with portolan charts and medieval mappaemundi, and French and German scholars with an interest in astrology focused on Ptolemy's cosmographical concepts.{{Cite book |last=Gautier-Dalché |first=Patrick |title=La géographie de Ptolémée en occident, IV-XVIe siècle |date=2009 |publisher=Brépols |isbn=978-2-503-53164-9 |series=Terrarum orbis |location=Turnhout |pages=189-214}} Over the second half of the century, the prestige of the Geography grew to become the necessary framework of any reflection on geographical space.Gautier-Dalché 2009, 267-268.

The first printed edition with maps, published in 1477 in Bologna, was also the first printed book with engraved illustrations.{{cite book |author1=Landau, David |author2=Parshall, Peter |title=The Renaissance Print |publisher=Yale |date=1996 |pages=241–242 |isbn=978-0-300-06883-2}}{{cite journal |author=Crone, G.R. |title=review of Theatrum Orbis Terrarum. A Series of Atlases in Facsimile |journal=The Geographical Journal |volume=130 |issue=4 |date=Dec 1964 |pages=577–578 |doi=10.2307/1792324 |jstor=1792324}} Many editions followed (more often using woodcut in the early days), some following traditional versions of the maps, and others updating them. An edition published at Ulm in 1482 was the first one printed north of the Alps. It became a commercial success and was reprinted in 1486.Gautier-Dalché 2009, 306-308 Also in 1482, Francesco Berlinghieri printed the first edition in vernacular Italian. The edition published in Strasbourg in 1513 was a major step in the modernization of the Geography. It preserved the corpus of Ptolemy's text and maps as faithfully as possible to the original while it provided a separate set of 20 more accurate and up-to-date modern maps.Gautier-Dalché 2009, 308-310. A much improved Latin translation of the Greek original was produced by Willibald Pirckheimer for the 1525 Strasbourg edition, and the first printed edition directly in Greek was authored by Erasmus of Rotterdam in Basel in 1533.

File:Cosmographia, 1482.djvu in 1482]]

Ptolemy had mapped the whole world from the Fortunatae Insulae (Cape Verde{{cite journal |author=Dennis Rawlins |title=The Ptolemy GEOGRAPHY's Secrets |journal=DIO - the International Journal of Scientific History |volume=14 |date=March 2008 |page=33 |bibcode=2008DIO....14...33R |url=http://www.dioi.org/bk/de0.pdf |issn=1041-5440}} or Canary Islands) eastward to the eastern shore of the Magnus Sinus. This known portion of the world was comprised within 180 degrees. In his extreme east Ptolemy placed Serica (the Land of Silk), the Sinarum Situs (the Port of the Sinae), and the emporium of Cattigara. On the 1489 map of the world by Henricus Martellus, which was based on Ptolemy's work, Asia terminated in its southeastern point in a cape, the Cape of Cattigara. Cattigara was understood by Ptolemy to be a port on the Sinus Magnus, or Great Gulf, the actual Gulf of Thailand, at eight and a half degrees north of the Equator, on the coast of Cambodia, which is where he located it in his Canon of Famous Cities. It was the easternmost port reached by shipping trading from the Graeco-Roman world to the lands of the Far East.J.W. McCrindle, Ancient India as described by Ptolemy, London, Trubner, 1885, revised edition by Ramachandra Jain, New Delhi, Today & Tomorrow’s Printers & Publishers, 1974, p.204: “By the Great Gulf is meant the Gulf of Siam, together with the sea that stretches beyond it toward China”; Albert Herrmann, “Der Magnus Sinus und Cattigara nach Ptolemaeus”, Comptes Rendus du 15me Congrès International de Géographie, Amsterdam, 1938, Leiden, Brill, 1938, tome II, sect. IV, Géographie Historique et Histoire de la Géographie, pp.123-8.[https://books.google.com/books?id=WNEUAAAAIAAJ&dq=%E2%80%9CDer+Magnus+Sinus+und+Cattigara+nach+Ptolemaeus%E2%80%9D%2C&pg=PA123]

In Ptolemy's later and better-known Geography, a scribal error was made and Cattigara was located at eight and a half degrees South of the Equator. On Ptolemaic maps, such as that of Martellus, Catigara was located on the easternmost shore of the Mare Indicum, 180 degrees East of the Cape St Vincent at, due to the scribal error, eight and a half degrees South of the Equator.Paul Schnabel, „Die Entstehungsgeschichte des kartographischen Erdbildes des Klaudios Ptolemaios“, Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften: Philosophisch-Historische Klasse, Verlag der Akademie der Wissenschaften, Bd.XIV, 1930, S.214-250, n.b. 239-243; cited in Albert Herrmann, “South-Eastern Asia on Ptolemy’s Map”, Research and Progress: Quarterly Review of German Science, vol.V, no.2, March–April 1939, pp.121-127, p.123.

Catigara is also shown at this location on Martin Waldseemüller's 1507 world map, which avowedly followed the tradition of Ptolemy. Ptolemy's information was thereby misinterpreted so that the coast of China, which should have been represented as part of the coast of eastern Asia, was falsely made to represent an eastern shore of the Indian Ocean. As a result, Ptolemy implied more land east of the 180th meridian and an ocean beyond. Marco Polo’s account of his travels in eastern Asia described lands and seaports on an eastern ocean apparently unknown to Ptolemy. Marco Polo’s narrative authorized the extensive additions to the Ptolemaic map shown on the 1492 globe of Martin Behaim. The fact that Ptolemy did not represent an eastern coast of Asia made it admissible for Behaim to extend that continent far to the east. Behaim’s globe placed Marco Polo’s Mangi and Cathay east of Ptolemy’s 180th meridian, and the Great Khan’s capital, Cambaluc (Beijing), on the 41st parallel of latitude at approximately 233 degrees East. Behaim allowed 60 degrees beyond Ptolemy’s 180 degrees for the mainland of Asia and 30 degrees more to the east coast of Cipangu (Japan). Cipangu and the mainland of Asia were thus placed only 90 and 120 degrees, respectively, west of the Canary Islands.

The Codex Seragliensis was used as the base of a new edition of the work in 2006.{{sfnp|Stückelberger|2006}} This new edition was used to "decode" Ptolemy's coordinates of Books 2 and 3 by an interdisciplinary team of TU Berlin, presented in publications in 2010Andreas Kleineberg, Christian Marx, Eberhard Knobloch, Dieter Lelgemann, Germania und die Insel Thule. Die Entschlüsselung von Ptolemaios´ „Atlas der Oikumene“. Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, Darmstadt, 2010, {{ISBN|978-3-534-23757-9}}. and 2012.Andreas Kleineberg, Christian Marx, Dieter Lelgemann, Europa in der Geographie des Ptolemaios. Die Entschlüsselung des „Atlas Oikumene“: Zwischen Orkney, Gibraltar und den Dinariden. Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, Darmstadt, 2010, {{ISBN|978-3-534-24835-3}}.Christian Marx, Andreas Kleineberg, Die Geographie des Ptolemaios. Geographike Hyphegesis Buch 3: Europa zwischen Newa, Don und Mittelmeer. epubli, Berlin, 2012, {{ISBN|978-3-8442-2809-0}}.

Christopher Columbus modified this geography further by using {{frac|53|2|3}} Italian nautical miles as the length of a degree instead of the longer degree of Ptolemy, and by adopting Marinus of Tyre’s longitude of 225 degrees for the east coast of the Magnus Sinus. This resulted in a considerable eastward advancement of the longitudes given by Martin Behaim and other contemporaries of Columbus. By some process Columbus reasoned that the longitudes of eastern Asia and Cipangu respectively were about 270 and 300 degrees east, or 90 and 60 degrees west of the Canary Islands. He said that he had sailed 1100 leagues from the Canaries when he found Cuba in 1492. This was approximately where he thought the coast of eastern Asia would be found. On this basis of calculation he identified Hispaniola with Cipangu, which he had expected to find on the outward voyage at a distance of about 700 leagues from the Canaries. His later voyages resulted in further exploration of Cuba and in the discovery of South and Central America. At first South America, the Mundus Novus (New World) was considered to be a great island of continental proportions; but as a result of his fourth voyage, it was apparently considered to be identical with the great Upper India peninsula (India Superior) represented by Behaim – the Cape of Cattigara. This seems to be the best interpretation of the sketch map made by Alessandro Zorzi on the advice of Bartholomew Columbus (Christopher's brother) around 1506, which bears an inscription saying that according to the ancient geographer Marinus of Tyre and Christopher Columbus the distance from Cape St Vincent on the coast of Portugal to Cattigara on the peninsula of India Superior was 225 degrees, while according to Ptolemy the same distance was 180 degrees.“Alberico”, vol.IV, c. 169, Florence, Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale, Banco Rari 234; Sebastian Crino, "Schizzi cartografici inediti dei primi anni della scoperta dell' America", Rivista marittima, vol. LXIV, no.9, Supplemento, Novembre 1930, p.48, fig.18. Downloadable at: https://www.henry-davis.com/MAPS/Ren/Ren1/304.1.html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180615032400/http://www.henry-davis.com/MAPS/Ren/Ren1/304.1.html |date=2018-06-15 }}

Prior to the 16th century, knowledge of geography in the Ottoman Empire was limited in scope, with almost no access to the works of earlier Islamic scholars that superseded Ptolemy. His Geography would again be translated and updated with commentary into Arabic under Mehmed II, who commissioned works from Byzantine scholar George Amiroutzes in 1465 and the Florentine humanist Francesco Berlinghieri in 1481.{{cite book |title=The Ottoman 'Discovery' of the Indian Ocean in the Sixteenth Century: The Age of Exploration from an Islamic Perspective |first=Giancarlo |last=Casale |date=2003 |url=http://webdoc.sub.gwdg.de/ebook/p/2005/history_cooperative/www.historycooperative.org/proceedings/seascapes/casale.html#_ftnref25}}{{cite book |title=Trading Territories: Mapping the Early Modern World |author-link1=Jerry Brotton|first=Jerry |last=Brotton |page=101 |url=http://librarun.org/book/53582/101 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160406165044/http://librarun.org/book/53582/101 |archive-date=2016-04-06 }}

There are two related errors:{{cite journal |author=Lucio Russo |title=Ptolemy's Longitudes and Eratosthenes' Measurement of the Earth's Circumference |journal=Mathematics and Mechanics of Complex Systems |volume=1 |pages=67–79 |date=2012 |doi=10.2140/memocs.2013.1.67 |url=http://msp.org/memocs/2013/1-1/memocs-v1-n1-p04-s.pdf|doi-access=free }}

• Considering a sample of 80 cities amongst the 6345 listed by Ptolemy, those that are both identifiable and for which we can expect a better distance measurement since they were well known, there is a systematic overestimation of the longitude by a factor 1.428 with a high confidence (coefficient of determination r² = 0.9935). This error produces evident deformations in Ptolemy's world map most apparent for example in the profile of Italy, which is markedly stretched horizontally.
• Ptolemy accepted that the known Ecumene spanned 180° of longitude, but instead of accepting Eratosthenes's estimate for the circumference of the Earth of 252,000 stadia, he shrinks it to 180,000 stadia, with a factor of 1.4 between the two figures.

This suggests Ptolemy rescaled his longitude data to fit with a figure of 180,000 stadia for the circumference of the Earth, which he described as a "general consensus". Ptolemy rescaled experimentally obtained data in many of his works on geography, astrology, music, and optics.

File:Codex Seragliensis GI 57, fol. 33v.jpg|Codex Seragliensis GI 57, fol. 33v

File:Cosmographia Claudii Ptolomaei ante 1467 (7456016) Scandinavia.jpg|Scandinavia in the Zamoyski Codex ({{circa|lk=no|1467}})

File:Servet Ptolomei geographicae enarrationis.jpg|1535 printed edition, title page

File:Claudii Ptolemaei geographia, 1843, vol1.djvu|page=7|19th-century print in Latin (3 volumes)

File:Prima Europe tabula.jpg|Prima Europe tabula One of the earliest surviving copies of Ptolemy's 2nd-century map of Great Britain and Ireland. 2nd edition, 1482.

File:Sebastian Munster, Tabula Sarmatiae.jpg|Sebastian Munster, Tabula Sarmatiae, 1571

File:Eastern Europe. Sebastian Munster, Tabula Sarmatiae, from Strabonis Rerum Geographicarum, 1571 REVERCE.jpg|Sebastian Munster, Tabula Sarmatiae, 1571 (reverse)

• Almagest, Ptolemy's astronomical work
• Description of Greece
• Geographia Generalis
• Diodorus Siculus
• Geography and cartography in medieval Islam
• Strabo
• List of most expensive books and manuscripts
• Kitab Surat al-Ard
• Table of Noteworthy Cities

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• Blažek, Václav. "Etymological Analysis of Toponyms from Ptolemy's Description of Central Europe". In: Studia Celto-Slavica 3 (2010): 21–45. DOI: https://doi.org/10.54586/GTQF3679.
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• Cosgrove, Dennis. 2003. Apollo's Eye: A Cartographic Genealogy of the Earth in the Western Imagination. Johns Hopkins University Press. Baltimore and London.
• Gautier Dalché, Patrick. 2009. La Géographie de Ptolémée en Occident (IVe-XVIe siècle). Terratum Orbis. Turnhout. Brepols, .
• Shalev, Zur, and Charles Burnett, eds. 2011. Ptolemy's Geography in the Renaissance. London; Turin. Warburg Institute; Nino Aragno. (In Appendix: Latin text of Jacopo Angeli's introduction to his translation of the Geography, with English translation by C. Burnett.)
• Stevenson, Edward Luther. Trans. and ed. 1932. Claudius Ptolemy: The Geography. New York Public Library. Reprint: Dover, 1991. This is the only complete English translation of Ptolemy's most famous work. Unfortunately, it is marred by numerous mistakes (see Diller) and the place names are given in Latinised forms, rather than in the original Greek.
• {{cite journal

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}}

{{commons category|Geography (Ptolemy)}}

;Greek

• [https://www.kps.unibe.ch/forschung/ptolemaios_forschungsstelle/publikationen/textband/index_ger.html Klaudios Ptolemaios: Handbuch der Geographie], hrsg. von Alfred Stückelberger und Gerd Grasshoff (Basel: Schwabe, 2006)

• {{in lang|el}} [https://books.google.com/books?id=4ksBAAAAMAAJ Claudii Ptolemaei Geographia, ed. Karl Friedrich August Nobbe, Sumptibus et typis Caroli Tauchnitii, 1843, tom. I] (books 1–4, missing p. 126); [https://books.google.com/books?id=vHMCAAAAQAAJ 1845, tom. II] (books 5–8); [https://books.google.com/books?id=wHMCAAAAQAAJ 1845, tom. III] (indices).
• [https://luna.manchester.ac.uk/luna/servlet/detail/ManchesterDev~93~3~55169~189080 Rylands Library GP 522], the earliest papyrus fragment of the Table of Noteworthy Cities. Catalogue list entry [https://www.librarysearch.manchester.ac.uk/permalink/44MAN_INST/1lr7mpn/alma992986479474601631 here].
• Vatican [https://digi.vatlib.it/mss/detail/Urb.gr.82 Urb.gr.82], the earliest surviving Byzantine manuscript maps of the Geography.

;Latin

• {{in lang|la}} [http://bmn-renaissance.nancy.fr/items/show/1236 La Cosmographie de Claude Ptolemée], Latin manuscript copied around 1411
• {{in lang|la}} [http://roderic.uv.es/uv_ms_0693 Geography], digitized codex made in Italy between 1460 and 1477, translated to Latin by Jacobus Angelus at [http://roderic.uv.es/handle/10550/43 Somni]. Also known as codex valentinus, it is the oldest manuscript of the codices with maps of Ptolemy with the donis projections.
• {{in lang|la}} [https://www.doria.fi/handle/10024/92462 "Cosmographia"] / Claudius Ptolemaeus. Translated into Latin by Jacobus Angelus, and edited by Nicolaus Germanus. – Ulm : Lienhart Holle. – 1482. (In the National Library of Finland.)
• {{in lang|la}} [http://amshistorica.unibo.it/diglib.php?inv=187 Geographia Universalis], Basileae apud Henricum Petrum mense Martio anno M. D. XL. [of Basel, printed by Henricus Petrus in the month of March in the year 1540].
• {{in lang|la}} [http://amshistorica.unibo.it/diglib.php?inv=184 Geographia Cl. Ptolemaei Alexandrini], Venetiis : apud Vincentium Valgrisium, Venezia, 1562.

;Portuguese

• Pedro Nunes, Tratado da Sphera com a Theorica do Sol e da Lua e ho Primeiro Liuro da Geographia de Claudio Ptolomeo Alexãndrino, Oficina de Germão Galharde, Lisboa, 1537 (Republished in: Pedro Nunes. Obras, vol. I, Ed. Academia das Ciências de Lisboa, pp. 1-159).

;Italian

• {{in lang|it}} [http://amshistorica.unibo.it/diglib.php?inv=182 Geografia cioè descrittione vniuersale della terra partita in due volumi...], In Venetia : appresso Gio. Battista et Giorgio Galignani fratelli, 1598.
• {{in lang|it}} [http://amshistorica.unibo.it/diglib.php?inv=186 Geografia di Claudio Tolomeo alessandrino], In Venetia : appresso gli heredi di Melchior Sessa, 1599.

;English

• [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Periods/Roman/_Texts/Ptolemy/home.html Ptolemy's Geography at LacusCurtius] (English translation)
• [http://dsr.nii.ac.jp/toyobunko/III-2-F-b-2/V-1/page/0162.html.ja Extracts of Ptolemy on the country of the Seres (China)] (English translation)
• [http://www.dioi.org/diller8/diller8.htm 1st critical edition of Geography Book 8, by Aubrey Diller]
• [http://topostext.org/work.php?work_id=209 Geography Books 2.10-6.11 in English], with most Greece-related places geolocated, by John Brady Kiesling at [http://topostext.org ToposText]
• [https://ancientmiddleeast.com AncientMiddleEast.com], geo-located .KMZ plots of nearly all points in Non-European regions, Books 4-7, for use in GoogleEarth.

German

• {{Citeweb |title=Heaven and Earth : Ptolemy, the astronomer and geographer |url=https://boris.unibe.ch/59390/2/Ausstellung_Ptolemaios.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240606071205/https://boris.unibe.ch/59390/2/Ausstellung_Ptolemaios.pdf |archive-date=6 June 2024 |access-date=24 April 2025}} 2006 Exhibition by Alfred Stückelberger, Florian Mittenhuber and Thomas Klöti

• [https://web.archive.org/web/20060712084525/http://www.abila.org/html/ptolemy.html Ptolemy the Geographer]

• [https://web.archive.org/web/20080918003658/http://wwwuser.gwdg.de/~fhasele/ptolemaeus/index.html Ptolemy's Geography of Asia] – Selected problems of Ptolemy's Geography of Asia {{in lang|de}}
• [http://www.newberry.org/smith/slidesets/ss08.html History of Cartography] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927055557/http://www.newberry.org/smith/slidesets/ss08.html |date=2011-09-27 }} including a discussion of the Geographia
• [http://www.e-perimetron.org/Vol_18_4/Gusev_Stafeyev.pdf Claudius Ptolemy’s East Africa Georeferenced and Visualized ]
• [https://www.kps.unibe.ch/forschung/ptolemaios_forschungsstelle/index_ger.html Ptolemaios-Forschungsstelle] (Ptolemy Research Institute, University of Bern)

{{Ancient seafaring}}

{{Authority control}}

Category:Works by Ptolemy

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