China threat theory

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The China threat theory is a statement that expresses concerns and doubts that arise in international relations due to the increasing power and influence of mainland China. After Chinese century, the rapid development of the Chinese mainland has posed challenges to the interests of its neighboring countries and the international order. The threats include economic, military, food, population, and even space.{{Cite book |url=https://www.docin.com/p-249461478.html |title=中国经济威胁论文 |language=zh-cn |access-date=2023-10-06 |archive-date=2023-10-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231014092638/https://www.docin.com/p-249461478.html |url-status=live }} Some commentators point out that the dictatorship system in mainland China is the main cause of the threat theory. Chinese officials believe that the threat theory originated from statements used by Western countries to suppress China's development in the post-Cold War era.{{Cite web |date=2020-05-11 |title=中國威脅論China Threat Theory{{!}}詞庫{{!}}香港電台「通識網」 |trans-title=China Threat Theory {{!}} Thesaurus {{!}} Radio Hong Kong's "General Knowledge Network" |url=http://www.liberalstudies.hk/daily_concepts/?word=499 |access-date=2023-09-30 |archive-date=2020-05-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200511033653/http://www.liberalstudies.hk/daily_concepts/?word=499 |url-status=bot: unknown }}{{Cite web |last=道客巴巴 |title=(论文)"中国威胁论"及其应对 |url=https://www.doc88.com/p-3075341675566.html |access-date=2023-10-06 |website=www.doc88.com |archive-date=2023-10-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231014143749/https://www.doc88.com/p-3075341675566.html |url-status=live }}

The "China threat theory" has a long history in Europe. Starting with the "Anti-Chinese Wave" in the 19th century,{{cite book |doi=10.11647/obp.0026 |doi-access=free |title=Frontier Encounters: Knowledge and Practice at the Russian, Chinese and Mongolian Border |date=2012 |isbn=978-1-906924-87-4 |editor-last1=Billé |editor-last2=Delaplace |editor-last3=Humphrey |editor-first1=Franck |editor-first2=Grégory |editor-first3=Caroline }}{{page needed|date=November 2023}} white supremacist and Chinese labor interest groups perceived Chinese workers in the United States as a "threat" to mainstream American culture. As a result, they exerted pressure on the government, leading to the passage of the Chinese Exclusion Act in 1882 and 1884, respectively.{{cite book |last1=Soennichsen |first1=John |title=The Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 |date=2011 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing USA |isbn=978-0-313-37947-5 }}{{page needed|date=November 2023}}{{cite journal |last1=Lee |first1=Erika |title=The Chinese Exclusion Example: Race, Immigration, and American Gatekeeping, 1882-1924 |journal=Journal of American Ethnic History |date=2002 |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=36–62 |doi=10.2307/27502847 |jstor=27502847 |s2cid=157999472 }} The "China threat theory" during this period specifically referred to Chinese immigrants, not the contemporary "China threat theory."{{cn|date=November 2024}} However, the ideology of white supremacy and the conflict between Eastern and Western civilizations, which are reflected in it, can still be found in the subsequent "China threat theory."{{cite journal |last1=Han |first1=Enze |last2=Marwecki |first2=Daniel |date=4 May 2023 |title=Racialised international order? Traces of 'yellow peril' trope in Germany's public discourse toward China |journal=Cambridge Review of International Affairs |volume=36 |issue=3 |pages=391–409 |doi=10.1080/09557571.2020.1864296 |s2cid=234456670}}

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At the inception of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), there was also a surge in the "China threat theory" in the United States.{{cite journal |last1=Yang |first1=Yi Edward |last2=Liu |first2=Xinsheng |date=July 2012 |title=The 'China Threat' through the Lens of US Print Media: 1992–2006 |journal=Journal of Contemporary China |volume=21 |issue=76 |pages=695–711 |doi=10.1080/10670564.2012.666838 |s2cid=154437417}} This theory suggested that the success of the Chinese Communist Revolution could potentially initiate a domino effect in Southeast Asia,{{cite book |last1=Storey |first1=Ian |title=Southeast Asia and the Rise of China: The Search for Security |date=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-72296-7 }}{{page needed|date=November 2023}} thus presenting a "red threat" to the United States.{{Cite web |title=张超颖：超越"话语陷阱"——建党百年来中国共产党对美西方"话语陷阱"的应对及启示 |trans-title=Zhang Chaoying: Surpassing the "Discourse Trap" -- The CPC's response to the "discourse trap" of the United States and the West since the founding of the Party 100 years ago and its enlightenment |url=https://sdxw.iqilu.com/share/YS0yMS0xMzAwNDE2NQ.html |access-date=2023-10-06 |website=sdxw.iqilu.com |archive-date=2023-10-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231014092918/https://sdxw.iqilu.com/share/YS0yMS0xMzAwNDE2NQ.html |url-status=live }} The "China threat theory" of this period emerged in the context of the Cold War.

In the early days of the reform and opening up of the People's Republic of China, many people did not have a positive view of the Chinese mainland, and some even predicted that it might "collapse".{{cite book |doi=10.1163/9781684171163_002 |chapter=Embracing Uncertainty: Guerrilla Policy Style and Adaptive Governance in China |title=Mao's Invisible Hand |date=2011 |last1=Heilmann |first1=Sebastian |last2=Perry |first2=Elizabeth J. |pages=1–29 |isbn=978-1-68417-116-3 |chapter-url=http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:30821257 }}

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Historically, there have been many versions of the "China threat theory," which currently revolves around opposition to the People's Republic of China, governed by the CCP.{{cite journal |last1=Al-Rodhan |first1=Khalid R. |title=A Critique of the China Threat Theory: A Systematic Analysis |journal=Asian Perspective |date=2007 |volume=31 |issue=3 |pages=41–66 |doi=10.1353/apr.2007.0011 |jstor=42704598 }} However, because the state-owned economy led by the CCP is an integral part of China's contemporary economy{{cite journal |last1=Yu |first1=Hong |title=The Ascendency of State-owned Enterprises in China: development, controversy and problems |journal=Journal of Contemporary China |date=2 January 2014 |volume=23 |issue=85 |pages=161–182 |doi=10.1080/10670564.2013.809990 |s2cid=154905365 }} and is intertwined with the livelihoods of many people,{{cite journal |last1=Jin |first1=Xiankun |last2=Xu |first2=Liping |last3=Xin |first3=Yu |last4=Adhikari |first4=Ajay |title=Political governance in China's state-owned enterprises |journal=China Journal of Accounting Research |date=June 2022 |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=100236 |doi=10.1016/j.cjar.2022.100236 |s2cid=248617625 |doi-access=free }} the perspectives of "anti-communism" and "anti-China" may partially coincide.{{cite journal |last1=Haas |first1=Mark L. |date=2 October 2022 |title=The Ideology Barriers to Anti-China Coalitions |journal=The Washington Quarterly |volume=45 |issue=4 |pages=113–132 |doi=10.1080/0163660X.2022.2149950 |s2cid=254735997}}

Beginning in the mid-1990s, the Chinese term 中国威胁论 (Zhongguo Weixielun, "China threat theory") became the more prevalent in Chinese discourse to describe perceived baseless or racist foreign fears instead of the previously more prevalent term Huangguo Lun ("Yellow Peril").{{Cite book |last=Crean |first=Jeffrey |title=The Fear of Chinese Power: an International History |date=2024 |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |isbn=978-1-350-23394-2 |edition= |series=New Approaches to International History series |location=London, UK |pages=162}} Usage of Zhongguo Weixielun became increasingly common in Chinese media after 2000.

According to Western world, China, under the leadership of Xi Jinping, has demonstrated significant ambition,{{cite journal |last1=Poh |first1=Angela |last2=Li |first2=Mingjiang |title=A China in Transition: The Rhetoric and Substance of Chinese Foreign Policy under Xi Jinping |journal=Asian Security |date=4 May 2017 |volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=84–97 |doi=10.1080/14799855.2017.1286163 |s2cid=151398216 }} especially concerning the Taiwan issue and the South China Sea dispute.{{cite book |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-26152-2_6 |chapter=China's Sea Power Aspirations and Strategic Behaviour in the South China Sea from the Theoretical Perspective of Identity Construction |title=Power Politics in Asia's Contested Waters |series=Global Power Shift |date=2016 |last1=Li |first1=Rex |pages=117–137 |isbn=978-3-319-26150-8 }}{{cite journal |last1=Chang-Liao |first1=Nien-chung |title=China's New Foreign Policy under Xi Jinping |journal=Asian Security |date=3 May 2016 |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=82–91 |doi=10.1080/14799855.2016.1183195 |s2cid=148264920 }} China's stance is becoming increasingly firm, prompting the Western world, led by the U.S., to address the threat posed by China.{{cite book |last1=Sutter |first1=Robert G. |title=Chinese Foreign Relations: Power and Policy Since the Cold War |date=2012 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-1-4422-1135-3 }}{{pn|date=November 2023}} Consequently, the risk of a regional military conflict has significantly increased.{{Cite web |last=Jin |first=Zhe |date=2021-04-21 |title=中国对外威胁增加 西方加强应对 |trans-title=China's External Threats Increase and the West Strengthens Response |url=https://www.voachinese.com/a/western-democracies-issue-warnings-about-china-20210307/5804900.html |access-date=2023-09-30 |archive-date=2021-04-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210421090045/https://www.voachinese.com/a/western-democracies-issue-warnings-about-china-20210307/5804900.html |url-status=bot: unknown }}

After the European debt crisis, a large amount of capital from the Chinese Mainland entered the European bond market.{{cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=Ming |title=China's New International Financial Strategy amid the Global Financial Crisis |journal=China & World Economy |date=September 2009 |volume=17 |issue=5 |pages=22–35 |doi=10.1111/j.1749-124X.2009.01164.x |s2cid=154373945 }} The British media, BBC, interpreted it as mainland China gaining control over Europe through the purchase of European bonds.{{Cite news |date=2022-05-02 |title=Why Europe will have to face the true cost of being in debt to China |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-61276168 |access-date=2023-10-08 |archive-date=2023-10-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231014104454/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-61276168 |url-status=live }}

{{Further|Sino-African relations}}

Japan, Europe, and the United States believe that mainland China's investments, trade, and economic assistance in Africa are viewed as "neo-colonialism."{{cite journal |last1=Sautman |first1=Barry |last2=Hairong |first2=Yan |title=Friends and Interests: China's Distinctive Links with Africa |journal=African Studies Review |date=December 2007 |volume=50 |issue=3 |pages=75–114 |doi=10.1353/arw.2008.0014 |jstor=27667241 |s2cid=132593326 }}{{Cite web |title=为何西方如此紧张中非合作？中国是"新殖民主义"？听听这位知名人士怎么说--国际--人民网 |url=http://world.people.com.cn/n1/2018/0907/c1002-30278995.html |access-date=2023-10-08 |website=world.people.com.cn |archive-date=2023-10-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231014093240/http://world.people.com.cn/n1/2018/0907/c1002-30278995.html |url-status=live }}

Mainland China poses the greatest threat to Taiwan's electronics industry exports.{{cite journal |last1=Leng |first1=Tse-Kang |title=Dynamics of Taiwan-Mainland China Economic Relations: The Role of Private Firms |journal=Asian Survey |date=1998 |volume=38 |issue=5 |pages=494–509 |doi=10.2307/2645505 |jstor=2645505 |s2cid=153666266 }} In 2015, as mainland China began to transform its economy and upgrade its industries, it also started developing the supply chain for high-tech industries.{{Cite journal |last=Du |first=Yihuan |date=2015-06-04 |title=紅色供應鏈真的打趴台灣出口？ |trans-title=Does the red supply chain really dominate Taiwan's exports? |url=https://www.cw.com.tw/article/5068142 |journal=Commonwealth Magazine |access-date=2023-09-30 |archive-date=2023-12-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231219030618/https://www.cw.com.tw/article/5068142 |url-status=live }}{{cite journal |last1=Chen |first1=Xiafei |last2=Liu |first2=Zhiying |last3=Zhu |first3=Qingyuan |title=Performance evaluation of China's high-tech innovation process: Analysis based on the innovation value chain |journal=Technovation |date=June 2018 |volume=74–75 |pages=42–53 |doi=10.1016/j.technovation.2018.02.009|s2cid=158255369 }}

Lester Brown's article "Who Will Feed China?" states that mainland China's large population and high food demand will lead to global food supply shortages.{{cite book |last1=Brown |first1=Lester Russell |title=Who Will Feed China?: Wake-up Call for a Small Planet |date=1995 |publisher=W.W. Norton |isbn=978-0-393-03897-2}}{{page needed|date=November 2023}} But the world's food production has been in surplus for many years.{{cite journal |last1=Barr |first1=Terry N. |date=4 December 1981 |title=The World Food Situation and Global Grain Prospects |journal=Science |volume=214 |issue=4525 |pages=1087–1095 |bibcode=1981Sci...214.1087B |doi=10.1126/science.7302579 |pmid=7302579}} Food shortage problems only exist in places with political and military turmoil, not due to insufficient food supply.{{Cite web |date=2022-08-18 |title=2022世界糧食危機：氣候變遷、國際衝突、糧食分配不均，衝擊全球糧食價格 |trans-title=2022 World Food Crisis: Climate Change, International Conflict, Uneven Food Distribution, Impact on Global Food Prices |url=https://www.greenpeace.org/taiwan/update/32040/2022%E7%B3%A7%E9%A3%9F%E5%8D%B1%E6%A9%9F%EF%BC%9A%E6%B0%A3%E5%80%99%E8%AE%8A%E9%81%B7%E3%80%81%E5%9C%8B%E9%9A%9B%E8%A1%9D%E7%AA%81%E3%80%81%E7%B3%A7%E9%A3%9F%E5%88%86%E9%85%8D%E4%B8%8D%E5%9D%87/ |access-date=2023-09-30 |website=Greenpeace 綠色和平 {{!}} 臺灣 |language=zh-TW |archive-date=2023-10-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231014092918/https://www.greenpeace.org/taiwan/update/32040/2022%E7%B3%A7%E9%A3%9F%E5%8D%B1%E6%A9%9F%EF%BC%9A%E6%B0%A3%E5%80%99%E8%AE%8A%E9%81%B7%E3%80%81%E5%9C%8B%E9%9A%9B%E8%A1%9D%E7%AA%81%E3%80%81%E7%B3%A7%E9%A3%9F%E5%88%86%E9%85%8D%E4%B8%8D%E5%9D%87/ |url-status=live }}{{Cite journal |last=Homer-Dixon |first=Thomas F. |date=1991 |title=On the Threshold: Environmental Changes as Causes of Acute Conflict |journal=International Security |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=76–116 |doi=10.2307/2539061 |jstor=2539061 |id={{Project MUSE|447281}}}}

{{Main|People's Liberation Army}}

Alongside economic growth, mainland China's military spending has also increased, raising concerns among neighboring countries, regions, and the United States.{{Cite web |last1=Sun |first1=Xiuping |last2=Qing |first2=Mu |last3=Xin |first3=Bin |title=2019年中国国防预算公布：比去年增速下降，仍为个位数_发展 |trans-title=2019 China National Defense Budget Announcement: Growth Rate Decreased from Last Year, Still in Single Digits_ develop |url=https://www.sohu.com/a/www.sohu.com/a/299339455_162522 |access-date=2023-09-30 |website=www.sohu.com }}{{Dead link|date=December 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{cite journal |last1=Chen |first1=Sean |last2=Feffer |first2=John |title=China's Military Spending: Soft Rise or Hard Threat? |journal=Asian Perspective |date=2009 |volume=33 |issue=4 |pages=47–67 |doi=10.1353/apr.2009.0002 |jstor=42704692 |s2cid=152740822 }}

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At present, China's military expenditure is second only to that of the United States.{{Cite web |last=Beaver |first=Peter Robertson, Wilson |date=2023-09-19 |title=China's Defense Budget Is Much Bigger Than It Looks |url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2023/09/19/china-defense-budget-military-weapons-purchasing-power/ |access-date=2023-10-08 |website=Foreign Policy |language=en-US |archive-date=2023-10-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231003123908/https://foreignpolicy.com/2023/09/19/china-defense-budget-military-weapons-purchasing-power/ |url-status=live }} Some individuals argue that this poses a threat to the United States' global leadership position.{{Cite web |title=中国军费开支咄咄逼人 挑战美国？ |url=https://www.rfa.org/mandarin/yataibaodao/junshiwaijiao/hc-03062018103824.html |access-date=2023-10-08 |website=Radio Free Asia |language=zh-cn |archive-date=2023-11-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231127033239/https://www.rfa.org/mandarin/yataibaodao/junshiwaijiao/hc-03062018103824.html |url-status=live }} However, the gap between the Chinese and U.S. militaries is still very large.{{cite journal |last1=Christensen |first1=Thomas J. |title=Posing Problems Without Catching Up: China's Rise and Challenges for U.S. Security Policy |journal=International Security |date=April 2001 |volume=25 |issue=4 |pages=5–40 |doi=10.1162/01622880151091880 |jstor=3092132 |s2cid=57567681 }} The military expenditure of the United States is three to four times higher than that of China, surpassing the combined total of the countries ranked second to fifteenth.{{Cite web |title=SIPRI Military Expenditure Database {{!}} SIPRI |url=https://www.sipri.org/databases/milex |access-date=2023-09-30 |website=www.sipri.org |language=en |archive-date=2019-05-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190502184705/https://www.sipri.org/databases/milex |url-status=live }}

The Island chain strategy in the East China Sea has sparked a disagreement between China and Japan regarding the sovereignty of the Senkaku Islands and their affiliated islands in the East China Sea.{{cite journal |last1=Pan |first1=Zhongqi |title=Sino-Japanese Dispute over the Diaoyu/Senkaku Islands: The Pending Controversy from the Chinese Perspective |journal=Journal of Chinese Political Science |date=21 June 2007 |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=71–92 |doi=10.1007/s11366-007-9002-6 |s2cid=153668477 }}{{cite journal |last1=Wiegand |first1=Krista E. |title=China's Strategy in the Senkaku/Diaoyu Islands Dispute: Issue Linkage and Coercive Diplomacy |journal=Asian Security |date=5 June 2009 |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=170–193 |doi=10.1080/14799850902886617 |s2cid=154010520 }} The conflict escalated further after Japan announced the nationalization of the Diaoyu Islands.{{cite journal |last1=Cho |first1=Hyun Joo |last2=Choi |first2=Ajin |title=Why do Territorial Disputes Escalate? A Domestic Political Explanation for the Senkaku/Diaoyu Islands Dispute |journal=Pacific Focus |date=August 2016 |volume=31 |issue=2 |pages=254–282 |doi=10.1111/pafo.12073 }}

{{Main|Cross-strait relations|United front in Taiwan}}

Mainland China's insistence on the policy of a united front against Taiwan, along with the military buildup on both sides of the Taiwan Strait, has created a sense of threat for Taiwan.{{Cite web |title=總統出席「與德國柏林視訊會議」 |trans-title=The President Attends the "Video Conference with Berlin, Germany" |url=https://www.president.gov.tw/NEWS/11241 |access-date=2023-09-30 |website=www.president.gov.tw |language=zh-tw |archive-date=2020-11-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201104220111/https://www.president.gov.tw/NEWS/11241 |url-status=live }}{{cite book |last1=Zhao |first1=Suisheng |title=Across the Taiwan Strait: Mainland China, Taiwan, and the 1995–1996 Crisis |date=1999 |publisher=Psychology Press |isbn=978-0-415-92333-0 }}{{page needed|date=November 2023}} The government of the Republic of China announced the end of mobilization to fight the rebellion in 1991, thereby declaring an end to hostilities between the two sides.{{Cite web |title=總統參加國際獅子會中華民國總會會員代表大會 |trans-title=The President Attends the Representative Assembly of Lions Club Members of the Republic of China Federation |url=https://www.president.gov.tw/NEWS/22451 |access-date=2023-09-30 |website=www.president.gov.tw |language=zh-tw |archive-date=2018-05-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180510050624/https://www.president.gov.tw/NEWS/22451 |url-status=live }}{{Cite web |last=國家發展委員會檔案管理局 |date=2014-01-01 |title=終止動員戡亂時期 |trans-title=Termination of Mobilization and Suppression of Rebellion Period |url=https://art.archives.gov.tw/Theme.aspx?MenuID=624 |access-date=2023-09-30 |website=國家發展委員會檔案管理局-檔案支援教學網 |archive-date=2019-05-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190501235942/https://art.archives.gov.tw/Theme.aspx?MenuID=624 |url-status=live }}

Conflicts with Taiwan, particularly the 1995–96 Third Taiwan Strait Crisis, occurred before the first direct citizen election of the President of the Republic of China in 1995–96.{{cite thesis |id={{ProQuest|818725707}} |last1=Ogden |first1=Thomas M |date=2010 |title=Strategic ambiguity: Thoughtful engagement or a reckless gamble? The factors of the 1995–96 Taiwan strait crisis }}{{page needed|date=November 2023}}{{cite book |last1=Zhao |first1=Suisheng |title=Across the Taiwan Strait: Mainland China, Taiwan, and the 1995–1996 Crisis |date=1999 |publisher=Psychology Press |isbn=978-0-415-92333-0 }}{{page needed|date=November 2023}} During this time, Taiwan had just experienced the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre and the Qiandao Lake incident.{{cite journal |last1=Liao |first1=Da-Chi |last2=Chen |first2=Boyu |last3=Huang |first3=Chi-chen |title=The Decline of 'Chinese Identity' in Taiwan?! — An Analysis of Survey Data from 1992 to 2012 |journal=East Asia |date=December 2013 |volume=30 |issue=4 |pages=273–290 |doi=10.1007/s12140-013-9198-3 |s2cid=255516463 }} These conflicts have highlighted the threat posed by the Chinese Communist Party and continue to influence Taiwanese politics to this day.{{Cite web |last=國際化,雙語編排,文化整合,全球華人的雜誌 |first=台灣光華雜誌 Taiwan Panorama {{!}} |title=Smoke Screen—The Qiandao Lake Tragedy and Coverup – 台灣光華雜誌 |url=http://www.taiwan-panorama.com/Articles/Details?Guid=f1e20d34-0747-468a-ade6-e9602b856976&langId=3&CatId=7 |access-date=2023-10-08 |website=台灣光華雜誌 Taiwan Panorama {{!}} 國際化,雙語編排,文化整合,全球華人的雜誌 |language=zh-Hant-TW |archive-date=2023-12-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231219030534/http://www.taiwan-panorama.com/Articles/Details?Guid=f1e20d34-0747-468a-ade6-e9602b856976&langId=3&CatId=7 |url-status=live }}{{cite journal |last1=Robinson |first1=Thomas W. |title=America in Taiwan' Post Cold-War Foreign Relations |journal=The China Quarterly |date=December 1996 |volume=148 |issue=148 |pages=1340–1361 |doi=10.1017/S0305741000050657 |jstor=655527 |s2cid=154146825 }} The Chinese Communist Party still adheres to one-party rule.{{cite book |last1=Fernandes |first1=Clinton |title=Hot Spot: Asia and Oceania |date=2008 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing USA |isbn=978-0-313-35413-7 }}{{page needed|date=November 2023}}{{cite thesis |last1=Sheu |first1=Jyh-Shyang |title=The Stagnant Relations across the Taiwan Strait: A Study on Cross-Strait Political Interactions between 1988 to 2012 |date=19 September 2018 |publisher=Universität Tübingen |hdl=10900/84260 |hdl-access=free |doi=10.15496/publikation-25650 |doi-access=free }}{{page needed|date=November 2023}} Some believe that the human rights situation in the People's Republic of China has continued to deteriorate after the Beijing Olympics.{{Cite web |date=2008-07-28 |title=China: Authorities' broken promises jeopardize Olympic legacy |url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/press-release/2008/07/china-authoritiese28099-broken-promises-jeopardize-olympic-legacy-20080728/ |access-date=2023-10-08 |website=Amnesty International |language=en |archive-date=2023-11-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231127033239/https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/press-release/2008/07/china-authoritiese28099-broken-promises-jeopardize-olympic-legacy-20080728/ |url-status=live }} China maintains its position of using force to resolve the Taiwan issue and has deployed approximately 2,000 missiles targeting Taiwan.{{cite book |doi=10.1057/9780230118966_7 |chapter=The United States as a Balancer in Cross-Strait Relations, 2000–2008 |title=The Future of United States, China, and Taiwan Relations |date=2011 |last1=Wu |first1=Jaushieh Joseph |pages=121–147 |isbn=978-1-349-29471-8 }} All of these factors have led to the discontent, concern, and strong opposition of the Republic of China and many Taiwanese people towards the increasing influence of the Chinese Communist Party and mainland China.{{cite journal |last1=Kaeding |first1=Malte Philipp |title=Resisting Chinese Influence: Social Movements in Hong Kong and Taiwan |journal=Current History |date=1 September 2015 |volume=114 |issue=773 |pages=210–216 |id={{ProQuest|1707854750}} |doi=10.1525/curh.2015.114.773.210 |doi-access=free }}

{{Main|Territorial disputes in the South China Sea|Regional reactions to China's maritime activities in the South China Sea}}

Conflicts with several countries, such as Vietnam and the Philippines, over sovereignty in the South China Sea have caused many nations to feel threatened by mainland China.{{cite journal |last1=Smith |first1=Robert W. |title=Maritime Delimitation in the South China Sea: Potentiality and Challenges |journal=Ocean Development & International Law |date=17 August 2010 |volume=41 |issue=3 |pages=214–236 |doi=10.1080/00908320.2010.499315 |s2cid=154959504 }} Countries that have sovereignty disputes with China in the South China Sea include Malaysia, Brunei, and Indonesia.{{cite journal |last1=Putra |first1=Bama Andika |title=Comprehending Brunei Darussalam's vanishing claims in the South China Sea: China's exertion of economic power and the influence of elite perception |journal=Cogent Social Sciences |date=2021 |volume=7 |issue=1 |doi=10.1080/23311886.2020.1858563 |s2cid=230540235 |doi-access=free }} On April 24, 2021, the EU accused China of endangering peace in the South China Sea.{{Cite news |last=Tian |first=Yew Lun |date=2021-04-25 |title=EU blames China for endangering peace in South China Sea |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/china/eu-blames-china-endangering-peace-south-china-sea-2021-04-25/ |access-date=2023-10-08 |archive-date=2023-11-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231107162905/https://www.reuters.com/world/china/eu-blames-china-endangering-peace-south-china-sea-2021-04-25/ |url-status=live }} The EU has issued a new policy aimed at bolstering its influence in the Indo-Pacific in response to Chinese Century influence.{{Cite web |title=Water Wars: Biden Administration Releases New Indo-Pacific Strategy |url=https://www.lawfaremedia.org/article/water-wars-biden-administration-releases-new-indo-pacific-strategy |access-date=2023-10-08 |website=Default |date=18 January 2023 |language=en |archive-date=2023-11-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231127033237/https://www.lawfaremedia.org/article/water-wars-biden-administration-releases-new-indo-pacific-strategy |url-status=live |last1=Chen |first1=Teresa |last2=Cohen |first2=Sam |last3=Nance |first3=Alana |last4=Sumner |first4=Han-ah |last5=Vivona |first5=Alex }}{{cite journal |last1=Pugliese |first1=Giulio |title=The European Union's Security Intervention in the Indo-Pacific: Between Multilateralism and Mercantile Interests |journal=Journal of Intervention and Statebuilding |date=2023 |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=76–98 |doi=10.1080/17502977.2022.2118425 |doi-access=free |hdl=1814/75252 |hdl-access=free }}

The perception of the threat posed by mainland China differs from time and place.{{cite book |doi=10.1163/9781684173594 |title=Re-examining the Cold War: U.S.-China Diplomacy, 1954–1973 |date=2001 |volume=203 |publisher=Harvard University Asia Center |isbn=978-1-68417-359-4 |editor-last1=Ross |editor-last2=Jiang |editor-first1=Robert S. |editor-first2=Changbin |id={{Project MUSE|72764|type=book}} |jstor=j.ctt1tg5nbr }}{{page needed|date=November 2023}} Further, the concept of "China threat theory" does not have a definitive stance and is sometimes even ambiguous.

After the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre, some media and individuals believed that the authorities in mainland China began promoting nationalist and authoritarian political propaganda to consolidate their power.{{cite journal |last1=Piao |first1=Long |last2=Wu |first2=Hsin-Che |title=The Effect of the Chinese Government's Political Propaganda and Individual Characteristics on Anti-US Sentiment |journal=Asian Survey |date=June 2023 |volume=63 |issue=3 |pages=381–406 |doi=10.1525/as.2023.1808498 |s2cid=256480352 }}{{cite journal |last1=Wu |first1=Yenna |title=Recognizing and Resisting China's Evolving Sharp Power |journal=American Journal of Chinese Studies |date=2019 |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=129–153 |jstor=45216268 }} They successively promoted nationalist media, such as the Global Times, threatened Taiwan with force, and simultaneously increased military spending.{{cite journal |last1=Saunders |first1=Phillip C. |title=Long-term Trends in China-Taiwan Relations: Implications for U.S. Taiwan Policy |journal=Asian Survey |date=December 2005 |volume=45 |issue=6 |pages=970–991 |doi=10.1525/as.2005.45.6.970 }}{{cite journal |last1=Liu |first1=Kerry |title=The Global Times and The China Threat Narrative: An Empirical Analysis |journal=Journal of Chinese Political Science |date=March 2022 |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=1–18 |doi=10.1007/s11366-021-09754-3 |pmc=8475392 |pmid=34602809 }} They also engaged in espionage to acquire military and economic secrets from other nations.{{Cite journal |last=Solberg Søilen |first=Klaus |date=2016 |title=Economic and industrial espionage at the start of the 21st century – Status quaestionis |url=https://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:hh:diva-32869 |journal=Journal of Intelligence Studies in Business |volume=6 |issue=3 |pages=51–64 |doi=10.37380/jisib.v6i3.196 |access-date=2023-10-08 |archive-date=2023-12-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231219030547/https://hh.diva-portal.org/smash/record.jsf?pid=diva2%3A1061073&dswid=-9513 |url-status=live }} They also declared sovereignty over disputed waters.{{Cite journal |last=Fravel |first=M. Taylor |date=2011 |title=China's Strategy in the South China Sea |journal=Contemporary Southeast Asia |volume=33 |issue=3 |pages=292–319 |doi=10.1355/cs33-3b |jstor=41446232 |s2cid=155011636 }} Outside observers have increasingly come to view mainland China as a military and political threat.{{Cite web |last=Huang |first=Nan |date=2016-05-10 |title=陈岳："中国威胁论"与中国和平崛起 |trans-title=Chen Yue: "China Threat Theory" and China's Peaceful Rise |url=http://www.21ccom.net/articles/world/zlwj/20150508124457_all.html |access-date=2023-09-30 |archive-date=2016-05-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160510072313/http://www.21ccom.net/articles/world/zlwj/20150508124457_all.html |url-status=bot: unknown }}

The Constitution of the Republic of China stipulates that the sovereignty of the Republic of China extends to the entire territory of China.{{cite journal |last1=Choe |first1=Hyun |title=National Identity and Citizenship in the People's Republic of China and the Republic of Korea |journal=Journal of Historical Sociology |date=March 2006 |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=84–118 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-6443.2006.00270.x |doi-access=free }} The term "China threat theory" refers to the perceived threat posed by the government of the People's Republic of China, which governs mainland China.{{cite book |doi=10.4324/9780203060414-11 |chapter=Reflecting Mirrors across the Taiwan Straits: American Perspectives on a China Threat |title=China Threat: Perceptions Myths |date=2013 |pages=81–101 |isbn=978-0-203-06041-4 |first1=Ian |last1=Storey |editor-last1=Yee |editor-last2=Storey |editor-first1=Herbert |editor-first2=Ian }}

After the government of the Republic of China lifted martial law in 1987, measures such as allowing family visits and opening up cross-strait relations gradually led to a reduction in tensions;{{cite book |last1=Fell |first1=Dafydd |author1-link= Dafydd Fell |title=Government and Politics in Taiwan |date=2018 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-28506-9 }}{{pn|date=November 2023}} However, first of all, the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre in mainland China, and later the Qiandao Lake incident, among others, have generally left Taiwanese people with a negative impression of mainland China.{{cite book |last1=Postiglione |first1=Gerard A. |last2=Tang |first2=James Tuck-Hong |title=Hong Kong's Reunion with China: The Global Dimensions: The Global Dimensions |date=2016 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-315-50304-2 }}{{pn|date=November 2023}}

In recent years, Taiwan has undergone a revision of the Constitution of the Republic of China and has ceased temporary provisions against the communist rebellion since 1991.{{cite journal |last1=Chao |first1=Linda |last2=Myers |first2=Ramon H. |title=The First Chinese Democracy: Political Development of the Republic of China on Taiwan, 1986–1994 |journal=Asian Survey |date=1994 |volume=34 |issue=3 |pages=213–230 |doi=10.2307/2644981 |jstor=2644981 }} The Government of the Republic of China no longer considers the CCP and the Government of the People's Republic of China as enemies or rebels. However, the former often discussed their perspectives and positions on various topics, including the Second Sino-Japanese War, the Chinese Civil War, the non-recognition of the Government of the Republic of China, Taiwan democratization,{{cite journal |last1=Chou |first1=Yangsun |last2=Nathan |first2=Andrew J. |title=Democratizing Transition in Taiwan |journal=Asian Survey |date=1987 |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=277–299 |doi=10.2307/2644805 |jstor=2644805 |url=https://digitalcommons.law.umaryland.edu/mscas/vol1987/iss3/1 |access-date=2023-12-19 |archive-date=2023-12-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231216162358/https://digitalcommons.law.umaryland.edu/mscas/vol1987/iss3/1/ |url-status=live }} Taiwanization, and Taiwan independence movement.{{cite book |last1=Friedman |first1=Edward |title=China's Rise, Taiwan's Dilemma's and International Peace |date=2006 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-00340-2 }}{{pn|date=November 2023}} These discussions were deemed unacceptable by the government of the Republic of China, especially the Kuomintang. Show force and suppress Taiwan's international presence.{{cite book |last1=Bush |first1=Richard C. |title=Untying the Knot: Making Peace in the Taiwan Strait |date=2005 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-0-8157-9781-4 }}{{pn|date=November 2023}}

Wang Jin-pyng, the former president of the Legislative Yuan of the Republic of China, has stated that given mainland China's increasing military capabilities, Taiwan should take a more proactive approach in International organizations.{{Cite web |title=王金平：加强两岸交流与和解 台湾才能更茁壮 |trans-title=Wang Jinping: Only by strengthening cross-strait exchanges and reconciliation can Taiwan become stronger |url=https://www.chinanews.com.cn/tw/twyw/news/2008/02-02/1154488.shtml |access-date=2023-10-08 |website=www.chinanews.com.cn |archive-date=2023-11-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231127033237/https://www.chinanews.com.cn/tw/twyw/news/2008/02-02/1154488.shtml |url-status=live }} This includes strengthening alliances with the United States and Japan and continuing to enhance its self-defense capabilities.{{cite journal |last1=Szechenyi |first1=Nicholas |title=A turning point for Japan's self-defense forces |journal=The Washington Quarterly |date=September 2006 |volume=29 |issue=4 |pages=139–150 |doi=10.1162/wash.2006.29.4.139 |s2cid=153456832 }} These measures are necessary to ensure peace and security in the Asia-Pacific region and across the Taiwan Strait.{{cite journal |last1=Akaha |first1=Tsuneo |title=Beyond self-defense: Japan's elusive security role under the new guidelines for US-Japan defense cooperation |journal=The Pacific Review |date=January 1998 |volume=11 |issue=4 |pages=461–483 |doi=10.1080/09512749808719267 }}{{cite report |last1=Mazza |first1=Michael |title=Taiwan's Crucial Role in the US Pivot to Asia |publisher=American Enterprise Institute |date=9 July 2013 |url=https://www.aei.org/research-products/report/taiwans-crucial-role-in-the-us-pivot-to-asia/ |access-date=19 December 2023 |archive-date=16 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231216020946/https://www.aei.org/research-products/report/taiwans-crucial-role-in-the-us-pivot-to-asia/ |url-status=live }}{{rs|date=November 2023}}

Former president Tsai Ing-wen of the Republic of China believes that the democratization of mainland China has always had an impact on the process of cross-strait relations and the stability of the Taiwan Strait.{{cite journal |last1=Krumbein |first1=Frédéric |title=The human rights gap in the Taiwan Strait: how China pushes Taiwan towards the US |journal=The Pacific Review |date=4 May 2022 |volume=35 |issue=3 |pages=383–414 |doi=10.1080/09512748.2020.1812699 |s2cid=225334021 }} Democracy and human rights are Taiwan's most important assets, and Taiwan should actively support mainland China in its democratic process.{{cite journal |last1=Krumbein |first1=Frédéric |title=Human Rights and Democracy in Taiwan's Foreign Policy and Cross-Strait Relations |journal=International Journal of Taiwan Studies |date=9 September 2019 |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=292–320 |doi=10.1163/24688800-00202005 |s2cid=203500526 }}

Malaysian Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad was the first Asian leader to reject the "China threat theory."{{cite journal |last1=Liow |first1=Joseph Chin Yong |date=2000 |title=Malaysia-China Relations in the 1990s: The Maturing of a Partnership |journal=Asian Survey |volume=40 |issue=4 |pages=672–691 |doi=10.2307/3021188 |jstor=3021188}} When the "China threat theory" prevailed in Southeast Asia in the 1990s, Mahathir once stated that China was a significant country in the region and had the potential to contribute positively to regional politics, economy, and security.{{cite journal |last1=Cheng |first1=Joseph Y. S. |title=China's ASEAN Policy in the 1990s: Pushing for Regional Multipolarity |journal=Contemporary Southeast Asia |date=1999 |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=176–204 |jstor=25798452 }} Therefore, he advocated for practical cooperation with China.{{cite journal |id={{Project MUSE|256501}} |last1=Cheng-Chwee |first1=Kuik |title=The Essence of Hedging: Malaysia and Singapore's Response to a Rising China |journal=Contemporary Southeast Asia: A Journal of International and Strategic Affairs |date=2008 |volume=30 |issue=2 |pages=159–185 }} On May 26, 2012, he conducted an exclusive interview with The Nikkei regarding the "China threat theory" and stated:{{Cite web |title=马哈蒂尔：中国威胁论不妥当_宏观大势_新浪财经_新浪网 |trans-title=Mahathir: China threat theory is inappropriate_Macro Trend_Sina Finance_Sina.com |url=http://finance.sina.com.cn/review/hgds/20120528/085212159432.shtml |access-date=2023-10-08 |website=finance.sina.com.cn |archive-date=2023-11-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231127033237/http://finance.sina.com.cn/review/hgds/20120528/085212159432.shtml |url-status=live }}{{cquote|It is inappropriate for any country to perceive other countries as a "threat". If China wants to block it, it may resort to military expansion, which could trigger an arms race. China has been a trading nation throughout history and has never been an imperialist country. It is necessary for Asian countries to enhance mutual understanding through dialogue.

| author = Mahathir Mohamad|}}

{{seealso|China–United States trade war}}

In the context of the post-Cold War era, on December 13, 1991, New York Times columnist Leslie H. Gelb wrote an article titled "Breaking China Apart".{{cite news |last1=Gelb |first1=Leslie H. |title=Opinion {{!}} Foreign Affairs; Breaking China Apart |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1991/11/13/opinion/foreign-affairs-breaking-china-apart.html |work=The New York Times |date=13 November 1991 |access-date=30 September 2023 |archive-date=14 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231014092950/https://www.nytimes.com/1991/11/13/opinion/foreign-affairs-breaking-china-apart.html |url-status=live }} Later, Charles Krauthammer wrote "Why We Must Contain China".{{cite magazine |last1=Krauthammer |first1=Charles |title=WHY WE MUST CONTAIN CHINA |url=https://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,983245,00.html |magazine=Time |date=31 July 1995 |access-date=30 September 2023 |archive-date=14 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231014143749/https://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,983245,00.html |url-status=live }} The remarks made by Major General Zhu Chenghu of the Chinese People's Liberation Army regarding US nuclear weapons have caused great controversy.{{cite news |last1=Kahn |first1=Joseph |title=Chinese General Threatens Use of A-Bombs if U.S. Intrudes |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/07/15/washington/world/chinese-general-threatens-use-of-abombs-if-us-intrudes.html |work=The New York Times |date=15 July 2005 |access-date=8 October 2023 |archive-date=13 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231013131225/https://www.nytimes.com/2005/07/15/washington/world/chinese-general-threatens-use-of-abombs-if-us-intrudes.html |url-status=live }}

China threat theory is highly popular among neoconservative circles.{{cite journal |last1=Pan |first1=Chengxin |title=The 'China Threat' in American Self-Imagination: The Discursive Construction of other as Power Politics |journal=Alternatives: Global, Local, Political |date=June 2004 |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=305–331 |id={{Gale|A123628778}} |doi=10.1177/030437540402900304 |s2cid=141122799 }} Their idea is that the United States has a special responsibility to lead other countries towards a democratic future.{{cite journal |last1=Kagan |first1=Robert |title=NEOCON NATION: Neoconservatism, c. 1776 |journal=World Affairs |date=2008 |volume=170 |issue=4 |pages=13–35 |doi=10.3200/WAFS.170.4.13-35 |jstor=20672819 }} Additionally, they believe that the United States should strive to become the sole superpower in the world.{{cite journal |last1=Fukuyama |first1=Francis |title=The Neoconservative Moment |journal=The National Interest |date=2004 |issue=76 |pages=57–68 |jstor=42895959 }}

After assuming office as the General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party in 2012, Xi Jinping led China to abandon its strategy of "hiding its power and biding its time" and instead implemented the "One Belt, One Road" initiative.{{Cite web |date=2022-10-10 |title=习近平十年"大国外交"的梦想与现实 |url=https://www.bbc.com/zhongwen/simp/chinese-news-63107446 |access-date=2023-10-08 |website=BBC News 中文 |language=zh-hans |archive-date=2023-11-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231127033234/https://www.bbc.com/zhongwen/simp/chinese-news-63107446 |url-status=live }}{{Cite news |title="一带一路"对习政权最大的意义是什么？ |language=zh-hans |work=BBC News 中文 |url=https://www.bbc.com/zhongwen/simp/indepth-39923214 |access-date=2023-10-08 |archive-date=2020-12-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201206165508/https://www.bbc.com/zhongwen/simp/indepth-39923214 |url-status=live }} With China's comprehensive rise in various fields and the increasing threats it poses, some factions within the American Republican Party, who were previously supportive of China (such as David Shambaugh), have changed their position.{{cite book |last1=Shambaugh |first1=David L. |title=China's Communist Party: Atrophy and Adaptation |date=2008 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-25492-3 }}{{pn|date=November 2023}}{{Cite web |last1=Silver |first1=Laura |last2=Devlin |first2=Kat |last3=Huang |first3=Christine |title=Republicans see China more negatively than Democrats, even as criticism rises in both parties |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2020/07/30/republicans-see-china-more-negatively-than-democrats-even-as-criticism-rises-in-both-parties/ |access-date=2023-10-08 |website=Pew Research Center |date=30 July 2020 |language=en-US |archive-date=2023-10-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231010040606/https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2020/07/30/republicans-see-china-more-negatively-than-democrats-even-as-criticism-rises-in-both-parties/ |url-status=live }} They suggested that the US government gradually abandon its engagement policy with China and adopt a more assertive strategy.{{cite book |last1=Robinson |first1=Thomas W. |last2=Shambaugh |first2=David L. |title=Chinese Foreign Policy: Theory and Practice |date=1995 |publisher=Clarendon Press |isbn=978-0-19-829016-2 }}{{pn|date=November 2023}} Although the Republican Party and Democratic Party have serious differences and conflicts in domestic affairs, they both agree that China poses a threat to the United States' military, economic, and intellectual property rights.{{cite journal |last1=Posen |first1=Barry R. |title=Pull Back: The Case for a Less Activist Foreign Policy |journal=Foreign Affairs |date=2013 |volume=92 |issue=1 |pages=116–128 |jstor=41721009 }} The United States House Select Committee on Strategic Competition between the United States and the Chinese Communist Party established in 2023 in response to China threat.

{{Further|China–Japan relations}}

On December 22, 2005, Japanese Foreign Minister Aso Taro made a statement stating that "China is becoming a threat", marking the first time a member of the cabinet had publicly raised the "China threat theory".{{Cite web |title=反击日本外相的中国威胁论：到底谁威胁谁-中国威胁论,日本外相,麻生太郎-北方网-新闻中心 |trans-title=Counterattacking Japan's Foreign Minister's China Threat Theory: Who Threatens Who – China Threat Theory, Japan's Foreign Minister, Taro Aso – Northern Network – News Center |url=http://news.enorth.com.cn/system/2005/12/23/001195030.shtml |access-date=2023-10-13 |website=news.enorth.com.cn |archive-date=2023-11-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231127033239/http://news.enorth.com.cn/system/2005/12/23/001195030.shtml |url-status=live }} Shinzo Abe also stated that in the past 20 years, China's military spending has grown rapidly and has now reached about 20 times.{{cite news |last1=McCurry |first1=Justin |title=Japan increases defence budget amid tensions with China |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/dec/17/japan-increases-defence-budget-tensions-china |work=The Guardian |date=17 December 2013 |access-date=13 October 2023 |archive-date=27 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231127033237/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/dec/17/japan-increases-defence-budget-tensions-china |url-status=live }}

On January 29, 2017, the Sunday Times reported that the Japanese Embassy in the UK paid £10,000 per month to the Henry Jackson Society, a right-wing think tank in the UK.{{Cite web |title=Spotlight: Top UK military brass mired in Japan's anti-China propaganda scandal: report – Xinhua {{!}} English.news.cn |url=https://www.xinhuanet.com//english/2017-02/06/c_136034796.htm |access-date=2023-10-13 |website=www.xinhuanet.com |archive-date=2023-11-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231127033242/http://www.xinhuanet.com//english/2017-02/06/c_136034796.htm |url-status=live }} Some British parliamentarians who were close to the Henry Jackson Association were invited by the Japanese government to visit Japan to help Japan create and promote the China threat theory in the UK;{{Cite web |last=Zhang |first=Zhengqi |date=2017-02-07 |title=英媒披露海军上将涉日本收买英国智库抹黑中国--国际--人民网 |trans-title=British media revealed that the admiral was involved in Japan's bribery of British think tanks to smear China |url=http://world.people.com.cn/n1/2017/0207/c1002-29061898.html |access-date=2023-11-04 |website=world.people.com.cn |archive-date=2023-11-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231104083624/http://world.people.com.cn/n1/2017/0207/c1002-29061898.html |url-status=live }} In the report of the Chinese Mainland media Global Vision, Okada Chong, a guest commentator of Kyodo News Agency, also claimed that many Japanese journalists privately lamented that "if you don't add comments criticizing China in your manuscript, your manuscript will not pass", "this is not the order of your boss, but the self-censorship of journalists", "China threat theory has become normal in Japan's speech space", and so on.{{Cite web |last=Zhou |first=Yuanfang |date=2017-02-08 |title=日本记者："不在稿子里加入批判中国的评论，稿子就通不过" |url=https://www.guancha.cn/Neighbors/2017_02_08_393112.shtml?web |access-date=2023-10-28 |website=www.guancha.cn |archive-date=2023-10-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231028134719/https://www.guancha.cn/Neighbors/2017_02_08_393112.shtml?web |url-status=live }}

{{Further|China–India relations}}

The tension in military relations between China and India mainly lies in the disputed Sino-Indian border dispute between the two sides, as well as military assistance to Pakistan.{{cite journal |last1=Garver |first1=John W. |title=The security dilemma in Sino-Indian relations |journal=India Review |date=October 2002 |volume=1 |issue=4 |pages=1–38 |doi=10.1080/14736480208404640 |s2cid=154996267 }} In May 1998, Indian Defense Minister George Fernandez promoted the statement that "China is the potential number one threat to India" after conducting a nuclear test in India.{{cite news |last1=Burns |first1=John F. |title=India's New Defense Chief Sees Chinese Military Threat |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1998/05/05/world/india-s-new-defense-chief-sees-chinese-military-threat.html |work=The New York Times |date=5 May 1998 |access-date=28 October 2023 |archive-date=28 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231028134720/https://www.nytimes.com/1998/05/05/world/india-s-new-defense-chief-sees-chinese-military-threat.html |url-status=live }} Afterward, Fernandez himself withdrew this statement and expressed his desire to be friendly with China,{{Cite web |title=Doklam: When George Fernandes called China as threat no. 1 and how he stood vindicated |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/doklam-standoff-india-china-threat-george-fernandes-1025404-2017-07-20 |access-date=2023-10-28 |website=India Today |date=20 July 2017 |language=en |archive-date=2023-10-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231028134722/https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/doklam-standoff-india-china-threat-george-fernandes-1025404-2017-07-20 |url-status=live }} but the strengthening of India's military deployment was considered by various military experts to be aimed at China and Pakistan.{{Cite web |last=G |first=C. |date=2021-04-19 |title=The Challenge of a Two-Front War: India's China-Pakistan Dilemma • Stimson Center |url=https://www.stimson.org/2021/the-challenge-of-a-two-front-war-indias-china-pakistan-dilemma/ |access-date=2023-10-28 |website=Stimson Center |language=en-US |archive-date=2023-04-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230418103545/https://www.stimson.org/2021/the-challenge-of-a-two-front-war-indias-china-pakistan-dilemma/ |url-status=live }}{{cite book |last1=Arnett |first1=Eric H. |title=Military Capacity and the Risk of War: China, India, Pakistan, and Iran |date=1997 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-829281-4 }}{{pn|date=November 2023}}

In the early 1960s, after the serious deterioration of Sino-Soviet relations, there were arguments about China's threat to the Soviet Union and the world.{{cite book |doi=10.1007/978-1-349-06791-6_12 |chapter=The Soviet Union |title=Chinese Defence Policy |date=1984 |last1=Armstrong |first1=David |pages=180–195 |isbn=978-1-349-06793-0 }} After the Zhenbao Island incident in 1969, China and the Soviet Union fell into a high state of tension,{{cite book |last1=Ryan |first1=Mark A. |last2=Finkelstein |first2=David M. |last3=McDevitt |first3=Michael A. |last4=Corporation |first4=C. N. A. |title=Chinese Warfighting: The PLA Experience since 1949: The PLA Experience since 1949 |date=2016 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-94250-3 }}{{pn|date=November 2023}} and due to China's subsequent mobilization action (Order No. 1), the Siberia region of the Soviet Union was quite sparsely populated and difficult to defend, raising fears of China's military threat throughout the Soviet Union.{{cite journal |last1=Robinson |first1=Thomas W. |title=The Sino-Soviet Border Dispute: Background, Development, and the March 1969 Clashes |journal=American Political Science Review |date=December 1972 |volume=66 |issue=4 |pages=1175–1202 |doi=10.2307/1957173 |jstor=1957173 |s2cid=147383804 }} This China threat ideology is also very common among the dissident Soviet intellectual community,{{cite book |doi=10.4324/9780203060414 |title=China Threat: Perceptions Myths |date=2013 |isbn=978-1-136-00478-0 |editor-last1=Yee |editor-last2=Storey |editor-first1=Herbert |editor-first2=Ian |chapter=Russian Perceptions of the China Threat |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_OlHyIrweOQC&pg=PT117 |first1=Alexander |last1=Lukin |access-date=2023-12-19 |archive-date=2023-12-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231216015206/https://books.google.com/books?id=_OlHyIrweOQC&pg=PT117 |url-status=live }} as historian Roy Medvedev wrote:{{cite journal |last1=McNeal |first1=Robert H. |date=1972 |title=Review of Let History Judge. The Origins and Consequences of Stalinism |journal=The Russian Review |volume=31 |issue=2 |pages=179–181 |doi=10.2307/128210 |jstor=128210}}{{cite news |last1=Medvedev |first1=Roy |date=29 March 2005 |title=Stalin Lives {{!}} by Roy Medvedev |work=Project Syndicate |url=https://www.project-syndicate.org/commentary/stalin-lives}}{{cite book |last1=Li |first1=Hua-Yu |title=China Learns from the Soviet Union, 1949–Present |date=2010 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-0-7391-4224-0}}{{pn|date=November 2023}}

{{cquote|Joseph Stalin did not fully consider Adolf Hitler's adventurism in 1941. He believed that Hitler would start from analyzing practical factors rather than from fantasies. Today, especially in the current situation of Soviet China relations, we should not forget the lessons of 1941; Because [Mao Zedong] did not act from analyzing actual factors, but from his own sometimes extremely absurd ideas about the actual situation. Therefore, we should consider the irrational risk-taking behavior from the Mao Zedong Group.|Ro Medvedev: "Let History Judge: The Origins and Consequences of Stalinism" Volume 2, p. 772

}}

On June 15, 1993, when meeting with Malaysian Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad, President Jiang Zemin of the People's Republic of China said that China's limited national defense capabilities are entirely for self-defense and are defensive in nature. Those who spread the rhetoric of "Chinese threat" and "China needs to fill the vacuum" are actually provoking relations among Asian countries, attempting to achieve the goal of divide and rule, which will not succeed.{{Cite web |date=2022-04-11 |title=2022年4月11日外交部发言人赵立坚主持例行记者会 |trans-title=On April 11, 2022, Foreign Ministry Spokesperson Zhao Lijian hosted a regular press conference |url=http://il.china-embassy.gov.cn/fyrth/202204/t20220411_10666674.htm |access-date=2023-10-28 |website=il.china-embassy.gov.cn |archive-date=2023-10-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231028134722/http://il.china-embassy.gov.cn/fyrth/202204/t20220411_10666674.htm |url-status=live }}{{Cite web |date=2022-06-19 |title=美国对华认知中的谬误和事实真相_中华人民共和国外交部 |trans-title=Fallacies and the truth in America’s perception of China |url=https://www.mfa.gov.cn/wjbxw_new/202206/t20220619_10706065.shtml |access-date=2023-10-28 |website=www.mfa.gov.cn |archive-date=2023-10-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231028134721/https://www.mfa.gov.cn/wjbxw_new/202206/t20220619_10706065.shtml |url-status=live }} After quoting the Chinese proverb "The distance you go will tell you the strength of your horse, and the time you will see will tell your heart", Jiang Zemin said that the world will see that China is and will be a staunch force in safeguarding peace in Asia and the world.{{Cite web |date=1993-06-17 |title=江泽民反对'中国威胁论' |trans-title=Jiang Zemin refutes 'Chinese threat theory' |url=https://davidchenlib.org/viewer/4742/?back=%2Frecords%2Fpicture%3Fsearch%3DMalaysia+China+1993%26sort%3D_score%26perpage%3D10%26page%3D1%26fulltext%3D1%26bookmarks%3D1%26&css-name=include#page=446&viewer=picture&o=&n=0&q= |access-date=2023-11-04 |archive-date=2023-12-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231219030626/https://davidchenlib.org/viewer/4742/?back=%2Frecords%2Fpicture%3Fsearch%3DMalaysia+China+1993%26sort%3D_score%26perpage%3D10%26page%3D1%26fulltext%3D1%26bookmarks%3D1%26&css-name=include#page=1&viewer=picture&o=&n=0&q=#page=446&viewer=picture&o=&n=0&q= |url-status=live }}

Since the People's Republic of China implemented reform and opening up, China's rise in economic, political, military and other comprehensive strength,{{cite journal |last1=Brands |first1=Hal |title=The Chinese Century? |journal=The National Interest |date=2018 |issue=154 |pages=35–45 |jstor=26557452 }} and the so-called "China threat theory" has been spreading from Japan, Taiwan, South Korea, the United States and other neighboring countries and world powers, indicating that the rise of foreigners on the Chinese mainland will affect and threaten their own interests.{{cite journal |last1=Roy |first1=Denny |title=Hegemon on the Horizon? China's Threat to East Asian Security |journal=International Security |date=1994 |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=149–168 |doi=10.2307/2539151 |jstor=2539151 |s2cid=73665769 }}{{cite book |doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.013.561 |chapter=The Power-Transition Discourse and China's Rise |title=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Politics |date=2017 |last1=Chan |first1=Steve |isbn=978-0-19-022863-7 }} These countries try to use the "China threat theory" to slow down China's development or isolate China in the international arena.{{Cite web |title=习近平：应避免陷修昔底德陷阱 霸权不适合中国-新闻中心-北方网 |trans-title=en:Xi Jinping: We should avoid falling into Thucydides’ trap, hegemony is not suitable for China |url=http://news.enorth.com.cn/system/2014/01/24/011636331.shtml |access-date=2023-10-28 |website=news.enorth.com.cn |archive-date=2023-10-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231028134727/http://news.enorth.com.cn/system/2014/01/24/011636331.shtml |url-status=live }} Kuai Zheyuan pointed out that there are no more than three reasons why foreign countries propose the "China threat theory":{{Cite web |date=2011-02-09 |title=蒯辙元： 如何化解世界对中国崛起的恐惧--蒯辙元--凤凰网博客 |trans-title=Kuai Cheyuan: How to resolve the world’s fear of China’s rise |url=http://blog.ifeng.com/article/9924914.html |access-date=2023-10-28 |archive-date=2016-03-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305070420/http://blog.ifeng.com/article/9924914.html |url-status=dead }}

1. The rapid pace and scale of China's economic and military rise have left the United States, Europe, and Asian countries (especially China's neighboring countries) overwhelmed and deeply surprised, unable to stop, resist, and adapt, resulting in a sense of national crisis and frustration in national psychology; From economy, politics, security, psychology, and self-esteem, I feel threatened by the powerful rise of China. Especially in the United States, the whole country is strongly aware that the rising China is catching up with and even surpassing the United States in some fields, seriously threatening the global interests of the United States and fiercely challenging its world leadership. Therefore, it has created international public opinion of "China threat" and "China fear" to isolate and contain China.
2. The recent adjustment of China's mentality and strategy as a major power after its rise has been somewhat hasty and radical. This creates a negative image of a hard rise rather than a soft rise for the international community, especially for developed Western countries and China's neighboring countries, resulting in negative effects and negative impacts, leading to concerns and even panic about China's strength and toughness. Recently, Valerie Niche, an analyst at the French Strategic Research Foundation, emphasized that "in the past year or two, developed countries have realized that China's image is no longer as positive as before. On February 3rd, the French newspaper "Les Echos" stated in an article: "Every week, there is a situation where China's actions cause panic among our political and economic circles.
3. China, which has emerged in the new era, has its own historical, practical, and developed civilization, which is fundamentally different in essence and concept from historical empires such as the British, Germany, America, and Japanese empires. However, China's advanced civilization concept, development concept, and rise concept are severely lagging behind in terms of propaganda and dissemination, and as the world's second-largest economy, its discourse power is lacking and its application is even weaker(who wrote this run-on sentence?? and why aren't there any sources?). Therefore, in the face of the "China threat theory" and "China phobia", from theory to practice, it is only a passive response, with no way to crack it and no ability to resolve it.(what??)

In early 2017, the British media 'The Sunday Times' reported that Japan had invested in exaggerating China's threat theory, which was seen as a diplomatic means of trying to suppress China's development.{{Cite news |date=2017-01-29 |title=英媒：日本資助英國智庫展開反華公關宣傳 |language=zh-hant |trans-title=British media: Japan funds British think tanks to launch anti-China public relations propaganda |work=BBC News 中文 |url=https://www.bbc.com/zhongwen/trad/press-review-38788712 |access-date=2023-10-28 |archive-date=2023-10-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231028134721/https://www.bbc.com/zhongwen/trad/press-review-38788712 |url-status=live }}

• Anti-communism
• China's peaceful rise
• Chinese virus (politics)
• Red Scare
• The Coming Collapse of China
• Yellow Peril
• Zhu Chenghu

{{Reflist}}

• {{cite journal |last1=Roy |first1=Denny |title=The 'China Threat' Issue: Major Arguments |journal=Asian Survey |date=1996 |volume=36 |issue=8 |pages=758–771 |doi=10.2307/2645437 |jstor=2645437 }}

Category:Anti-Chinese sentiment

Category:Foreign relations of China

Category:International economics

Category:International relations theory