:Lithium iron phosphate battery

{{main|lithium iron phosphate}}

{{chem|LiFePO|4}} is a natural mineral known as triphylite. Arumugam Manthiram and John B. Goodenough first identified the polyanion class of cathode materials for lithium ion batteries.{{cite journal |last1=Masquelier |first1=Christian |last2=Croguennec |first2=Laurence |title=Polyanionic (Phosphates, Silicates, Sulfates) Frameworks as Electrode Materials for Rechargeable Li (or Na) Batteries |doi=10.1021/cr3001862 |journal=Chemical Reviews |volume=113 |issue=8 |pages=6552–6591 |year=2013|pmid=23742145 }}{{Cite journal | last1 = Manthiram | first1 = A. | last2 = Goodenough | first2 = J. B. | doi = 10.1016/0378-7753(89)80153-3 | title = Lithium insertion into Fe₂(SO₄)₃ frameworks | journal = Journal of Power Sources | volume = 26 | issue = 3–4 | pages = 403–408 | year = 1989 | bibcode = 1989JPS....26..403M }}{{Cite journal | last1 = Manthiram | first1 = A. | last2 = Goodenough | first2 = J. B. | doi = 10.1016/0022-4596(87)90242-8 | title = Lithium insertion into Fe₂(MO₄)₃ frameworks: Comparison of M = W with M = Mo | journal = Journal of Solid State Chemistry | volume = 71 | issue = 2 | pages = 349–360 | year = 1987 | bibcode = 1987JSSCh..71..349M | doi-access = free }} {{chem|LiFePO|4}} was then identified as a cathode material belonging to the polyanion class for use in batteries in 1996 by Padhi et al."{{chem|LiFePO|4}}: A Novel Cathode Material for Rechargeable Batteries", A.K. Padhi, K.S. Nanjundaswamy, J.B. Goodenough, Electrochemical Society Meeting Abstracts, 96-1, May, 1996, pp 73"Phospho-olivines as Positive-Electrode Materials for Rechargeable Lithium Batteries" A. K. Padhi, K. S. Nanjundaswamy, and J. B. Goodenough, J. Electrochem. Soc., Volume 144, Issue 4, pp. 1188-1194 (April 1997) Reversible extraction of lithium from {{chem|LiFePO|4}} and insertion of lithium into {{chem|FePO|4}} was demonstrated. Because of its low cost, non-toxicity, the natural abundance of iron, its excellent thermal stability, safety characteristics, electrochemical performance, and specific capacity (170 mA·h/g, or 610 C/g) it has gained considerable market acceptance.{{cite magazine|title=Bigger, Cheaper, Safer Batteries: New material charges up lithium-ion battery work |magazine=Science News |first=Jessica|last=Gorman |date=September 28, 2002 |volume=162|number=13 |page= 196 |url=http://www.sciencenews.org/articles/20020928/fob4.asp| url-status=dead| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080413033533/http://www.sciencenews.org/articles/20020928/fob4.asp| archive-date=2008-04-13}}{{cite web |last=John |title=Factors Need To Pay Attention Before Install Your Lithium LFP Battery |date=12 March 2022 |url=https://solartoeu.com/2024/03/12/factors-need-to-pay-attention-before-install-your-lithium-lfp-battery/ |publisher=Happysun Media Solar-Europe}}

The chief barrier to commercialization was its intrinsically low electrical conductivity. This problem was overcome by reducing the particle size, coating the {{chem|LiFePO|4}} particles with conductive materials such as carbon nanotubes,{{Cite journal|last1=Susantyoko|first1=Rahmat Agung|last2=Karam|first2=Zainab|last3=Alkhoori|first3=Sara|last4=Mustafa|first4=Ibrahim|last5=Wu|first5=Chieh-Han|last6=Almheiri|first6=Saif|date=2017|title=A surface-engineered tape-casting fabrication technique toward the commercialisation of freestanding carbon nanotube sheets|journal=Journal of Materials Chemistry A|language=en|volume=5|issue=36|pages=19255–19266|doi=10.1039/c7ta04999d|issn=2050-7488}}{{Cite journal|last1=Susantyoko|first1=Rahmat Agung|last2=Alkindi|first2=Tawaddod Saif|last3=Kanagaraj|first3=Amarsingh Bhabu|last4=An|first4=Boohyun|last5=Alshibli|first5=Hamda|last6=Choi|first6=Daniel|last7=AlDahmani|first7=Sultan|last8=Fadaq|first8=Hamed|last9=Almheiri|first9=Saif|date=2018|title=Performance optimization of freestanding MWCNT-LiFePO₄ sheets as cathodes for improved specific capacity of lithium-ion batteries|journal=RSC Advances|language=en|volume=8|issue=30|pages=16566–16573|doi=10.1039/c8ra01461b|pmid=35540508 |pmc=9081850 |bibcode=2018RSCAd...816566S|issn=2046-2069|doi-access=free}} or both. This approach was developed by Michel Armand and his coworkers at Hydro-Québec and the Université de Montréal in 2015.{{cite patent |country=US |number=20150132660A1

|inventor=Ravet, N.|invent1=Besner, S.|invent2=Simoneau, M. |invent3=Armand, M. |invent4=Zaghib, K. |title=Electrode materials with high surface conductivity |pubdate=2015/05/14 |gdate= |fdate=2001/12/03 |pridate=1999/04/30 |assign1=Hydro-Québec|url=https://patentimages.storage.googleapis.com/57/87/ab/cc4380a2f35be2/US20150132660A1.pdf}}

{{Citation|title = Cathode materials for secondary (rechargeable) lithium batteries|url = https://patents.google.com/patent/US6514640|date = Feb 4, 2003|access-date = 2016-02-25|first1 = Michel|last1 = Armand|first2 = John B.|last2 = Goodenough|first3 = Akshaya K.|last3 = Padhi|first4 = Kirakodu S.|last4 = Nanjundaswam|first5 = Christian|last5 = Masquelier|url-status = live|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160402122901/http://www.google.com/patents/US6514640|archive-date = 2016-04-02}}Long Hard Road: The Lithium-Ion Battery and the Electric Car. 2022. C.J. Murray. {{ISBN|978-1-61249-762-4}} Another approach by Yet Ming Chiang's group at MIT consisted of doping LFP with cations of materials such as aluminium, niobium, and zirconium.

Negative electrodes (anode, on discharge) made of petroleum coke were used in early lithium-ion batteries; later types used natural or synthetic graphite.David Linden (ed.), Handbook of Batteries 3rd Edition,McGraw Hill 2002, {{ISBN|0-07-135978-8}}, pages 35-16 and 35-17

File:Lithium Iron Phosphate LiFePO4 Cells 700Ah in Parallel and Series and Busbar - 1.jpg to create a 2800 Ah 52 V battery module. Total battery capacity is 145.6 kWh. Note the large, solid tinned copper busbar connecting the modules together. This busbar is rated for 700 amps DC to accommodate the high currents generated in this 48 volt DC system.]]

File:Lithium Iron Phosphate LiFePO4 Cells 700 Ah Amp Hours 3.25 Volts - 2.jpg

• Cell voltage
• Minimum discharge voltage = 2.0-2.8 V{{cite web |title=Cell — CA Series |url=http://en.calb.cn/product/?id-116.html |website=CALB.cn |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141009014126/http://en.calb.cn/Product/?id-116.html |archive-date=2014-10-09 }}{{Cite web |date=2022-07-30 |title=A123 Systems ANR26650 |url=https://a123batteries.com/anr26650m1-b-lithiumwerks-nanophosphate-3-3v-2-5ah-lithium-iron-phosphate-battery/ }}{{Cite web |date=2022-07-30 |title=LiFePO4 Battery |url=http://www.evlithium.com/LiFePO4-Battery/ }}
• Working voltage = {{nowrap|3.0 ~ 3.3 V}}
• Max Viable voltage = {{nowrap|2.5 ~ 3.47 V}}
• Maximum charge voltage = 3.60-3.65 V{{Cite web|title=LiFePO4 Battery|url=http://www.evlithium.com/LiFePO4-Battery/|access-date=2020-09-24|website=www.evlithium.com}}
• Volumetric energy density = 220 Wh/L (790 kJ/L)
• Gravimetric energy density > 90 Wh/kg{{cite web |url=http://jcwinnie.biz/wordpress/?p=2823 |title=Large-Format, Lithium Iron Phosphate |work=JCWinnie.biz |date=2008-02-23 |access-date=2012-04-24 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081118042113/http://jcwinnie.biz/wordpress/?p=2823 |archive-date=2008-11-18 }} (> 320 J/g). Up to 160 Wh/kg (580 J/g). Latest version announced in end of 2023, early 2024 made significant improvements in energy density from 180 up to 205 Wh/kg{{Cite web |date=2024-05-10 |title=CATL announcement |url=https://www.catl.com/en/news/6239.html}} without increasing production costs.
• Cycle life from 2,500 to more than 9,000 cycles depending on conditions. Next gen high energy density versions have increased charging lifecycles probably around 15000 max cycles.{{cn|reason=by or to around 15000 max cycles?|date=November 2024}}

The LFP battery uses a lithium-ion-derived chemistry and shares many advantages and disadvantages with other lithium-ion battery chemistries. However, there are significant differences.

Iron and phosphates are very common in the Earth's crust. LFP contains neither nickel{{Cite web|url=https://www.nickelinstitute.org/media/1987/nickel_battery_infographic-final2.pdf|title=Nickel battery infographic}} nor cobalt, both of which are supply-constrained and expensive. As with lithium, human rights{{cite web|url=https://media.business-humanrights.org/media/documents/files/Transition_Minerals_Tracker_-_Overall_v2.pdf |title=Transition Minerals Tracker |website=humanrights.org}} and environmental concerns have been raised concerning the use of cobalt. Environmental concerns have also been raised regarding the extraction of nickel.{{Cite web|date=2022-02-19|title='We are afraid': Erin Brockovich pollutant linked to global electric car boom|url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2022/feb/19/we-are-afraid-erin-brockovich-pollutant-linked-to-global-electric-car-boom|access-date=2022-02-19|website=the Guardian|language=en}}

A 2020 report published by the Department of Energy compared the costs of large scale energy storage systems built with LFP vs NMC. It found that the cost per kWh of LFP batteries was about 6% less than NMC, and it projected that the LFP cells would last about 67% longer (more cycles). Because of differences between the cell's characteristics, the cost of some other components of the storage system would be somewhat higher for LFP, but in balance it still remains less costly per kWh than NMC.{{cite tech report |first1=Kendall|last1=Mongird |first2=Vilayanur|last2=Viswanatha |title=2020 Grid Energy Storage Technology Cost and Performance Assessment |date=December 2020|publisher=U.S. Department of Energy|format=pdf|url=https://www.pnnl.gov/sites/default/files/media/file/Final%20-%20ESGC%20Cost%20Performance%20Report%2012-11-2020.pdf |id=DOE/PA-0204}}

In 2020, the lowest reported LFP cell prices were $80/kWh (12.5 Wh/$) with an average price of $137/kWh,{{Cite web|url=https://about.bnef.com/blog/battery-pack-prices-cited-below-100-kwh-for-the-first-time-in-2020-while-market-average-sits-at-137-kwh/ |title=Battery Pack Prices Cited Below $100/kWh for the First Time in 2020, While Market Average Sits at $137/kWh|date=December 16, 2020|work=BloombergNEF}} while in 2023 the average price had dropped to $100/kWh.{{cite web |last1=Colthorpe |first1=Andy |title=LFP cell average falls below US$100/kWh as battery pack prices drop to record low in 2023 |url=https://www.energy-storage.news/lfp-cell-average-falls-below-us100-kwh-as-battery-pack-prices-drop-to-record-low-in-2023/ |website=Energy-Storage.News |date=27 November 2023}}

By early 2024, VDA-sized LFP cells were available for less than RMB 0.5/Wh (${{#expr:0.5/7.1911*1000round0}}/kWh), while Chinese automaker Leapmotor stated it buys LFP cells at RMB 0.4/Wh (${{#expr:0.4/7.1911*1000round0}}/kWh) and believe they could drop to RMB 0.32/Wh (${{#expr:0.32/7.1911*1000round0}}/kWh).{{cite news |url= https://cnevpost.com/2024/01/17/battery-price-war-catl-byd-costs-down/ |title= Battery price war: CATL, BYD pushing battery costs down further |author= Phate Zhang |date= Jan 17, 2024 |work= CnEVPost}} By mid 2024, assembled LFP batteries were available to consumers in the US for around $115/kWh.{{cite web |url=https://www.lifepo4prices.com/ |title=LiFePO4 Prices |access-date=2024-07-30}} Prices are lower for LFP cells.

LFP chemistry offers a considerably longer cycle life than other lithium-ion chemistries. Under most conditions it supports more than 3,000 cycles, and under optimal conditions it supports more than 10,000 cycles. NMC batteries support about 1,000 to 2,300 cycles, depending on conditions.

LFP cells experience a slower rate of capacity loss (a.k.a. greater calendar-life) than lithium-ion battery chemistries such as cobalt ({{chem|LiCoO|2}}), manganese spinel ({{chem|LiMn|2|O|4}}), lithium-ion polymer batteries (LiPo battery) or lithium-ion batteries.{{cite web |date=2006 |title=ANR26650M1 |url=http://www.rc-netbutik.dk/getdoc.asp?id=100&md5hash=9810C237586CF6B4325753101E37DAE1 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120301190507/http://www.rc-netbutik.dk/getdoc.asp?id=100&md5hash=9810C237586CF6B4325753101E37DAE1 |archive-date=2012-03-01 |publisher=A123Systems |quote=Current test projecting excellent calendar life: 17% impedance growth and 23% capacity loss in 15 years at 100% SOC, 60°C.}}

Because of the nominal 3.2 V output, four cells can be placed in series for a nominal voltage of 12.8 V. This comes close to the nominal voltage of six-cell lead-acid batteries. Along with the good safety characteristics of LFP batteries, this makes LFP a good potential replacement for lead-acid batteries in applications such as automotive and solar applications, provided the charging systems are adapted not to damage the LFP cells through excessive charging voltages (beyond 3.6 volts DC per cell while under charge), temperature-based voltage compensation, equalisation attempts or continuous trickle charging. The LFP cells must be at least balanced initially before the pack is assembled and a protection system also needs to be implemented to ensure no cell can be discharged below a voltage of 2.5 V or severe damage will occur in most instances, due to irreversible deintercalation of LiFePO₄ into FePO₄.{{Cite journal |last1=Inoue |first1=Katsuya |last2=Fujieda |first2=Shun |last3=Shinoda |first3=Kozo |last4=Suzuki |first4=Shigeru |last5=Waseda |first5=Yoshio |date=2010 |title=Chemical State of Iron of LiFePO4 during Charge-Discharge Cycles Studied by In-Situ X-ray Absorption Spectroscopy |journal=Materials Transactions |url=https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/matertrans/51/12/51_M2010229/_article |language=en |volume=51 |issue=12 |pages=2220–2224 |doi=10.2320/matertrans.M2010229 |issn=1345-9678|doi-access=free }}

One important advantage over other lithium-ion chemistries is thermal and chemical stability, which improves battery safety.{{Cite journal |last=Evro |first=Solomon |last2=Ajumobi |first2=Abdurahman |last3=Mayon |first3=Darrell |last4=Tomomewo |first4=Olusegun Stanley |date=2024-12-01 |title=Navigating battery choices: A comparative study of lithium iron phosphate and nickel manganese cobalt battery technologies |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2950264024000078 |journal=Future Batteries |volume=4 |pages=100007 |doi=10.1016/j.fub.2024.100007 |issn=2950-2640|doi-access=free }}{{cite encyclopedia|title=Rechargeable Lithium Batteries|url=http://www.mpoweruk.com/lithiumS.htm|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110714122247/http://www.mpoweruk.com/lithiumS.htm|archive-date=2011-07-14|encyclopedia=Electropaedia — Battery and Energy Technologies}}{{bettersource|date=March 2024}} {{chem|LiFePO|4}} is an intrinsically safer cathode material than {{chem|LiCoO|2}} and manganese dioxide spinels through omission of the cobalt, whose negative temperature coefficient of resistance can encourage thermal runaway. The P–O bond in the Phosphate ion is stronger than the Co–O bond in the {{chem|(CoO|2|)|-}} ion, so that when abused (short-circuited, overheated, etc.), the oxygen atoms are released more slowly. This stabilization of the redox energies also promotes faster ion migration.{{Cite web|url=http://www.hardingenergy.com/lithium/#phosphate|title=Lithium Ion batteries {{!}} Lithium Polymer {{!}} Lithium Iron Phosphate|website=Harding Energy|language=en-US|access-date=2016-04-06|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160329204350/http://www.hardingenergy.com/lithium/#phosphate|archive-date=2016-03-29}}{{bettersource|date=March 2024}}

As lithium migrates out of the cathode in a {{chem|LiCoO|2}} cell, the {{chem|CoO|2}} undergoes non-linear expansion that affects the structural integrity of the cell. The fully lithiated and unlithiated states of {{chem|LiFePO|4}} are structurally similar which means that {{chem|LiFePO|4}} cells are more structurally stable than {{chem|LiCoO|2}} cells.{{Citation needed|date=April 2010}}

No lithium remains in the cathode of a fully charged LFP cell. In a {{chem|LiCoO|2}} cell, approximately 50% remains. {{chem|LiFePO|4}} is highly resilient during oxygen loss, which typically results in an exothermic reaction in other lithium cells. As a result, {{chem|LiFePO|4}} cells are harder to ignite in the event of mishandling (especially during charge). The {{chem|LiFePO|4}} battery does not decompose at high temperatures.

The energy density (energy/volume) of a new LFP battery as of 2008 was some 14% lower than that of a new {{chem|LiCoO|2}} battery.{{cite journal|last1=Guo|first1=Yu-Guo|last2=Hu|first2=Jin-Song|last3=Wan|first3=Li-Jun|title=Nanostructured Materials for Electrochemical Energy Conversion and Storage Devices|journal=Advanced Materials|volume=20|issue=15|year=2008|pages=2878–2887|doi=10.1002/adma.200800627|bibcode=2008AdM....20.2878G |doi-access=free}} Since discharge rate is a percentage of battery capacity, a higher rate can be achieved by using a larger battery (more ampere hours) if low-current batteries must be used.

{{more citations needed|section|date=April 2021}}

Enphase pioneered LFP along with SunFusion Energy Systems LiFePO₄ Ultra-Safe ECHO 2.0 and Guardian E2.0 home or business energy storage batteries for reasons of cost and fire safety, although the market remains split among competing chemistries.{{Cite web|url=https://newsroom.enphase.com/news-releases/news-release-details/enphase-energy-enters-energy-storage-business-ac-battery/|title=Enphase Energy Enters into Energy Storage Business with AC Battery | Enphase Energy|website=newsroom.enphase.com}} Though lower energy density compared to other lithium chemistries adds mass and volume, both may be more tolerable in a static application. In 2021, there were several suppliers to the home end user market, including SonnenBatterie and Enphase. Tesla Motors continued to use NMC batteries in its home energy storage products until the release of the Power Wall 3 in 2023. Tesla utility-scale batteries switched to using LFP in 2021.{{Cite web|url=https://52.4.25.117/teslas-shift-to-lfp-batteries/|title=Tesla's Shift to LFP Batteries: What to Know | EnergySage|date=August 12, 2021|access-date=January 1, 2022|archive-date=March 15, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220315011209/https://52.4.25.117/teslas-shift-to-lfp-batteries/|url-status=dead}} According to EnergySage the most frequently quoted home energy storage battery brand in the U.S. is Enphase, which in 2021 surpassed Tesla Motors and LG.{{Cite web|url=https://www.solarpowerworldonline.com/2021/08/latest-energysage-marketplace-report-shows-quoted-battery-prices-are-rising/|title=Latest EnergySage marketplace report shows quoted battery prices are rising|date=August 16, 2021|website=Solar Power World}}

Higher discharge rates needed for acceleration, lower weight and longer life makes this battery type ideal for forklifts, bicycles and electric cars. Twelve-volt LiFePO₄ batteries are also gaining popularity as a second (house) battery for a caravan, motor-home or boat.{{Cite web |title=Lithium Iron Phosphate Battery |url=https://www.lithiumstoragebattery.com/products/lithium-iron-phosphate-battery.html |website=Lithium Storage}}

Tesla Motors uses LFP batteries in all standard-range Models 3 and Y made after October 2021{{Cite web|url=https://arstechnica.com/cars/2021/10/tesla-made-1-6-billion-in-q3-is-switching-to-lfp-batteries-globally/|title=Tesla made $1.6 billion in Q3, is switching to LFP batteries globally|first=Jonathan M.|last=Gitlin|date=October 21, 2021|website=Ars Technica}} except for standard-range vehicles made with 4680 cells starting in 2022, which use an NMC chemistry.{{Citation |title=Tesla 4680 Teardown: Specs Revealed! (Part 2) |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8WPPBhqeekw |access-date=2023-05-15 |language=en}}

As of September 2022, LFP batteries had increased its market share of the entire EV battery market to 31%. Of those, 68% were deployed by two companies, Tesla and BYD.{{Cite web |title=EV Battery Market: LFP Chemistry Reached 31% Share In September |url=https://www.msn.com/en-my/news/other/ev-battery-market-lfp-chemistry-reached-31percent-share-in-september/ar-AA15GAoQ |access-date=2023-04-12 |website=MSN |language=en-MY}}

Lithium iron phosphate batteries officially surpassed ternary batteries in 2021 with 52% of installed capacity. Analysts estimate that its market share will exceed 60% in 2024.{{Cite web|url= https://m.energytrend.com/news/20220520-28100.html|title= EV Lithium Iron Phosphate Battery Battles Back |date= 2022-05-25|website=energytrend.com}}

In February 2023, Ford announced that it will be investing $3.5 billion to build a factory in Michigan that will produce low-cost batteries for some of its electric vehicles. The project will be fully owned by a Ford subsidiary, but will use technology licensed from Chinese battery company Contemporary Amperex Technology Co., Limited (CATL).{{cite web |date=February 13, 2023 |title=Ford to build $3.5 billion electric vehicle battery plant in Michigan |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/ford-to-build-3-5b-electric-vehicle-battery-plant-in-mich/#:~:text=plans%20to%20build%20a%20%243.5,start%20making%20batteries%20in%202026. |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230214054225/https://www.cbsnews.com/news/budget-tips-for-families-kimberly-palmer-2023/ |archive-date=February 14, 2023 |publisher=CBS News}}

Single "14500" (AA battery–sized) LFP cells are now used in some solar-powered landscape lighting instead of 1.2 V NiCd/NiMH.{{citation needed|date=July 2020}}

LFP's higher (compared to NiMH/NiCd) 3.2 V working voltage lets a single cell drive an LED without circuitry to step up the voltage. Its increased tolerance to modest overcharging (compared to other Li cell types) means that {{chem|LiFePO|4}} can be connected to photovoltaic cells without circuitry to halt the recharge cycle.

By 2013, better solar-charged passive infrared motion detector security lamps emerged.{{Cite web |url=http://www.instructables.com/file/FTWJQ1LHTVDZNRW |title=instructables.com |access-date=2014-04-16 |archive-date=2014-04-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140416173957/http://www.instructables.com/file/FTWJQ1LHTVDZNRW |url-status=dead }} As AA-sized LFP cells have a capacity of only 600 mAh (while the lamp's bright LED may draw 60 mA), the units shine for at most 10 hours. However, if triggering is only occasional, such units may be satisfactory even charging in low sunlight, as lamp electronics ensure after-dark "idle" currents of under 1 mA.{{cn|date=July 2023}}

Some electronic cigarettes use these types of batteries. Other applications include marine electrical systems{{Cite web |title=Why Fisherman Are Switching to Lithium Batteries |url=https://astrolithium.com/blogs/news/why-fisherman-are-switching-to-lithium-batteries |access-date=2023-03-29 |website=Astro Lithium |date=28 November 2022 |language=en}} and propulsion, flashlights, radio-controlled models, portable motor-driven equipment, amateur radio equipment, industrial sensor systems{{Cite web|url=http://iecex.iec.ch/iecex/exs.nsf/ex_eq.xsp?v=e|title=IECEx System|website=iecex.iec.ch|language=en|access-date=2018-08-26|archive-date=2018-08-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180827005327/http://iecex.iec.ch/iecex/exs.nsf/ex_eq.xsp?v=e|url-status=dead}} and emergency lighting.{{cite web |title=EM ready2apply BASIC 1 – 2 W |url=https://www.tridonic.com/com/en/products/em-ready2apply-basic-1-2w.asp |publisher=Tridonic |access-date=23 October 2018 |language=en}}

• LFP batteries can be improved by using a more stable material as the separator.{{cite journal | doi=10.1002/eem2.12129 | title=Safer Lithium-Ion Batteries from the Separator Aspect: Development and Future Perspectives | year=2021 | last1=Liu | first1=Zhifang | last2=Jiang | first2=Yingjun | last3=Hu | first3=Qiaomei | last4=Guo | first4=Songtao | last5=Yu | first5=Le | last6=Li | first6=Qi | last7=Liu | first7=Qing | last8=Hu | first8=Xianluo | journal=Energy & Environmental Materials | volume=4 | issue=3 | pages=336–362 | s2cid=225241307 | doi-access=free | bibcode=2021EEMat...4..336L }} Disassembly of overheated LFP cells found a brick-red compound. This suggested that the separator suffered molecular breakdown, in which side-reactions consumed lithium ions so they could not be shuttled.
• Three-electrode batteries have emerged that let external devices detect that internal shorts have formed.

{{div col|colwidth=22em}}

• List of battery types
• List of battery sizes
• List of electric-vehicle-battery manufacturers
• Comparison of commercial battery types
• Nanowire battery
• Phosphate
• Power-to-weight ratio
• Solid-state battery
• Super-iron battery
• Blade battery

{{div col end}}

{{Reflist}}

{{Galvanic cells}}

{{emerging technologies|energy=yes}}

Category:Lithium-ion batteries

Category:Phosphates

Category:Vanadium

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