Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim#The 1920 assassination attempt

The Mannerheims, originally from Germany as Marhein, became Swedish noblemen in 1693. In the latter part of the 18th century, they moved to Finland, which was then an integral part of Sweden.{{cite news |url=http://www.kaleva.fi/plus/index.cfm?j=640489 |title=Mannerheimin suku onkin lähtöisin Saksasta|date=1 March 2007|newspaper= Kaleva|access-date=17 August 2007 |language=fi|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930023654/http://www.kaleva.fi/plus/index.cfm?j=640489 |archive-date=30 September 2007 }}{{cite web|url=http://www.mtv3.fi/uutiset/kotimaa.shtml/arkistot/kotimaa/2007/03/508593|title=Mannerheimin suku onkin lähtöisin Saksasta|publisher=MTV3|date=March 2007 |language=fi}} After Sweden lost Finland to the Russian Empire in 1809, Mannerheim's great-grandfather, Count Carl Erik Mannerheim (1759–1837), son of the Commandant Johan Augustin Mannerheim,[http://www.tjelvar.se/biografica/akter-2/3428.htm Johan Augustin Mannerheim] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200629182936/http://www.tjelvar.se/biografica/akter-2/3428.htm |date=29 June 2020 }}. tjelvar.se (in Swedish)[https://www.finna.fi/Record/musketti.M012:H86056:1 Muotokuva; Johan Augustin Mannerheim; (1706–1778)]. finna.fi (in Finnish) became the first head of the executive of the newly-autonomous Grand Duchy of Finland, an office that preceded that of the contemporary Prime Minister. His grandfather, Carl Gustaf Mannerheim (1797–1854), was an entomologist and jurist. His father, Carl Robert, Count Mannerheim (1835–1914), was both a playwright and industrialist, with modest success in both endeavours. Mannerheim's mother, Hedvig Charlotta Helena von Julin (1842–1881), was the daughter of a wealthy industrialist, John von Julin (1787–1853).

File:Mannerheim_siblings.jpg

Gustaf Mannerheim was born in the Louhisaari Manor of the Askainen parish (currently Masku) on 4 June 1867.{{cite book|title= Everyman's Encyclopedia volume 8 |year= 1978 |publisher= J. M. Dent & Sons Ltd |isbn = 0-460-04020-0}} After Mannerheim's father left the family in 1880 for his mistress, a daughter of Baron and General Johan Mauritz Nordenstam,{{sfnp|Meri|1990|pages=107–108}} the young Mannerheim's mother and her seven children went to live with her aunt Louise; but Mannerheim's mother died the following year.{{sfnp|Meri|1990|page=108}} Mannerheim's maternal uncle, Albert von Julin (1846–1906), then became his legal guardian and financier of his later schooling.[https://www.is.fi/taloussanomat/oma-raha/art-2000001700041.html IS: Pikavippi olisi kelvannut Mannerheimillekin] (in Finnish) The third child of the family, Mannerheim inherited the title of Baron.

File:Mannerheim In Nicholas Cavalry School.png, in Nicholas Cavalry College, Saint Petersburg, late 1880s.|left]]

Mannerheim was sent to the Hamina Cadet School, a state school educating aristocrats for the Imperial Russian Army, in 1882.{{sfnp|Jägerskiöld|1965|pages=68–70}} The handsome young Baron towered over his classmates, standing {{convert|6|ft|4|in|m|abbr=on}}. He was expelled in 1886 when he left without permission.{{sfnp|Jägerskiöld|1965|pages=93–94}} Next he attended the Helsinki Private Lyceum, where he passed the university entrance examinations in June 1887.{{sfnp|Meri|1990|page=123}} From 1887 to 1889, Mannerheim attended the Nicholas Cavalry College in Saint Petersburg.{{sfnp|Meri|1990|page=129}} In January 1891, he joined the Chevalier Guard Regiment in Saint Petersburg.{{sfnp|Screen|1970|page=33}}

Mannerheim served in the Imperial Chevalier Guard until 1904. In 1896, he took part in the coronation of Emperor Nicholas II, standing for four hours in his full-dress Imperial Chevalier Guard uniform at the bottom of the steps leading up to the imperial throne.{{sfnp|Trotter|2013|page=24}} Mannerheim always considered the coronation a high-point of his life, recalling with pride his role in what he called an "indescribably magnificent" coronation.{{sfnp|Trotter|2013|page=24}} An expert rider and trained horseman, Mannerheim bought horses for the Russian army as one of his official duties. In 1903, he was put in charge of the model squadron in the Imperial Chevalier Guard and became a member of the equestrian training board of the cavalry regiments.{{sfnp|Clements|2009|page=40}}

File:Coronation 1896, walking under cover.jpg leaves Dormition Cathedral. The Chevalier Guard Lieutenant marching in front to the Tsar's left (to the viewer's right) is Mannerheim.]]

Mannerheim volunteered for active service with the Imperial Russian Army in the Russo-Japanese War in 1904. He was transferred to the 52nd Nezhin Dragoon Regiment in Manchuria, with the rank of Lieutenant-Colonel. During a reconnaissance patrol on the plains of Manchuria, he first saw action in a skirmish and had his horse shot out from under him.{{sfnp|Trotter|2013|page=24}} He was promoted to Colonel for bravery in the Battle of Mukden in 1905{{sfnp|Screen|1970|pages=43–49}} and briefly commanded an irregular unit of Hong Huzi, a local militia, on an exploratory mission into Inner Mongolia.{{sfnp|Clements|2009|pages=80–81}} During the war, Mannerheim also managed to lead a group of local bandits with whom he sought the rear of the enemy to defeat them.{{cite web|url=https://www.iltalehti.fi/kotimaa/a/a31dca17-fd7c-4bfc-aec0-ce097f7d13d8|title=Mannerheim halusi diktaattoriksi ja lähes sai haluamansa|work=Iltalehti|date=January 27, 2021|access-date=January 27, 2021|language=fi |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231115173432/https://www.iltalehti.fi/kotimaa/a/a31dca17-fd7c-4bfc-aec0-ce097f7d13d8 |archive-date=15 November 2023}}

Mannerheim, who had a long career in the Imperial Russian army, also rose to become a courtier of Emperor of all the Russias Nicholas II. When Mannerheim returned to Saint Petersburg, he was asked to undertake a journey through Turkestan to Beijing as a secret intelligence officer. The Russian General Staff wanted accurate, on-the-ground intelligence about the reforms and activities by the Qing dynasty, as well as the military feasibility of invading Western China: a possible move in their struggle with Britain for control of inner Asia.{{cite web |url=http://horsethatleaps.com/|title=Horse That Leaps Through Clouds – Retracing Mannerheim's Journey Across Asia|website=horsethatleaps.com}}{{Cite web|title=Start to Finnish|author=Caldwell, Christopher |author-link=Christopher Caldwell (journalist) |work=Washington Examiner|date=11 August 2017|access-date=4 February 2020|url=https://www.washingtonexaminer.com/weekly-standard/start-to-finnish|quote=It was an 8,000-mile spying expedition. Russia was drawing up plans to invade China from the west—but failed to.}} Disguised as an ethnographic collector, he joined the French archeologist Paul Pelliot's expedition at Samarkand in Russian Turkestan (now Uzbekistan). They started from the terminus of the Trans-Caspian Railway in Andijan in July 1906, but Mannerheim quarreled with Pelliot, so he made the greater part of the expedition on his own.{{sfnp|Clements|2009|pages=100–103}}

File:Horsethatleaps Map1 wikipedia.jpg. {{ISBN|978-1-55365-269-4}}.]]

File:La expedición de Mannerheim.jpg

With a small caravan, including a Cossack guide, Chinese interpreter, and Uyghur cook, Mannerheim first trekked to Khotan in search of British and Japanese spies. After returning to Kashgar, he headed north into the Tian Shan range, surveying passes and gauging the stances of the tribes towards the Han Chinese. Mannerheim arrived in the provincial capital of Urumqi, and then headed east into Gansu province. At the sacred Buddhist mountain of Mount Wutai in Shanxi province, Mannerheim met the 13th Dalai Lama of Tibet. He showed the Dalai Lama how to use a pistol.{{sfnp|Trotter|2013|page=29}}

He followed the Great Wall of China, and investigated a mysterious tribe known as Yugurs.{{cite web|url=http://horsethatleaps.com/map/|title=Horse That Leaps Through Clouds – Retracing Mannerheim's Journey Across Asia|website=horsethatleaps.com}} From Lanzhou, the provincial capital, Mannerheim headed south into Tibetan territory and visited the lamasery of Labrang, where he was stoned by xenophobic monks.{{cite web |url=http://horsethatleaps.com|title=Horse That Leaps Through Clouds – Retracing Mannerheim's Journey Across Asia|website=horsethatleaps.com}} During his trip to Tibet in 1908 Mannerheim became the third European who had met with the Dalai Lama.{{Cite news|title=Mannerheim tapasi Dalai-laman|url=https://www.kaleva.fi/mannerheim-tapasi-dalai-laman/2292812|access-date=2021-09-07|newspaper=Kaleva

|language=fi}} Mannerheim arrived in Beijing in July 1908, returning to Saint Petersburg via Japan and the Trans-Siberian Express. His report gave a detailed account of Chinese modernization, covering education, military reforms, colonization of ethnic borderlands, mining and industry, railway construction, the influence of Japan, and opium smoking. He also discussed the possibility of a Russian invasion of Xinjiang, and Xinjiang's possible role as a bargaining chip in a putative future war with China.{{sfnp|Clements|2009|page=155}} His trip through Asia left him with a lifelong love of Asian art, which he thereafter collected.{{sfnp|Trotter|2013|page=29}}

After returning to Russia in 1909, Mannerheim presented results of the expedition to Emperor Nicholas II. There are many artifacts still on display in the museum. After that, Mannerheim was appointed to command the 13th Vladimir Uhlan Regiment in the Congress Kingdom of Poland. The following year, he was promoted to major general and was posted as the commander of the Life Guard Uhlan Regiment of His Imperial Majesty in Warsaw. Next Mannerheim became part of the Imperial entourage and was appointed to command a cavalry brigade.{{cite magazine |title=Der größte Finne aller Zeiten? |language=de |first=Dörte |last=Putensen |magazine=Damals |year=2017 |issue=5 |pages=72–76}}

At the beginning of World War I, Mannerheim served as commander of the Separate Guards Cavalry Brigade (the 23rd Army Corps), and fought on the Austro-Hungarian and Romanian fronts. In December 1914, after distinguishing himself in combat against the Austro-Hungarian forces, Mannerheim was awarded the Order of St. George, 4th class. In March 1915, Mannerheim was appointed to command the 12th Cavalry Division.{{cite book |author-last=Haarmann |author-first=Harald |author-link=Harald Haarmann |date=2016 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KEA4DQAAQBAJ&pg=PA122 |title=Modern Finland |page=122|publisher=McFarland |isbn=978-1-4766-2565-2 }}

Mannerheim received leave to visit Finland and Saint Petersburg in early 1917 and witnessed the outbreak of the February Revolution. After returning to the front, he was promoted to lieutenant general in April 1917 (the promotion was backdated to February 1915), and took command of the 6th Cavalry Corps in the summer of 1917. However, Mannerheim fell out of favour with the new government, who regarded him as not supporting the revolution, and was relieved of his duties. He retired and returned to Finland. Mannerheim kept a large portrait of Emperor Nicholas II in the living room of his house in Helsinki right up to his death, and when asked after the overthrow of the House of Romanov why he kept the portrait up, he always answered: "He was my emperor".{{sfnp|Trotter|2013|page=29}}

File:Anastasie-Mannerheim-1896.jpg

In 1892, he married a wealthy noble of Russian-Serbian heritage, Anastasia Arapova (1872–1936).{{cite web |url=http://blackhussars.ucoz.ru/publ/1-1-0-54|title=Краткие сведения об офицерах-Александрийцах: Великая война, Гражданская война, эмиграция. Часть 2-я (фамилии К – Р). – Статьи – Каталог статей – 5-й Гусарский Александрийский полк|language=ru|website=blackhussars.ucoz.ru}}{{sfnp|Meri|1990|pages=145–147}} They had two daughters, Anastasie "Stasie" (1893–1978) and Sofia "Sophy" (1895–1963).{{cite news |last1=Pallaste |first1=Tuija |title=Mannerheimin tyttärien vaietut elämät: hauras Stasie eli nunnana ja levoton Sophy pakeni Pariisiin – lopulta kumpikin eli suhteessa naisen kanssa |url=https://www.hs.fi/kuukausiliite/art-2000005433998.html |access-date=12 May 2020 |language=fi |work=Helsingin Sanomat |date=4 November 2017}} The couple separated in 1902 and divorced in 1919.{{sfnp|Meri|1990|pages=148–149}}

File:Mannerheim, Lilius, Kekoni, Gallen-Kallela, Rosenbröijer.jpg, Capt. Kekoni, Lt. Gallen-Kallela, Ensign Rosenbröijer.]]

{{See also|Finnish Civil War}}

In December 1917, Finland declared independence from Soviet Russia which was ruled by the Bolsheviks after they overthrew the Provisional Government in the October Revolution. The Soviets accepted the secession for a variety of reasons, mostly because they could not control Finland; also, they hoped they could inspire a communist revolution there modeled after the Russian one. The Finnish parliament appointed P. E. Svinhufvud to lead the newly independent grand duchy's interregnum government. In January 1918, a military committee was charged with bolstering the Finnish army, then not much more than some locally organised White Guards. Mannerheim was appointed to the committee, but soon resigned to protest its indecision. On 13 January, he was given command of the army.{{sfnp|Screen|2000|page=9}} He had only 24,000 newly enlisted, mostly untrained men. The Finnish Red Guard, led by communist leader Kullervo Manner and backed by Soviet Russia, had 30,000 men; and there were 70,000 Red Russian troops in Finland. Mannerheim's army was financed by a fifteen million mark line of credit provided by the bankers. His raw recruits had few arms. Nonetheless, he marched them to Vaasa, which was garrisoned by 42,500 Red Russians.{{sfnp|Mannerheim|1953|page=138}} He surrounded the Russian garrison with a mass of men; the defenders could not see that only the front rank was armed, so they surrendered, providing badly needed arms. Further weapons were purchased from Germany. Eighty-four Swedish officers and 200 Swedish NCOs served in the Finnish Civil War (or War of Liberty, as it was known among the "Whites"). Other officers were Finns who had been trained by the Germans as a Jäger Battalion. In March 1918 they were aided by German troops landing in Finland and occupying Helsinki.

File:Establishment of the Finnish Defence Forces with day order no 1.jpg

After the Whites' victory in the bitterly fought civil war, during which both sides employed ruthless terror tactics, Mannerheim resigned as commander-in-chief. He left Finland in June 1918 to visit relatives in Sweden.{{sfnp|Mannerheim|1953|page=184}} In Stockholm, Mannerheim conferred with Allied diplomats, emphasizing his opposition to the Finnish government's policy; Finnish leaders were confident the Germans would win the war, and had declared the Kaiser's brother-in-law, Frederick Charles of Hesse, to be the King of Finland. In the meantime Svinhufvud served as the first Regent of the nascent kingdom. Mannerheim's rapport with the Allies was recognized in October 1918 when the Finnish government sent him to Britain and France to attempt to gain Britain's and the United States's recognition of Finland's independence. In December, he was summoned back to Finland; Frederick Charles had renounced the throne, and in his stead, Mannerheim had been elected Regent. As Regent, Mannerheim often signed official documents using Kustaa, the Finnish form of his Christian name, to emphasize his Finnishness to those who were suspicious of his background in the Russian armed forces and his difficulties with the Finnish language.{{sfnp|Jägerskiöld|1986}} Mannerheim disliked his last Christian name, Emil, and wrote his signature as C. G. Mannerheim, or simply Mannerheim. Among his relatives and close friends Mannerheim was called Gustaf.{{sfnp|Meri|1990|page=104}}

File:The victory parade of the White Army 1918.jpg in Helsinki, 16 May 1918]]

Mannerheim secured recognition of Finnish independence from Britain and the United States. In July 1919, after he had confirmed a new, republican constitution, Mannerheim stood as a candidate in the first presidential election, with parliament as the electors. He was supported by the National Coalition Party and the Swedish People's Party. He finished second to Kaarlo Juho Ståhlberg, and withdrew from public life.

Mannerheim's mother tongue was Swedish. He spoke fluent German, French, and Russian, the last of which he learned in the forces of the Russian Imperial Army. He also spoke some English, Polish, Portuguese, Latin, and Chinese.{{sfnp|Jägerskiöld|1986}} He did not start learning Finnish properly until after Finland's independence.{{cite magazine |author=Koivunen, Elina |title=Carl Gustaf Mannerheim – Suomen historian myyttisin mies |magazine=Kotiliesi |pages=82–85 |number=12 |date=15 June 2010 |issn=0023-4281 |language=fi}}

File:Pyoveli Mannerheim.jpg of Mannerheim from 1940 as part of communist and socialist propaganda is strong evidence of how Mannerheim heavily divided opinions, especially in the aftermath of the Civil War.[https://www.ts.fi/uutiset/1074214054 Mannerheim ei ollut koko valkoisen Suomen sankari] – Turun Sanomat (in Finnish)]]

In the interwar years, Mannerheim held no public office, mainly because he was viewed by many politicians of the centre and left as a controversial figure for his ruthless battle with the Bolsheviks, his supposed desire for Finnish intervention on the side of the Whites during the Russian Civil War, and the Finnish socialists' antipathy toward him. They saw him as the bourgeois "White General". Mannerheim doubted that modern party-based politics would produce principled and high-quality leaders in Finland or elsewhere. In his gloomy opinion, the fatherland's interests were too often sacrificed by the democratic politicians for partisan benefit.{{cite book |last1=Virkkunen |first1=Sakari |title=Mannerheimin kääntöpuoli |language=fi |date=1992 |publisher=Otava|location=Helsingissä}}{{sfnp|Jägerskiöld|1983}}

He kept busy heading the Finnish Red Cross (Chairman 1919–1951), was a member of the board of the International Red Cross, and founded the Mannerheim League for Child Welfare (Mannerheimin Lastensuojeluliitto). He was also the chairman of the supervisory board of a commercial bank, the Liittopankki-Unionsbanken, and after its merger with the Bank of Helsinki, the chairman of the supervisory board of that bank until 1934, and was a member of the board of Nokia Corporation.[http://www.mannerheim-museo.fi/mm.php?page=marsalkka&lang=eng Mannerheim-Museo.fi] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110113092355/http://www.mannerheim-museo.fi/mm.php?page=marsalkka&lang=eng |date=13 January 2011 }} He offered to serve the French Foreign Legion in the Rif War (1925–1926), but was turned down.{{cite web | url=https://mannerheim.fi/08_sivil/e_legion.htm | title=MANNERHEIM - Civilian - Foreign Legion }}

In the 1920s and 1930s, Mannerheim returned to Asia, where he travelled and hunted extensively.{{sfnp|Screen|2000|pages=90–97}} On his first trip in 1927, to avoid going through the Soviet Union, he travelled through the British Empire, going by ship from London to Bombay. From there he travelled to Lucknow, Delhi, and Calcutta in the British India. From there he travelled overland to Burma, where he spent a month at Rangoon and Mandalay. He then went on to Sikkim and returned to Finland by car and aeroplane.

File:Mannerheim Tiger Hunt 1937.jpg on tiger hunt in Nepal in 1937]]

In his second voyage, in 1936, he went by ship from Aden (a British territory in Southern Arabia) to Bombay. During his travels and hunting expeditions, he visited Madras, Delhi and Nepal, where he was invited by the Rana Prime Minister Juddha Shumsher Jung Bahadur Rana to join a tiger hunt.{{cite web|url=https://www.is.fi/kotimaa/art-2000007672704.html|title=Tutkija: Mannerheim oli kolonialisti, kun ampui tiikereitä norsun päältä – tällaisia olivat Intian-matkat, joihin marsalkka osallistui "valkoisen metsästäjän roolissaan"|first=Tuomas|last=Manninen|work=Ilta-Sanomat|date=December 10, 2020|access-date=June 4, 2021|language=fi}} In the same year, Mannerheim made a private visit to the United Kingdom, where he was accompanied for the first time by security guards, who Prime Minister Winston Churchill himself had given Mannerheim to use during the trip. However, Mannerheim is known to have been bothered by the presence of security guards, because mainly as a fatalist, he firmly believed in fate, if it had to happen in the form of an untimely death, and in addition, he also strongly trusted his own authority.

In 1936, Mannerheim represented the Finnish government at the funeral of King George V of the United Kingdom.{{Cite web |title=Mannerheim-museo - Kronologia |url=https://www.mannerheim-museo.fi/fi/gustaf-mannerheim-2/kronologia/ |access-date=2024-12-04 |website=www.mannerheim-museo.fi}}

In 1929, Mannerheim rejected a plea by right-wing radicals to become a military dictator. While he did express some support for the right-wing Lapua Movement, he distanced himself from the group after they became violent.{{sfnp|Screen|2000|page=104}} After President Pehr Evind Svinhufvud was elected in 1931, he appointed Mannerheim as chairman of Finland's Defence Council and gave him a written promise that in the event of war he would become the Commander-in-Chief of the Finnish Army. (Svinhufvud's successor Kyösti Kallio renewed this promise in 1937). In 1933, Mannerheim received the rank of Field Marshal (sotamarsalkka, fältmarskalk). By this time, Mannerheim had come to be seen by the public, including some former socialists, less as a "White General" and more as a nonpartisan figure, enhanced by his public statements urging reconciliation between the opposing sides in the Civil War and the need to focus on national unity and defence: "we need not ask where a man stood fifteen years ago".{{sfnp|Screen|2000|page=112}} Mannerheim supported Finland's military industry and sought in vain to obtain a military defence union with Sweden. However, rearming the Finnish army did not occur as swiftly or as well as he hoped, and he was not enthusiastic about a war. He had many disagreements with various Cabinets, and signed many letters of resignation.Virkkunen, Sakari (1994) "Presidents of Finland II" (Suomen presidentit II), published in Finland{{sfnp|Turtola|1994}}

After their defeat in the Civil War, some Red Guards attempted to assassinate Mannerheim. One of the would-be assassins, Eino Rahja,[https://walkhelsinki.fi/mannerheimin-murhayrityksen-jalkinaytos-kaytiin-vallilassa/ Mannerheimin murhayrityksen jälkinäytös käytiin Vallilassa] (in Finnish) was in charge of the Saint Petersburg International School of Red Officers. He began planning an assassination by assembling eight groups of Finnish Red Guards in Saint Petersburg for this purpose. The attempt happened in April 1920 during a White Guard's parade on Hämeenkatu in Tampere, in which General Mannerheim was to participate.{{cite web|url=https://www.nurmijarvenuutiset.fi/paikalliset/5394149|title=Omatkin halusivat tappaa Mannerheimin – Uutta tietoa: tällaisia murhayrityksiä aikalaiset juonivat marsalkan päänmenoksi|first=Jari|last=Pietiläinen|work=Nurmijärven Uutiset|date=7 October 2022|access-date=8 October 2022|language=fi}}

The group gathered on 3 April at the Park Café in Hämeenkatu; and at this stage, group member Karl Salo was designated as a shooter and given a Colt pistol. However, the assassination attempt failed due to Salo's hesitation. Salo's security detail in the crowd, consisting of Aleksander Weckman and Aleksanteri Suokas, who had been equipped with Walther and Colt pistols, lost sight of Salo and never had time to shoot Mannerheim either.[http://www.mikkoporvali.fi/index.php?page=1038&lang=1 Mikko Porvali : Murhayritys joka jäi tekemättä] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231030132313/http://www.mikkoporvali.fi/index.php?page=1038&lang=1 |date=30 October 2023 }} (in Finnish)

On 6 April, Weckman, the operation leader, threatened to kill Salo if he had not assassinated either Mannerheim or Bruno Jalander, the Minister of War and Uusimaa County Governor, within a week.[https://digi.kansalliskirjasto.fi/sanomalehti/binding/1157235?page=5 Murhahankkeet kenraali Mannerheimia ja sotaministeri Jalanderia vastaan], Aamulehti July 24, 1920, no. 167, p. 5. (in Finnish) This attempt was also unsuccessful, as Mannerheim and Jalander did not come to the Helsinki Conservation Party celebration after the authorities received a tip. Salo returned his pistol and escaped afterwards. Weckman and Suokas tried to escape to the Soviet Union with their two assistants but were arrested on the Helsinki-Vyborg train the night of 21 April. Salo was arrested in Espoo on 23 April.

{{See also|Winter War|Continuation War|Lapland War}}

File:Talvisoda marski-2.jpg Baron Mannerheim in 1940]]

As chairman of the Finnish Defence Council, Mannerheim opposed war with the Soviet Union from the beginning. When the Soviets requested that Finland cede territory, he recommended that the Finnish government give into these demands, arguing that the Finnish Army was not strong enough to repel a Soviet attack.{{Cite journal |last=Webster '95 |first=Steven |date=1995-04-01 |title=Bright Hopes and Bloody Realities: The Diplomatic Preclude to the Winter War |url=https://digitalcommons.iwu.edu/history_honproj/25/ |journal=Honors Projects, History}} When negotiations with the Soviet Union failed in 1939, and aware of the imminent war and deploring the lack of equipment and preparation of the army, Mannerheim resigned from the military council on 17 October 1939, declaring that he would agree to return to business only as Commander-in-Chief of the Finnish Army. He officially became the supreme commander of the armies, at the age of 72, after the Soviet attack on 30 November 1939. In a letter to his daughter Sophie, he stated, "I had not wanted to undertake the responsibility of commander-in-chief, as my age and my health entitled me, but I had to yield to appeals from the President of the Republic and the government, and now for the fourth time I am at war."{{sfnp|Jägerskiöld|1986}}

He addressed the first of his often controversial orders of the day to the Defence Forces on the day the war began:

{{blockquote|The President of the Republic has appointed me on 30 November 1939 as Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces of the country. Brave soldiers of Finland! I enter on this task at a time when our hereditary enemy is once again attacking our country. Confidence in one's commander is the first condition for success. You know me and I know you and know that everyone in the ranks is ready to do his duty even to death. This war is nothing other than the continuation and final act of our War of Independence. We are fighting for our homes, our faith, and our country.{{sfnp|Jägerskiöld|1986}}}} The defensive field fortifications they manned became known as the Mannerheim Line.

Field Marshal Mannerheim quickly organised his headquarters in Mikkeli. His chief of staff was Lieutenant General Aksel Airo, while his close friend, General Rudolf Walden, was sent as a representative of the headquarters to the cabinet from 3 December 1939 until 27 March 1940, after which he became defence minister.{{sfnp|Turtola|1994}}

Mannerheim spent most of the Winter War and Continuation War in his Mikkeli headquarters but made many visits to the front. Between the wars, he remained commander-in-chief.{{sfnp|Turtola|1994}} Although Mannerheim's main task was to lead the war, he also knew how to strengthen and maintain the will of the soldiers to fight. He was famed for this quote:{{blockquote|Forts, cannons and foreign aid will not help unless every man himself knows that he is the guard of his country.{{cite book| title=Uusi Pikkujättiläinen| page= 1022 | publisher= Werner Söderström Osakeyhtiö | year=1986| isbn = 951-0-12416-8 | language= fi}}}}

Mannerheim kept relations with Adolf Hitler's government as formal as possible. Mannerheim did not really appreciate Hitler,[https://www.paivanlehti.fi/mannerheim-kuuli-hitlerin-saapuvan-syntymapaivajuhliin-vad-i-helvete-gor-han-har/ Mannerheim kuuli Hitlerin saapuvan syntymäpäiväjuhliin: – "Vad i helvete gör han här?"] (in Finnish) even though he initially expressed an interest in his rise to power; his attitude towards Hitler turned negative at the point when Mannerheim's visit to Germany made him realize what kind of "ideal state" Hitler was building; he compared Hitler's rise in Germany to the 1917 rise of the Bolshevists in Russia.[https://www.is.fi/kotimaa/art-2000005187079.html Uutuuskirja: Mannerheim innostui aluksi Hitleristä] (in Finnish) Before the Continuation War, the Germans offered Mannerheim command over 80,000 German troops in Finland. Mannerheim declined so as to not tie himself and Finland to Nazi war aims;{{sfnp|Jakobson|1999}} Mannerheim was ready for cooperation and fraternity with Hitler's Germany, but for practical rather than ideological reasons because of the Soviet threat. In July 1941 the Finnish Army of Karelia was strengthened by the German 163rd Infantry Division. They retook the Finnish territories annexed by the Soviet Union after the Winter War,{{sfnp|Mannerheim|1953|page=456}} and went further, occupying East Karelia. Finnish troops took part in the Siege of Leningrad, which lasted 872 days.

Soviet leader Joseph Stalin pressured Churchill to declare war against Finland, a decision that was particularly difficult for Churchill due to his acquaintance with Mannerheim. Churchill delayed the declaration and sent a personal note to Mannerheim, in which he recalled their past encounters and warned Mannerheim about the impending declaration. Mannerheim thanked Churchill for his thoughtfulness and responded that his mission was to ensure Finland's security.{{Cite web |last=Jantunen |first=Jyrki |date=2017-11-05 |title=Churchill kehui Mannerheimia: "Todellinen mies – vahva kuin kallionjärkäle" |url=https://suomenkuvalehti.fi/kotimaa/churchill-mannerheim-todellinen-mies-vahva-kuin-kallionjarkale/ |access-date=2024-12-04 |website=Suomenkuvalehti.fi |language=en-US}}

On 20 June 1942, Mannerheim was inspecting Finnish front line troops in Poventsa when he and his staff were engaged by a Soviet anti-tank gun with direct fire. One shell exploded near Mannerheim who, on varying accounts, took cover either in a trench or behind tree trunks until Finnish counter-battery fire neutralized the attacker. Captain Ahti Petramaa, section commander during the inspection, lost fingers from flying shrapnel and was escorted to an aid station where he was promoted to major by Mannerheim.{{Cite web |url=https://sotaveteraanit.fi/jatkosodan-kesana-1942-mannerheimin-hengenlahto-oli-vain-metrien-paassa/ |title=JATKOSODAN KESÄNÄ 1942 MANNERHEIMIN HENGENLÄHTÖ OLI VAIN METRIEN PÄÄSSÄ |date=17 June 2019 |access-date=5 August 2024 |language=fi}}{{Cite web |url=http://www.nautelankoski.net/sota/jatkosota/asemasota/1942_1944/18_6_-1_7_1942.html |title=Mannerheim vierailee Poventsassa |access-date=17 August 2024 |language=fi}}{{Cite web |url=https://www.sotahistoriallisetkohteet.fi/app/sights/view/-/id/710 |title=Marskiniemi Poventsa |access-date=5 August 2024 |language=fi}}

File:Hitler Mannerheim Ryti.jpg Mannerheim and President Ryti. Hitler visited Mannerheim on his 75th birthday.]]

Mannerheim's 75th birthday, 4 June 1942, was a national celebration. The government granted him the unique title of Marshal of Finland (Suomen Marsalkka in Finnish, Marskalk av Finland in Swedish). So far he is the only person to receive the title. A surprise birthday visit by Hitler occurred on the day as he wished to visit the "brave Finns (die tapferen Finnen)" and their leader Mannerheim.{{sfnp|Turtola|1994}} Mannerheim did not want to meet him at his headquarters or in Helsinki, as then it would seem like an official state visit. The meeting took place near Imatra, in south-eastern Finland, and was arranged in secrecy. From Immola Airfield, Hitler, accompanied by President Ryti, was driven to where Baron Mannerheim was waiting at a railway siding. A speech from Hitler was followed by a birthday meal and negotiations between him and Mannerheim. Overall, Hitler spent about five hours in Finland; he reportedly asked the Finns to step up military operations against the Soviets, but apparently made no specific demands.

During the visit, an engineer of the Finnish broadcasting company Yleisradio, Thor Damen, succeeded in recording the first eleven minutes of Hitler's and Mannerheim's private conversation. This had to be done secretly, as Hitler never allowed off-guard recordings. Damen was assigned to record the official birthday speeches and Mannerheim's response and therefore placed microphones in some of the railway cars. However, Mannerheim and his guests chose to go to a car that did not have a microphone in it. Damen acted quickly, pushing a microphone through one of the car windows onto a net shelf just above where Hitler and Mannerheim were sitting. After eleven minutes of Hitler's and Mannerheim's private conversation, Hitler's SS bodyguards spotted the cords coming out of the window and realized that the Finnish engineer was recording the conversation. They gestured to him to stop recording immediately, and he complied. The SS bodyguards demanded that the tape be destroyed, but Yleisradio was allowed to keep the reel after promising to keep it in a sealed container. It was given to Kustaa Vilkuna, head of the state censors' office, and in 1957 returned to Yleisradio. It was released to the public a few years later. It is the only known recording of Hitler speaking outside of a formal occasion.[http://www.hs.fi/english/article/1076153999513 Helsingin Sanomat International Web-Edition] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140819064409/http://www.hs.fi/english/article/1076153999513 |date=19 August 2014 }} – "Conversation secretly recorded in Finland helped a German actor prepare for Hitler role" Helsingin Sanomat / First published in print 15 September 2004 in Finnish.Recording available Yle's [http://www.yle.fi/elavaarkisto/?s=s&g=1&ag=3&t=22&a=376 web-archive]

There is an unsubstantiated story that while conversing with Hitler, Mannerheim lit a cigar. Mannerheim expected that Hitler would ask Finland for more help against the Soviet Union, which Mannerheim was unwilling to give. When Mannerheim lit up, all in attendance gasped, for Hitler's aversion to smoking was well known. Nevertheless, Hitler continued the conversation calmly, with no comment. By this test, Mannerheim could judge if Hitler was speaking from a position of strength or weakness. He refused Hitler, knowing that Hitler was in a weak position, and could not dictate to him.{{sfnp|Turtola|1994}}

Shortly thereafter, Mannerheim returned the visit, traveling to Hitler's headquarters in East Prussia.{{sfnp|Mannerheim|1953|pages=454–455}}

File:Mannerheimin valinta 1944.jpg

File:Mannerheim ja Paasikivi.jpg (right) and his wife Alli Paasikivi in March 1946.]]

In June 1944, Baron Gustaf Mannerheim, to ensure German support while a major Soviet offensive was threatening Finland, thought that it was necessary to agree to the pact the German Foreign Minister Joachim von Ribbentrop demanded. But even then Mannerheim distanced himself from the pact, and it fell to President Risto Ryti to sign it, so it came to be known as the Ryti-Ribbentrop Agreement. This allowed Mannerheim to revoke the agreement upon the resignation of President Ryti at the start of August 1944. Mannerheim succeeded Ryti as president.Zetterberg, Seppo et al., eds. (2003) "A Small Giant of Finnish History" (Suomen historian pikkujättiläinen)

When Germany was deemed sufficiently weakened, and the USSR's summer offensive was fought to a standstill (see Battle of Tali-Ihantala) thanks to the June agreement with the Germans, Finland's leaders saw a chance to reach a peace with the Soviet Union.{{sfnp|Screen|2000|page=205}} At first, attempts were made to persuade Mannerheim to become prime minister, but he rejected them because of his age and lack of experience running a civil government. The next suggestion was to elect him head of state. Risto Ryti would resign as president, and parliament would appoint Mannerheim as regent. The use of the title regent would have reflected the exceptional circumstances of Mannerheim's election. Mannerheim and Ryti both agreed, and Ryti submitted a notice of resignation on 1 August. The Parliament of Finland passed a special act conferring the presidency on Mannerheim on 4 August 1944. He took the oath of office the same day.

File:Mannerheim Leaving Presidents Residence.png Baron Mannerheim leaves the Presidential Palace in Helsinki on 4 March 1946 after his short presidency]]

A month after Mannerheim took office, the Continuation War was concluded on harsh terms, but ultimately far less harsh than those imposed on the other states bordering the Soviet Union. Finland retained its sovereignty, its parliamentary democracy, and its market economy. Territorial losses were considerable; a portion of Karelia and all Petsamo were lost. Numerous Karelian refugees needed to be relocated. The war reparations were very heavy. Finland also had to fight the Lapland War against withdrawing German troops in the north, and at the same time demobilize its own army, making it harder to expel the Germans;{{cite book| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C68xN5lTN6EC&pg=PA87 | editor1=Kinnunen, Tiina |editor2=Kivimäki, Ville | title=Finland in World War II: History, Memory, Interpretations |year=2011 | page=87 | publisher=Brill | isbn=978-9004208940 }} Mannerheim appointed Lieutenant General Hjalmar Siilasvuo as the high commander of the army to take this action.[https://ilkkaenkenberg.com/2015/08/03/lapin-sodan-alku/ Ilkka Enkenberg: Lapin sodan alku] (in Finnish)[https://yle.fi/aihe/artikkeli/2006/09/08/lapin-sodan-tuhot YLE Elävä arkisto: Lapin sodan tuhot] (in Finnish) It is widely agreed that only Mannerheim could have guided Finland through these difficult times, when the Finnish people had to come to terms with the severe conditions of the armistice, their implementation by a Soviet-dominated Allied Control Commission, and the task of post-war reconstruction.

Before deciding to accept the Soviet demands, Mannerheim wrote a missive directly to Hitler:{{cite book|last1=Nenye|first1=Vesa|last2=Munter|first2=Peter|last3=Wirtanen|first3=Toni|last4=Birks|first4=Chris|title=Finland at War: the Continuation and Lapland Wars 1941–45|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zb6gCwAAQBAJ|year=2016|publisher=Osprey Publishing|isbn=978-1472815262}}

{{blockquote|Our German brothers-in-arms will forever remain in our hearts. The Germans in Finland were certainly not the representatives of foreign despotism but helpers and brothers-in-arms. But even in such cases foreigners are in difficult positions requiring such tact. I can assure you that during the past years nothing whatsoever happened that could have induced us to consider the German troops intruders or oppressors. I believe that the attitude of the German Army in northern Finland towards the local population and authorities will enter our history as a unique example of a correct and cordial relationship ... I deem it my duty to lead my people out of the war. I cannot and I will not turn the arms which you have so liberally supplied us against Germans. I harbour the hope that you, even if you disapprove of my attitude, will wish and endeavour like myself and all other Finns to terminate our former relations without increasing the gravity of the situation.}}

Mannerheim's term as president was difficult for him. Although he was elected for a full six-year term, he was 77 years old in 1944 and had accepted the office reluctantly after being urged to do so. The situation was exacerbated by frequent periods of ill-health, the demands of the Allied Control Commission, and the war responsibility trials. He was afraid throughout most of his presidency that the commission would request his prosecution for crimes against peace. This never happened. One of the reasons for this was Stalin's respect for and admiration of the Marshal. Stalin told a Finnish delegation in Moscow in 1947 that the Finns owed much to their old Marshal. Due to Mannerheim, Finland was not occupied.{{sfnp|Meri|1990|page=397}} Despite Mannerheim's criticisms of some of the demands of the Control Commission, he worked hard to carry out Finland's armistice obligations. He also emphasised the necessity of further work on reconstruction in Finland after the war.

Mannerheim was troubled by recurring health problems during 1945, and was absent on medical leave from his duties as president from November until February 1946. He spent six weeks in Portugal to restore his health.{{cite web|url=https://suomenkuvalehti.fi/jutut/kotimaa/raihnainen-mannerheim-teki-salaperaisen-matkan-portugaliin-rantaloman-aikana-kaikkosi-riski-sotasyyllisyystuomiosta/|title=Raihnainen Mannerheim teki salaperäisen matkan Portugaliin, rantaloman aikana kaikkosi riski sotasyyllisyystuomiosta|first=Tomi|last=Hinkkanen|date=June 4, 2021|work=Suomen Kuvalehti|access-date=June 4, 2021|language=fi}} After the announcement of the verdicts in the war crimes trials in February, Mannerheim decided to resign. He believed that he had accomplished the duties he had been elected to carry out: The war was ended, the armistice obligations carried out, and war responsibility trials finished.

Mannerheim resigned as president on 4 March 1946, giving as his reason his declining health and his view that the tasks he had been selected to carry out had been accomplished.{{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1946/03/05/archives/mannerheim-quits-office-in-finland-resigns-in-finland.html|title=Mannerheim Quits Office In Finland; Resigns In Finland|work=The New York Times|date=5 March 1946|access-date=4 March 2024}} He was succeeded as president by the conservative Prime Minister J. K. Paasikivi.

File:Mannerheims funeral parade Helsinki.png on 4 February 1951.]]

After his resignation, Marshal Baron Mannerheim bought Kirkniemi Manor in Lohja, intending to spend his retirement there. In June 1946, he underwent an operation for a perforated peptic ulcer, and in October of that year he was diagnosed with a duodenal ulcer. In early 1947, it was recommended that he should travel to the Valmont Sanatorium in Montreux, Switzerland, to recuperate and write his memoirs. Valmont was to be Mannerheim's main residence for the remainder of his life, although he regularly returned to Finland, and also visited Sweden, France and Italy.{{sfnp|Screen|2000|page=245}}

Because Mannerheim was old and sickly, he personally wrote only certain passages of his memoirs. He dictated some other parts. The remaining parts were written from his recollections by Mannerheim's various assistants, such as Colonel Aladár Paasonen; General Erik Heinrichs; Generals Grandell, Olenius and Martola; and Colonel Viljanen, a war historian. As long as Mannerheim was able to read, he proofread the typewritten drafts of his memoirs. He was almost totally silent about his private life, and focused instead on Finland's history, especially between 1917 and 1944. When Mannerheim suffered a fatal bowel obstruction in January 1951,{{sfnp|Screen|2000|pages=252}} his memoirs were not yet in their finished form. They were published after his death.{{sfnp|Jägerskiöld|1983}}

Mannerheim died on 27 January 1951 (28 January Finnish time), in the Cantonal Hospital in Lausanne ({{Langx|fr|L'Hôpital cantonal à Lausanne}}; modern Lausanne University Hospital{{Cite web|url=http://www.chuv.ch/fr/chuv-home/en-bref/historique/|title=Historique|website=Lausanne University Hospital|access-date=24 February 2018 |language=fr}}), Switzerland. He was buried on 4 February 1951 in the Hietaniemi Cemetery in Helsinki in a state funeral with full military honours.

File:Mannerheim Memorial in Montreux dedication.jpg, Switzerland, next to Lake Geneva]]

Today, Mannerheim retains respect as Finland's greatest statesman. This may be partly due to his refusal to enter partisan politics (although his sympathies were more right-wing than left-wing), his claim always to serve the fatherland without selfish motives, his personal courage in visiting the front lines, his ability to work diligently into his late seventies, and his foreign political farsightedness in preparing for the Soviet invasion of Finland years before it occurred. Although Finland fought alongside Nazi Germany during the Continuation War and thus in co-operation with the Axis Powers, a number of leaders of the Allies still respected Mannerheim. These included, among others, the then British Prime Minister Winston Churchill; at a 2017 conference in London, war historian Terry Charman said it was difficult for Churchill to declare war on Finland at Stalin's demand due to his previous uncomplicated co-operation with Mannerheim, which led Churchill and Mannerheim to exchange polite and apologetic correspondence about the prevailing circumstance, with deep respect for each other.{{cite web|url=https://suomenkuvalehti.fi/jutut/kotimaa/churchill-mannerheim-todellinen-mies-vahva-kuin-kallionjarkale/|title=Churchill kehui Mannerheimia: "Todellinen mies – vahva kuin kallionjärkäle"|first=Marjo|last=Cunningham|work=Suomen Kuvalehti|date=November 5, 2017|access-date=December 19, 2020|language=fi}}

File:Mannerheim hunting house.JPG, Mannerheim's hunting lodge]]

Mannerheim's birthday, 4 June, is celebrated as Flag Day by the Finnish Defence Forces. This decision was made by the Finnish government on the occasion of his 75th birthday in 1942, when he was also granted the title of Marshal of Finland. Flag Day is celebrated with a national parade, and rewards and promotions for members of the defence forces. The life and times of Mannerheim are memorialised in the Mannerheim Museum. The most prominent boulevard in the Finnish capital was renamed Mannerheimintie (Mannerheim Road) already in the Marshal's honour during his lifetime; along the road, at the Kamppi district, stands Hotel Marski, which is named after him. Mannerheim's former hunting lodge and resting place known as the "Marshal's Cabin" (Marskin Maja), which now serves as both a museum and a restaurant, is located at the shores of Lake Punelia in Loppi, Finland.[http://www.visitloppi.com/en/index.php?sivu=yritykset/marskin_maja "Marskin Maja" lodge – Häme Lake Uplands – Visit Loppi]

Various landmarks across Finland honour Mannerheim, including most famously the Equestrian statue located on Helsinki's Mannerheimintie in front of the later-built Kiasma museum of modern art. Mannerheim Parks in both Turku and Seinäjoki include statues of him. Tampere's Mannerheim statue depicting the victorious Civil War general of the Whites was eventually placed in the forest some kilometres outside the city (in part due to lingering controversy over Mannerheim's Civil War role). Other statues, for examples, were erected in Mikkeli and Lahti.{{cite web| url=http://www.kansallisbiografia.fi/english/?id=625 | title=Mannerheim, Gustaf (1867–1951) President of Finland, Marshal of Finland | author=Matti Klinge |author-link=Matti Klinge |translator=Roderick Fletcher | publisher=Biografiakeskus | access-date= 12 September 2013}} On 5 December 2004, Mannerheim was voted the greatest Finnish person of all time in the Suuret suomalaiset (Great Finns) contest.

From 1937 to 1967, at least five different Finnish postage stamps or stamp series were issued in honour of Mannerheim; and in 1960 the United States honoured Mannerheim as the "Liberator of Finland" with regular first-class domestic and international stamps (at the time four cents and eight cents respectively) as part of its Champions of Liberty series that included other notable figures such as Mahatma Gandhi and Simon Bolivar.{{cite web|url=http://www.mannerheim.fi/13_erity/e_postim.htm|title=MANNERHEIM – Special Topics – Stamps|website=www.mannerheim.fi}}{{cite web |date=12 December 2008 |title=8-cent Mannerheim |url=https://postalmuseum.si.edu/object/npm_1980.2493.5352 |access-date=26 April 2023}}{{cite web | url=http://gandhiphilately.blogspot.com/2011/03/50th-anniversary-of-usa-mahatma-gandhi.html | title=50th Anniversary USA Champions of Liberty Mahatma Gandhi Stamp | date=9 March 2011 | access-date=18 August 2013}}

File:Mannerheim-50p-1941.jpg|1941 Finnish postal stamp portraying the then-Field Marshal Mannerheim (he was appointed Marshal of Finland in 1942).

File:Baron Karl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim, 4c & 8c,1960 issues.jpg|Marshal Mannerheim on two United States commemorative stamps, 1960 issue, part of the Champion of Liberty issues.

Mannerheim appears as a main character in Ilmari Turja's 1966 play and its the 1970 film adaptation The Headquarters, directed by Matti Kassila. In both the play and the film, Mannerheim was played by Joel Rinne.[https://www.finna.fi/Record/kavi.elonet_elokuva_117799 Päämaja – Finna.fi] (in Finnish) Mannerheim was also played by Asko Sarkola in the 2001 television film Valtapeliä elokuussa 1940, directed by Veli-Matti Saikkonen.[https://m.imdb.com/title/tt0304883/ Valtapeliä elokuussa 1940 (TV Movie 2001) – IMDb]

• 1888: Non-commissioned officer
• 1889: Cornet
• 1891: Cornet of the Guard
• 1893: Lieutenant of the Guard
• 1902: Captain of the Guard
• 1904: Lieutenant Colonel
• 1905: Colonel
• 1911: Major General
• 1917: Lieutenant General

• 1918: General of Cavalry
• 1933: Field Marshal
• 1942: Marshal of Finland

• 1918: Commander-in-Chief of the White Guard: from January to May 1918
• 1918: Commander-in-Chief of the Finnish Defence Forces: from December 1918 to July 1919
• 1931: Chairman of the Defence Council: from 1931 to 1939
• 1939: Commander-in-Chief of the Finnish Defence Forces: from 1939 to 1946

{{Infobox coat of arms

|name = Coat of Arms of Gustaf Mannerheim

|image =CGE Mannerheim coat of arms.svg

|alt =

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|lesser =

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|lesser_width =45

|lesser_caption = Coat of arms

|image2 =

|image2_alt =

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|image2_caption =

|image3 =

|image3_alt =

|image3_width =

|image3_caption =

|armiger = Gustaf Mannerheim

|year_adopted =

|crest =

|torse =

|shield =

|supporters =

|compartment =

|motto = {{lang|la|"Candida pro causa ense candido"}}{{Cite web |url=http://www.mannerheim-museo.fi/gustaf-mannerheim-3/ |title=Gustaf Mannerheim The Marshal of Finland|publisher=mannerheim-museo.fi|access-date=2 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200119135230/https://www.mannerheim-museo.fi/gustaf-mannerheim-3/ |archive-date=19 January 2020 |url-status=dead }}("With an honourable sword for an honourable cause")

|orders =

|other_elements =

|earlier_versions =

|use =

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}}

In the course of his lifetime, Mannerheim received 82 military and civilian decorations.[http://www.mannerheim.fi/13_erity/kunnmerk.htm Mannerheim Internetprojekti, kunniamerkit valokuvineen] (Finnish)

National

{{columns-list|

• {{flagicon|Finland}} Republic of Finland:
• Grand Cross with Swords and Diamonds of the Order of the Cross of Liberty (1940; Grand Cross with Swords: 1918)https://www.mannerheim.fi/13_erity/kunniamerkit/02.htm {{Bare URL inline|date=May 2025}}https://www.mannerheim.fi/13_erity/kunniamerkit/01.htm {{Bare URL inline|date=May 2025}}
• Knight of the Mannerheim Cross, 1st and 2nd class, of the Order of the Cross of Liberty (1941)http://www.mannerheim.fi/13_erity/kunniamerkit/04.htm {{Bare URL inline|date=May 2025}}https://www.mannerheim.fi/13_erity/kunniamerkit/03.htm {{Bare URL inline|date=May 2025}}
• Grand Cross with Collar, Swords and Diamonds of the Order of the White Rose (1944; Grand Cross with Collar: 1919)https://www.mannerheim.fi/13_erity/kunniamerkit/12.htm {{Bare URL inline|date=May 2025}}https://www.mannerheim.fi/13_erity/kunniamerkit/13.htm {{Bare URL inline|date=May 2025}}
• Grand Cross with Swords of the Order of the Lion of Finland (1944)https://www.mannerheim.fi/13_erity/kunniamerkit/14.htm {{Bare URL inline|date=May 2025}}

• {{flagicon|Russian Empire}} Russian Empire:
• Order of St. Anna, 1st class (1914; 2nd class: 1904; 3rd class: 1900){{cite web | url=https://mannerheim.weebly.com/mannerheims-decorations.html | title=Mannerheim's decorations }}
• Order of St. Stanislaus, 1st class (1914; 2nd class: 1904)https://www.mannerheim.fi/13_erity/kunniamerkit/52.htm {{Bare URL inline|date=May 2025}}
• Order of St. Vladimir, 2nd class (1916; 3rd class: 1914; 4th class: 1909)https://www.mannerheim.fi/13_erity/kunniamerkit/50.htm {{Bare URL inline|date=May 2025}}
• Gold Sword for Bravery (1906)https://mannerheim-museo.fi {{Bare URL inline|date=May 2025}}
• Order of St. George, Knight 4th class (1914)https://www.mannerheim.fi/13_erity/kunniamerkit/51.htm {{Bare URL inline|date=May 2025}}

• {{flagicon|Sweden}} Kingdom of Sweden:
• Commander Grand Cross of the Order of the Sword (1918){{cite web|title=Mannerheim – riddare med stora korset av Svärdsorden |date=17 March 2021 |url=https://phaleristica.com/2021/03/17/mannerheim-riddare-med-stora-korset-av-svardsorden/}}
• Knight of the Order of the Seraphim (1919)https://www.mannerheim.fi/13_erity/kunniamerkit/80.htm {{Bare URL inline|date=May 2025}}
• Knight Grand Cross 1st Class of the Order of the Sword (1942)

}}

Foreign

{{columns-list|colwidth=25em|

• {{flagicon|Austria|empire}} Austro-Hungarian Empire: Knight of the Order of Franz Joseph (1895)https://www.mannerheim.fi/13_erity/kunniamerkit/53.htm {{Bare URL inline|date=May 2025}}{{cite web | url=https://mannerheim.weebly.com/mannerheims-decorations.html | title=Mannerheim's decorations }}
• {{flag icon|Independent State of Croatia}} Independent State of Croatia: Grand Cross of the Order of the Crown of King Zvonimir with Swords (1942)https://www.mannerheim.fi/13_erity/kunniamerkit/86.htm {{Bare URL inline|date=May 2025}}
• {{flagicon|Denmark}} Kingdom of Denmark: Knight of the Order of the Elephant (1919)https://www.mannerheim.fi/13_erity/kunniamerkit/70.htm {{Bare URL inline|date=May 2025}}
• {{flagicon|Estonia}} Republic of Estonia:
• Military Order of the Cross of the Eagle, 1st Class with Swords (1930)https://www.mannerheim.fi/13_erity/kunniamerkit/72.htm {{Bare URL inline|date=May 2025}}
• Grand Cross of Order of the Estonian Red Cross (1933)https://www.mannerheim.fi/13_erity/kunniamerkit/71.htm {{Bare URL inline|date=May 2025}}
• {{flagicon|France}} French Republic: Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour (1939; Officer: 1910; Knight: 1902)https://www.mannerheim.fi/13_erity/kunniamerkit/74.htm {{Bare URL inline|date=May 2025}}
• Germany:
• {{flagicon|GER|empire}} German Empire: Iron Cross 1st and 2nd Class (1918)https://www.mannerheim.fi/13_erity/kunniamerkit/63.htm {{Bare URL inline|date=May 2025}}
• {{flagicon|Nazi Germany}} Nazi Germany:
• Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves (1944; Knight's Cross: 1942; Clasp to the Iron Cross: 1942)https://www.mannerheim.fi/13_erity/kunniamerkit/64.htm {{Bare URL inline|date=May 2025}}
• Grand Cross of the Order of the German Eagle in Gold with Star (1942)https://www.mannerheim.fi/13_erity/kunniamerkit/68.htm {{Bare URL inline|date=May 2025}}
• Grand Cross of the German Red Cross Decoration with Oak Leaves (1937)https://www.mannerheim.fi/13_erity/kunniamerkit/69.htm {{Bare URL inline|date=May 2025}}
• {{flagicon|GRE|royal}} Kingdom of Greece: Officer of the Order of the Saviour (1902)https://www.mannerheim.fi/13_erity/kunniamerkit/55.htm {{Bare URL inline|date=May 2025}}
• {{flagicon|HUN|1920}} Kingdom of Hungary: Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Kingdom of Hungary with the Holy Crown of St. Stephen (1942)https://www.mannerheim.fi/13_erity/kunniamerkit/75.htm {{Bare URL inline|date=May 2025}}
• {{flagicon|ITA|1861}} Kingdom of Italy:
• Officer of the Order of Saints Maurice and Lazarus (1902)https://www.mannerheim.fi/13_erity/kunniamerkit/54.htm {{Bare URL inline|date=May 2025}}
• Grand Officer of the Military Order of Savoy (1942)https://www.mannerheim.fi/13_erity/kunniamerkit/76.htm {{Bare URL inline|date=May 2025}}
• {{flagicon|Japan|empire}} Empire of Japan: Grand Cordon of the Order of the Rising Sun with Paulownia Flowers (1942)[http://www.mannerheim.fi/13_erity/kunnmerk.htm No. 77, Nousevan Auringon Ritarikunnan I luokka Paulovniakukkasin, Japani], mannerheim.fi.
• {{flagicon|Latvia}} Republic of Latvia: Honour Cross of the Latvian Red Cross (1938)https://www.mannerheim.fi/13_erity/kunniamerkit/78.htm {{Bare URL inline|date=May 2025}}
• {{flagicon|Lithuania}} Republic of Lithuania: Order of the Cross of Vytis, 2nd class, 2nd degree (1933)https://www.mannerheim.fi/13_erity/kunniamerkit/08.htm {{Bare URL inline|date=May 2025}}
• {{flagicon|Romania}} Kingdom of Romania: Order of Michael the Brave, 1st class (1941)https://www.mannerheim.fi/13_erity/kunniamerkit/83.htm {{Bare URL inline|date=May 2025}}https://www.mannerheim.fi/13_erity/kunniamerkit/84.htm {{Bare URL inline|date=May 2025}}https://www.mannerheim.fi/13_erity/kunniamerkit/85.htm {{Bare URL inline|date=May 2025}}
• {{flagicon|UK}} United Kingdom: Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the British Empire (GBE) (1938)https://www.mannerheim.fi/13_erity/kunniamerkit/73.htm {{Bare URL inline|date=May 2025}}

}}

• [http://dsr.nii.ac.jp/toyobunko/VIII-1-A-224/V-1/page-hr/0007.html.en C.G. Mannerheim, Across Asia From West to East in 1906–1908]. (1969) Anthropological Publications. Oosterhout N.B. – The Netherlands
• [http://dsr.nii.ac.jp/toyobunko/VIII-1-A-224/V-1/ Across Asia : Vol. 1] – digital images

{{Portal|Biography|Finland}}

• Adolf Ehrnrooth
• Hitler and Mannerheim recording
• Johan Laidoner
• List of wars involving Finland
• Mannerheim Cross
• Mannerheim Line
• Mannerheim Museum
• Mannerheim Park
• Mannerheimintie
• Marshal's Cabin
• The Marshal of Finland (film)
• Marskin ryyppy

{{notelist}}

{{Reflist}}

{{Refbegin}}

• {{Cite book

|year=2009

|last=Clements |first=Jonathan |author-link=Jonathan Clements

|title=Mannerheim: President, Soldier, Spy

|location=London |publisher=Haus Publishing

|isbn=978-1907822575

}}

• {{ill|Jörg Ganzenmüller|lt=Ganzenmüller, Jörg|de}}. {{Cite book |year=2005 |title=Das belagerte Leningrad 1941–1944 |trans-title=Leningrad Besieged: 1941-1944|publisher=Verlag Ferdinand Schöningh |language=de|publication-place=Paderborn |isbn= 3-506-72889-X}}
• {{Cite book

|last=Jägerskiöld |first=Stig |author-link=Stig Jägerskiöld

|title=Nuori Mannerheim |trans-title=Young Mannerheim|language=fi

|year=1965

}}

• {{Cite book

|first=Stig |last=Jägerskiöld |author-link=Stig Jägerskiöld

|title=Mannerheim 1867–1951

|location=Helsinki

|publisher=Otava Publications

|year=1983

}}

• {{Cite book

|year=1986

|first=Stig

|last=Jägerskiöld |author-link=Stig Jägerskiöld

|title=Mannerheim: Marshal of Finland

|location=Minneapolis

|publisher=University of Minnesota Press

|isbn=0-8166-1527-6

|url-access=registration

|url=https://archive.org/details/mannerheimmarsha00jage

}}

• Koskikallio, Petteri. Asko Lehmuskallio, and Harry Halén. C. G. Mannerheim in Central Asia 1906–1908. Helsinki: National Board of Antiquities, 1999. {{ISBN|951-616-048-4}}.
• {{Cite book

|first=Max |last=Jakobson |author-link=Max Jakobson

|year=1999

|trans-title=20th Century Accounts: Years of Violence

|title=Väkivallan vuodet, 20. vuosisadan tilinpäätös

|language=fi

|isbn=9789511133698

|publisher=Otava

}}

• {{Cite book

|last=Warner |first=Oliver

|author-link=Oliver Warner

|title=Marshal Mannerheim and the Finns

|year=1967

|publisher=Weidenfeld & Nicolson |location=London

}}

• {{cite magazine

|last=Warner |first=Oliver

|author-link=Oliver Warner

|title=Mannerheim, Marshal of Finland, 1867–1951 |magazine=History Today |date=July 1964 |volume=14 |number=7 |pages=461–468}}

• {{Cite book

|year=1953

|last=Mannerheim |first=Carl Gustaf Emil

|author-link=Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim

|title=The Memoirs of Marshal Mannerheim

|publisher=Cassell |location=London

|oclc=12424452

}}, primary source

• {{Cite book

|last=Meri |first=Veijo |author-link=Veijo Meri

|title=Suomen marsalkka C. G. Mannerheim |language=fi

|year=1990

}}

• {{cite journal |last1=Pajunen |first1=Jussi |last2=Karjalainen |first2=Mikko |date=2019 |title=Finnish Volunteer Battalion of the Waffen SS in 1941–1943 and Related Finnish studies |journal=Finno-German Yearbook of Political Economy |volume=2 |url=https://www.doria.fi/bitstream/handle/10024/176983/1.%20Pajunen-Karjalainen-FINAL.pdf |access-date=2021-10-12 |archive-date=2021-10-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211019024106/https://www.doria.fi/bitstream/handle/10024/176983/1.%20Pajunen-Karjalainen-FINAL.pdf |url-status=live}}
• {{ill|J. E. O. Screen|lt=Screen, J. E. O.|fi}}. {{Cite book

|last = Screen

|first = J. E. O.

|year=1970

|title=Mannerheim: The Years of Preparation

|location=Vancouver |publisher=University of British Columbia Press

|isbn=0-900966-22-X

}}

• {{ill|J. E. O. Screen|lt=Screen, J. E. O.|fi}}. {{Cite book

|last = Screen

|first = J. E. O.

|year=2000

|title=Mannerheim: The Finnish Years

|location=London |publisher=Hurst

|isbn=1-85065-573-1

}}

• {{cite book

|last1=Trotter

|first1=William

|author-link=William R. Trotter

|title=A Frozen Hell: The Russo-Finnish Winter War of 1939–1940

|date=2013

|publisher=Algonquin Books

|location=Chapel Hill

|isbn=9781565126923}}

• {{ill|Turtola, Martti|lt=Martti Turtola|fi}}. {{Cite book

|last = Turtola

|first = Martti

|trans-title=Risto Ryti: A Life for the Fatherland |title=Risto Ryti: Elämä isänmaan puolesta |language=fi

|location=Helsinki |publisher=Otava

|year=1994

}}

• {{Cite book

|last=Tyni |first=Mikko

|title=Marsalkan muskettisoturit – Mannerheimin henkivartiointi ja turvallisuus 1918–1946

|location=Jyväskylä |publisher={{ill|Docendo|fi}} |language=fi

|year=2022

|isbn=9789523823891

}}

• {{ill|Lars Westerlund|lt=Westerlund, Lars|fi}}. {{cite book|title=The Finnish SS Volunteers and Atrocities 1941–1943|url=https://arkisto.fi/uploads/Julkaisut/sarjajulkaisut/SS-VOLUNTEERS_verkkoon.pdf|year=2019|publisher=The National Archives of Finland and Finnish Literature Society|isbn=978-951-858-111-9|access-date=2021-10-13|archive-date=2021-08-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210823092207/https://arkisto.fi/uploads/Julkaisut/sarjajulkaisut/SS-VOLUNTEERS_verkkoon.pdf|url-status=live}}

{{Refend}}

{{Commons category}}

• {{BLF}}
• [http://horsethatleaps.com/ Mannerheim's Journey Across Asia including interactive Google maps, slide shows, videos and more]
• [http://www.mannerheim.fi/ C. G. E. Mannerheim in the history of Finland]
• [http://www.mannerheim-museo.fi Mannerheim Museum]
• Audio recordings of Hitler and Mannerheim's [https://archive.org/details/OnlyKnownRecordingOfHitlerSpeakingInAnUnofficialTone-PublicVersion public] and [https://archive.org/details/OnlyKnownRecordingOfHitlerSpeakingInAnUnofficialTone private] talk ({{YouTube|o64QOynq0_Q|w/English text}}), 4 June 1942
• {{in lang|fi|sv}} [http://ra.yle.fi/ramgen/radioarkisto/poliitikot/c_g_e_mannerheim.rm]{{dead link|date=November 2016 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} Mannerheim's 1944 inauguration address
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20120311020925/http://www.jewishquarterly.org/issuearchive/article8d14.html?articleid=194 On Mannerheim's role in defending Jews]
• [http://www.mll.fi/en/ Mannerheim League for Child Welfare English website]
• {{PM20|FID=pe/019377}}
• [https://suomenpresidentit.fi/mannerheim/?lang=en C. G. E. Mannerheim] in The Presidents of Finland

{{S-start}}

{{S-reg}}

{{Succession box

|title=Regent of Finland

|before=Pehr Evind Svinhufvud

|years=1918–1919

|after=Kaarlo Juho Ståhlberg
{{Small|as President of the Republic}}

}}

{{S-off}}

{{Succession box

|title=President of Finland

|before=Risto Ryti

|years=1944–1946

|after=Juho Kusti Paasikivi

}}

{{s-mil}}

{{succession box

| title = Supreme Commander of the forces of the Republic of Finland

| years = 1918

| before = New creation

| after = Major General K. F. Wilkama

}}

{{succession box

| title = Chief of Defence

| years = 1939–1945

| before = Lieutenant General Hugo Österman

| after = General Erik Heinrichs

}}

{{S-end}}

{{FinnishPresidents|state=expanded}}

{{Finnish Chief of Defence}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Mannerheim, Carl Gustaf Emil}}

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