Common myna#Australia

In 1760, the French zoologist Mathurin Jacques Brisson included a description of the common myna in his Ornithologie, based on a specimen that he mistakenly believed had been collected in the Philippines. He used the French name Le merle des Philippines and the Latin Merula Philippensis.{{ cite book | last=Brisson | first=Mathurin Jacques | author-link=Mathurin Jacques Brisson | year=1760 | title=Ornithologie, ou, Méthode contenant la division des oiseaux en ordres, sections, genres, especes & leurs variétés | volume=2 | language=fr, la | place=Paris | publisher=Jean-Baptiste Bauche | pages=278–280, Plate 26 fig 1 | url=https://biodiversitylibrary.org/page/36011526 }} The two stars (**) at the start of the section indicates that Brisson based his description on the examination of a specimen. Although Brisson coined Latin names, they do not conform to the binomial system and are not recognised by the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature.{{cite journal |last=Allen | first=J.A. | author-link=Joel Asaph Allen | year=1910 | title=Collation of Brisson's genera of birds with those of Linnaeus |journal=Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History |volume=28 | pages=317–335 | hdl=2246/678 }}

When the Swedish naturalist, Carl Linnaeus, updated his Systema Naturae in 1766, for the 12th edition, he added 240 species that had been previously described by Brisson. One of them was the common myna. Linnaeus included a brief description, coined the binomial name Paradisea tristis and cited Brisson's work.{{cite book | last=Linnaeus | first=Carl | author-link=Carl Linnaeus | year=1766 | title=Systema naturae : per regna tria natura, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis | edition=12th | volume=1 | publisher=Laurentii Salvii | place=Holmiae (Stockholm) | language=la | page=167 | url=https://biodiversitylibrary.org/page/42946363 }} The type location was subsequently corrected to Pondicherry in southern India.{{ cite book | editor1-last=Mayr | editor1-first=Ernst | editor1-link=Ernst Mayr | editor2-last=Greenway | editor2-first=James C. Jr | year=1962 | title=Check-list of birds of the world | volume=15 | publisher=Museum of Comparative Zoology | place=Cambridge, Massachusetts | pages=112–113 | url=https://biodiversitylibrary.org/page/14485485 }} The specific name tristis is Latin for "sad" or "gloomy".{{cite web | last=Jobling | first=J.A. | year=2018 | title= Key to Scientific Names in Ornithology | editor1-last=del Hoyo | editor1-first=J. | editor2-last=Elliott | editor2-first=A. | editor3-last=Sargatal | editor3-first=J. | editor4-last=Christie | editor4-first=D.A. | editor5-last=de Juana | editor5-first=E. | work=Handbook of the Birds of the World Alive | publisher=Lynx Edicions | url=https://www.hbw.com/dictionary/definition/tristis | access-date=11 May 2018 }} This species is now placed in the genus Acridotheres that was introduced by the French ornithologist Louis Pierre Vieillot in 1816.{{cite book|url=http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k9745205x/f48.image|title=Analyse d'une Nouvelle Ornithologie Élémentaire |last=Vieillot|first=Louis Pierre|publisher=Deterville/self|year=1816|location=Paris|page=42|language=fr|author-link=Louis Pierre Vieillot}} The generic name Acridotheres is from the Greek ακριδος (akridos), meaning locust, and θηρας (theras), meaning hunter.

Two subspecies are recognised:{{cite web| editor1-last=Gill | editor1-first=Frank | editor1-link=Frank Gill (ornithologist) | editor2-last=Donsker | editor2-first=David | year=2018 | title=Nuthatches, Wallcreeper, treecreepers, mockingbirds, starlings, oxpeckers | work=World Bird List Version 8.1 | url=http://www.worldbirdnames.org/bow/nuthatch/| publisher=International Ornithologists' Union | access-date=11 May 2018 }}

• the Indian myna (A. t. tristis) (Linnaeus, 1766) – It is found from southern Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan and eastern Iran to southern China, Indochina, the Malay Peninsula and southern India. It has also been introduced to Hawaii and North America. Populations from the northwest of its range have sometimes been separated as a distinct subspecies, A. t. neumanni, while populations from Nepal and Myanmar have been described as A. t. tristoides.{{Citation|last1=Kannan|first1=Ragupathy|title=Common Myna (Acridotheres tristis)|date=2020-03-04|url=https://birdsoftheworld.org/bow/species/commyn/1.0/introduction|journal=Birds of the World|editor-last=Billerman|editor-first=Shawn M.|publisher=Cornell Lab of Ornithology|language=en|doi=10.2173/bow.commyn.01|access-date=2021-08-23|last2=James|first2=Douglas A.|editor2-last=Keeney|editor2-first=Brooke K.|editor3-last=Rodewald|editor3-first=Paul G.|editor4-last=Schulenberg|editor4-first=Thomas S.|url-access=subscription}}
• the Sri Lankan myna (A. t. melanosternus) Legge, 1879 – Sri Lanka

The Sri Lankan subspecies melanosternus is darker than the Indian subspecies tristis and has half-black and half-white primary coverts and a larger yellow cheek-patch.

File:A Common Myna in Cage.jpg

The common myna is readily identified by the brown body, black hooded head and the bare yellow patch behind the eye. The bill and legs are bright yellow. They have rounded wings as well, and a round square tipped tail. There is a white patch on the outer primaries and the wing lining on the underside is white, as well as having a white tail tip. The sexes are similar and birds are usually seen in pairs.{{cite book|author=Rasmussen, PC|author2=JC Anderton|name-list-style=amp |year=2005|title= Birds of South Asia: The Ripley Guide. Vol 2|publisher=Smithsonian Institution & Lynx Edicions|page=584}}

The common myna obeys Gloger's rule in that the birds from northwestern India tend to be paler than their darker counterparts in southern India.{{cite book |title= Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan, Volume 5 |last=Ali |first=Salim |author2=Ripley, S. Dillon |year=2001|edition=2 (paperback) |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=India |isbn=978-0-19-565938-2 |page=278 }}{{cite book|title=Birds of South Asia - The Ripley Guide (volume 2) |last=Rasmussen|first=Pamela C. |author2=Anderton, John C.|year=2005 |publisher=Smithsonian Institution, Washington & Lynx edicions, Barcelona |isbn=978-84-87334-66-5 |pages=584, 683 }}

The calls includes croaks, squawks, chirps, clicks, whistles and 'growls', and the bird often fluffs its feathers and bobs its head in singing. The common myna screeches warnings to its mate or other birds in cases of predators in proximity or when it is about to take off flying.{{cite journal|author=Griffin, Andrea S.|year=2008|title=Social learning in Indian mynahs, Acridotheres tristis: the role of distress calls.|journal=Animal Behaviour|volume=75|issue=1|pages=79–89|doi=10.1016/j.anbehav.2007.04.008|s2cid=53184596}} Common mynas are popular as cage birds for their singing and "speaking" abilities. Before sleeping in communal roosts, common mynas vocalise in unison, which is known as "communal noise".{{cite journal |last1=Mahabal |first1=Anil |last2=Vaidya |first2=V.G. |year=1989 |title=Diurnal rhythms and seasonal changes in the roosting behaviour of Indian Myna Acridotheres tristis (Linnaeus) |journal= Proceedings of Indian Academy of Sciences (Animal Science) |volume=98 |issue=3 |pages=199–209 |doi= 10.1007/BF03179646|s2cid=129156314 |url=https://archive.org/details/MynaRhythms |access-date=22 January 2011}}

Morphometry.

• Body length: {{convert|23|cm|in}}

File:Quand les martins tristes, Acridotheres tristis, se battent entre eux.jpg]]

The common myna is native to Asia, with its initial home range spanning Iran, Pakistan, India, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka, Afghanistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Myanmar, Malaysia, Singapore, peninsular Thailand, Indochina, Japan (both mainland Japan and the Ryukyu Islands) and China.{{cite web|url=http://www.oiseaux.net/birds/distribution/common.myna.html |title=Common Myna|access-date= December 23, 2007}}

File:Common myna in Gülhane Park, İstanbul.jpg, Turkey]]

File:CommonMynah1-aw6789.JPG, Sri Lanka]]The common myna has been introduced to many other parts of the world such as Canada, Australia, Turkey,{{cite journal |last1=Per |first1=Esra |title=Status of the common myna Acridotheres tristis Linnaeus,1766 in Turkey |journal=Animal Biodiversity and Conservation |date=January 2022 |volume=45 |issue=1 |pages=79–83 |doi=10.32800/abc.2022.45.0079 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/358213880}} Israel, New Zealand, New Caledonia, Fiji, the United States (South Florida only{{cite web|title=Common Myna – Audubon Field Guide|url=https://www.audubon.org/field-guide/bird/common-myna|publisher=Audubon|access-date=2 March 2016|date=2014-11-13}}), South Africa, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, Cayman Islands, Islands in the Indian Ocean (the Seychelles – from which it was subsequently eradicated at great expense,{{Cite journal| journal= PLOS ONE|first1=Thomas|last1=Evans|first2=Elena|last2=Angulo|first3=Corey J. A.|last3=Bradshaw|first4=Anna|last4=Turbelin|first5=Franck|last5=Courchamp|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0292854|title=Global economic costs of alien birds|date=2023 |volume=18 |issue=10 |pages=e0292854 |doi-access=free|pmid=37851652 |pmc=10584179|bibcode=2023PLoSO..1892854E }} Mauritius, Réunion, Madagascar, the Maldives, the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and the Lakshadweep archipelago) and also in islands of the Atlantic (such as Ascension and Saint Helena), Pacific Ocean and Cyprus, as of February 2022.{{pages needed|date=January 2022}} The range of the common myna is increasing to the extent that in 2000 the IUCN Species Survival Commission declared it among 100 of the world's worst invasive species.

It is typically found in open woodland, cultivation and around habitation. Although it is an adaptable species, its population is abnormal and very much considered a pest in Singapore (where it is locally called as gembala kerbau, literally 'buffalo shepherd') due to competition with the related introduced Javan myna.{{cite web |work=Bird Ecology Study Group, Nature Society (Singapore) |url=http://besgroup.blogspot.com/2005/12/ubiquitous-javan-myna.html |title=Ubiquitous Javan Myna |publisher=Besgroup.blogspot.com |access-date=October 25, 2007}}

The common myna thrives in urban and suburban environments; in Canberra, for instance, 110 common mynas were released between 1968 and 1971. By 1991, common myna population density in Canberra averaged 15 birds per square kilometer.{{sfn|Pell|Tidemann|1997a|pp=141–149}} Only three years later, a second study found an average population density of 75 birds per square kilometer in the same area.{{sfn|Pell|Tidemann|1997a|p=146}}

The bird likely owes its success in the urban and suburban settings of Sydney and Canberra to its evolutionary origins; having evolved in the open woodlands of India, the common myna is pre-adapted to habitats with tall vertical structures and little to no vegetative ground cover,{{sfn|Pell|Tidemann|1997a|p=141}} features characteristic of city streets and urban nature preserves.

The common myna (along with common starlings, house sparrows, and feral rock doves) is a nuisance to city buildings; its nests block gutters and drainpipes, causing water damage to building exteriors.{{sfn|Bomford|Sinclair|2002|p=35}}

File:Common Myna In Guntur.jpg]]

File:Acridotheres tristis MHNT 227 La Reunion.jpg

File:Two Common myna birds holding an egg (India, 2011).jpgs by breaking their eggs]]

File:Common myna in Chandigarh.jpg]]Common mynas are believed to pair for life. They breed through much of the year depending on the location, building their nest in a hole in a tree or wall. They breed at elevations of {{Convert|0-3,000|m|ft|abbr=on}} in the Himalayas.

The normal clutch size is 4–6 eggs. The average size of the egg is {{convert|30.8 x 21.99|mm|in|frac=4}}. The incubation period is 17 to 18 days and fledging period is 22 to 24 days. The Asian koel is sometimes brood parasitic on this species.{{cite journal|author=Choudhury A. |year=1998|title= Common Myna feeding a fledgling koel|journal= Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society|volume=95|issue=1|page=115}} Nesting material used by common mynas includes twigs, roots, tow and rubbish. Common mynas have been known to use tissue paper, tin foil and sloughed off snake-skin.

During the breeding season, the daytime activity-time budget of the common myna in Pune in April to June 1978 has been recorded to comprise the following: nesting activity (42%), scanning the environment (28%), locomotion (12%), feeding (4%), vocalisation (7%) and preening-related activities, interactions and other activities (7%).{{cite journal |author=Mahabal, Anil |year=1991|title=Activity-time budget of Indian Myna Acridotheres tristis (Linnaeus) during the breeding season |journal=Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society |volume=90 |issue=1 |pages=96–97 |url=https://archive.org/details/MynaEthogram|access-date=22 January 2011}}

The common myna uses the nests of woodpeckers, parakeets, etc. and easily takes to nest boxes; it has been recorded evicting the chicks of previously nesting pairs by holding them in the beak and later sometimes not even using the emptied nest boxes. This aggressive behaviour contributes to its success as an invasive species.{{cite book |title=Birds of Western Ghats, Kokan and Malabar (including birds of Goa)|last=Pande |first=Satish |author2=Tambe, Saleel |author3=Clement, Francis M |author4=Sant, Niranjan |year=2003 |publisher=Bombay Natural History Society & Oxford University Press |location=Mumbai|isbn=978-0-19-566878-0 |pages=312, 377 }}

There is also some evidence that shows that in introduced environments, the species chooses to nest in more modified and artificial structures than in natural tree cavities when compared to native species.{{Cite journal|last1=Lowe|first1=Katie A.|last2=Taylor|first2=Charlotte E.|last3=Major|first3=Richard E.|date=2011-10-01|title=Do Common Mynas significantly compete with native birds in urban environments?|journal=Journal of Ornithology|language=en|volume=152|issue=4|pages=909–921|doi=10.1007/s10336-011-0674-5|bibcode=2011JOrni.152..909L |s2cid=3153551|issn=0021-8375}}

Like most starlings, the common myna is omnivorous. It feeds on insects, grubs, earthworms, arachnids, crustaceans, reptiles, small mammals, seeds, grain, fruits, flower nectar and petals, and discarded waste from human habitation. It forages on the ground among grass for insects, and especially for grasshoppers, from which it gets the generic name Acridotheres, "grasshopper hunter". It, however, feeds on a wide range of insects, mostly picked from the ground.{{cite journal |year=1978|title= A comparative study of the feeding habits of certain species of Indian birds affecting agriculture|journal= J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. |volume= 75|issue=4|pages=1178–1197|author1=Mathew, DN |author2=Narendran, TC |author3=Zacharias, VJ}} It is a cross-pollinator of flowers such as Salmalia and Erythrina. It walks on the ground with occasional hops and is an opportunistic feeder on the insects disturbed by grazing cattle as well as fired grass fields. They prey on eggs and young of other birds, such as Hawaiʻi ʻakepas (Loxops coccineus).{{cite web | url=https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Acridotheres_tristis/ | title=Acridotheres tristis (Common myna) | website=Animal Diversity Web }} They sometimes even wade in shallow waters to catch fish. Living in close proximity to human-made habitats, common mynas may also appear near roadsides to feed on roadkill.

Common mynas roost communally throughout the year, either in pure or mixed flocks with jungle mynas, rosy starlings, house crows, jungle crows, cattle egrets and rose-ringed parakeets and other birds. The roost population can range from less than one hundred to thousands.{{cite journal |last1=Mahabal |first1=Anil |last2=Bastawade |first2=D.B. |year=1991 |title=Mixed roosting associates of Indian Myna Acridotheres tristis in Pune city, India |journal=Pavo |volume=29 |issue=1 & 2 |pages=23–32 |url=https://archive.org/details/MynaRoosting1991 |access-date=22 January 2011}}{{cite journal |last1=Mahabal |first1=Anil |year=1992 |title=Diurnal intra- and inter-specific assemblages of Indian Mynas |journal=Biovigyanam |volume=18 |issue=2 |pages=116–118 |url=https://archive.org/details/MynaAssemblages1992 |access-date=22 January 2011}} The time of arrival of mynas at the roost starts before and ends just after sunset. The mynas depart before sunrise. The time and timespan of arrival and departure, time taken for final settlement at the roost, duration of communal sleep, flock size and population vary seasonally.{{cite journal |last1=Mahabal |first1=Anil |last2=Bastawade |first2=D.B.|last3=Vaidya |first3=V.G. |year=1990 |title=Spatial and temporal fluctuations in the population of Common Myna Acridotheres tristis (Linnaeus) in and around an Indian City |journal=Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society|volume=87 |issue=3 |pages=392–398|url=https://archive.org/details/MynaPune |access-date=22 January 2011 }}{{cite journal |last1=Mahabal |first1=Anil |year=1993 |title=Seasonal changes in the flocking behaviour of Indian Myna Acridotheres tristis (Linnaeus) |journal=Biovigyanam |volume=19 |issue=1 & 2 |pages=55–64|url=https://archive.org/details/FlockingChanges |access-date=22 January 2011 }}

The function of communal roosting is to synchronise various social activities, avoid predators, exchange information about food sources.{{cite journal |last1=Mahabal |first1=Anil |year=1997 |title=Communal roosting in Common Mynas and its functional significance |journal=Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society|volume=94 |issue=2 |pages=342–349|url=https://archive.org/details/RoostingFunctionalSignificance |access-date=22 January 2011 }}

Communal displays (pre-roosting and post-roosting) consist of aerial maneuvers which are exhibited in the pre-breeding season (November to March). It is assumed that this behaviour is related to pair formation.{{cite journal |last1=Mahabal |first1=Anil |year=1993 |title=Communal display behaviour of Indian Myna Acridotheres tristis (Linnaeus) |journal=Pavo |volume=31 |issue=1&2 |pages=45–54 }}

File:Common myna (Acridotheres tristis) Upolu.jpg, Samoa]]

The IUCN declared the common myna as one of only three birds among the world's 100 worst invasive speciesLowe S., Browne M., Boudjelas S. and de Poorter M. (2000, updated 2004). [http://www.issg.org/database/species/reference_files/100English.pdf 100 of the World's Worst Invasive Alien Species: A selection from the Global Invasive Species Database] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170316112205/http://issg.org/database/species/reference_files/100English.pdf |date=2017-03-16 }}. The Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG), a specialist group of the Species Survival Commission (SSC) of the World Conservation Union (IUCN), Auckland. (the other two being the red-vented bulbul and the common starling).

The French introduced it in the 18th century from Pondicherry to Mauritius with the aim of controlling insects, even levying a fine on anyone persecuting the bird.{{cite book|title=The Mauritius Register: Historical, official and Commercial, corrected to the 30th June 1859.|editor1=Palmer|editor2=Bradshaw|publisher=L. Channell|place=Mauritius|year=1859|page=[https://archive.org/details/mauritiusregist01clargoog/page/n225 77]|url=https://archive.org/details/mauritiusregist01clargoog}} It has since been introduced widely elsewhere, including adjacent areas in Southeast Asia, Madagascar,{{cite journal|author=Wilme, Lucienne|year=1996|title=Composition and characteristics of bird communities in Madagascar|journal=Biogéographie de Madagascar|pages=349–362|url=http://horizon.documentation.ird.fr/exl-doc/pleins_textes/pleins_textes_6/colloques2/010008477.pdf}} the Middle East, South Africa, the United States, Argentina, Germany, Spain and Portugal,{{sfn|Saavedra|Maraver|Anadón|Tella|2015|pp=121–127}} the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand and various oceanic islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans, including prominent populations in Fiji and Hawaii.Long, John L. (1981). Introduced Birds of the World. Agricultural Protection Board of Western Australia, 21-493

The common myna is regarded as a pest in South Africa, North America, the Middle East, Australia, New Zealand and many Pacific islands. It is particularly problematic in Australia.{{Cite journal|last1=Grarock|first1=Kate|last2=Tidemann|first2=Christopher R.|last3=Wood|first3=Jeffrey|last4=Lindenmayer|first4=David B.|date=2012-07-11|editor-last=Sueur|editor-first=Cédric|title=Is It Benign or Is It a Pariah? Empirical Evidence for the Impact of the Common Myna (Acridotheres tristis) on Australian Birds|journal=PLOS ONE|language=en|volume=7|issue=7|pages=e40622|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0040622|issn=1932-6203|pmc=3394764|pmid=22808210|bibcode=2012PLoSO...740622G|doi-access=free}} Several methods have been tried to control the bird's numbers and protect native species.{{sfn|Cruz|Reynolds|2019|pp=302-308}}

File:Acridotheres tristis -Sydney, Australia-8.jpg]]

File:Mynahs Nesting 019aa.jpg

In Australia, the common myna is an invasive pest. They are often the predominant bird in urban areas along the whole east coast. In a 2008 popular vote, the bird was named "The Most Important Pest/Problem" in Australia. They have earned the nickname "flying rats", due to their numbers and their scavenging behaviour. They are also known as "the cane toad of the sky". However, there is little scientific consensus concerning the extent of its impact on native species. {{cite journal|pmid=22139450 |date=2012 |last1=Sol |first1=D. |last2=Bartomeus |first2=I. |last3=Griffin |first3=A. S. |title=The paradox of invasion in birds: Competitive superiority or ecological opportunism? |journal=Oecologia |volume=169 |issue=2 |pages=553–564 |doi=10.1007/s00442-011-2203-x |bibcode=2012Oecol.169..553S |s2cid=253972110 }}Grarock et al (2013) Are invasive species drivers of native species decline or passengers of habitat modification? A case study of the impact of the common myna (Acridotheres tristis) on Australian bird species. Austral Ecology.

The common myna was first introduced to Australia between 1863 and 1872, in Victoria, to control insects in the market gardens of Melbourne. At about the same time, the bird is likely to have spread to New South Wales, where it is currently most populous, but documentation is uncertain.{{cite journal |doi=10.1071/MU9780227 |last=Hone |first=J. |title=Introduction and Spread of the Common Myna in New South Wales |journal=Emu | volume=78 |issue=4 |year=1978 |page=227| bibcode= 1978EmuAO..78..227H |url=http://www.publish.csiro.au/?act=view_file&file_id=MU9780227.pdf}} The bird was later introduced to Queensland as a predator of grasshoppers and cane beetles. Common myna populations in Australia are now concentrated along the eastern coast around Sydney and its surrounding suburbs,{{Cite journal |doi=10.1071/MU13029 |title=The Common Myna (Sturnus tristis) in urban, rural and semi-rural areas in Greater Sydney and its surrounds |date=2014 |last1=Old |first1=Julie M. |last2=Spencer |first2=Ricky-John |last3=Wolfenden |first3=Jack |journal=Emu - Austral Ornithology |volume=114 |issue=3 |pages=241–248 |bibcode=2014EmuAO.114..241O |s2cid=84731024 }} with sparser populations in Victoria and a few isolated communities in Queensland.{{sfn|Martin|1996|pp=169–170}} During 2009, several municipal councils in New South Wales began trials of catching myna birds in an effort to reduce numbers.{{cite news |first=Vikki |last=Campion |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121001012037/http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/news/councils-assessing-backyard-traps-to-catch-indian-mynah-birds/story-e6frezt9-1225711964693|archive-date=2012-10-01 |url=http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/news/councils-assessing-backyard-traps-to-catch-indian-mynah-birds/story-e6frezt9-1225711964693 |title=Councils assessing backyard traps to catch Indian Mynah birds |work=The Daily Telegraph |location=Sydney, Australia |date=2009-05-12 |access-date=2012-08-07}}

The myna can live and breed in a wide range of temperatures, ranging from the frosty winters of Canberra to the tropical climate of Cairns. Self-sustaining populations have been found in regions with a mean monthly highest temperature no less than {{convert|23.2|C}} and a mean monthly lowest temperature no less than {{convert|-0.4|C}}, implying that the common myna could spread from Sydney northwards along the eastern coast to Cairns, and westwards along the southern coast to Adelaide, but not to Tasmania, Darwin, or the arid outback regions.{{sfn|Martin|1996|pp=169–170}}

In 2019, common mynas were added to the List of Invasive Alien Species of Union concern.{{Cite web|url=https://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/invasivealien/list/index_en.htm|title=List of Invasive Alien Species of Union concern – Environment – European Commission|website=ec.europa.eu|date=19 December 2023 }} They have established in Spain and Portugal{{Cite journal|last=Saavedra|first=Serguei|title=A survey of recent introduction events, spread and mitigation efforts of mynas (Acridotheres sp.) in Spain and Portugal.|url=https://www.raco.cat/index.php/ABC/article/view/293215|journal=Animal Biodiversity and Conservation|year=2015|volume=38|pages=121–127|doi=10.32800/abc.2015.38.0121|doi-access=free|hdl=10261/120917|hdl-access=free}} and were introduced to France, where they occasionally bred.Dubois P.J. & J.M. Cugnasse (2015).- Les populations d'oiseaux allochtones en France en 2014 (3e enquête nationale). Ornithos : 22-2 : 72–91.

The common myna was introduced to both the North Island and South Island of New Zealand in the 1870s. However, the cooler summer temperatures in the South Island appear to have impeded the breeding success rate of the southern populations, preventing the proliferation of the species, which was largely non-existent there by the 1890s. In contrast, the North Island population was able to breed more successfully and large portions of the North Island are now populated. However, in the southern reaches of the North Island, the cooler summer temperatures, like those of the South Island, have prevented the establishment of large myna populations.{{Cite web | url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/introduced-land-birds/page-9 | title=9. – Introduced land birds – Te Ara Encyclopedia of New Zealand}}{{Cite web|url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/introduced-land-birds/page-9|title=Starlings and mynas|first=New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage Te Manatu|last=Taonga|website=teara.govt.nz}} Since the 1950s, mynas have spread northwards and presently inhabit beyond the Waikato region,{{Cite web|url=https://www.nrc.govt.nz/environment/weed-and-pest-control/pest-control-hub/?pwsystem=true&pwid=184|title=Pest control hub – Northland Regional Council|website=www.nrc.govt.nz}} leading to a majority of its successful population thriving upon lower latitude regions due to the warmer climate. At present, mynas have become especially common in regions of lower latitude, particularly the Northland region, but rarely found south of Whanganui.{{Cite web|url=https://www.auckland.ac.nz/en/news/2021/04/30/annika-beesley-historical-myna-research.html|title=Myna information: study tracks history of pesky birds in New Zealand – The University of Auckland|website=www.auckland.ac.nz}}

In South Africa, where it escaped into the wild in 1902, it has become very common and its distribution is greater where human populations are greater or where there is more human disturbance.{{cite journal|journal=South African Journal of Science|volume=103|pages=465–473|year=2007|title=The distribution and spread of the invasive alien Common Myna, Acridotheres tristis L. (Aves: Sturnidae), in southern Africa|first1=Derick S.|last1=Peacock|first2=Berndt J.|last2=van Rensburg|first3=Mark P.|last3=Robertson|name-list-style=amp|url=http://ref.scielo.org/cnnq9g}}{{Dead link|date=December 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} The bird is also notorious for being a pest, kicking other birds out of their nests and killing their young due to the myna's strong territorial instinct. It is considered somewhat of a major pest and disturbance of the natural habitat; as a result, it has been declared an invasive species,{{cite web |url=http://www.invasives.org.za/files/134/Legislation/770/NEMBA-Invasive-Species-Lists--29-July-2016---List-4---National-List-of-Invasive-Bird-Species.pdf |title=National List of Invasive Bird Species |publisher=Government Gazette |date=29 July 2016 |access-date=11 February 2021 }}{{Dead link|date=December 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} requiring it to be controlled.

Morphological studies show that the process of spatial sorting is at work on the range expansion of A. tristis in South Africa.{{cite journal | last1 = Berthouly-Salazar | first1 = C. | last2 = van Rensburg | first2 = B.J. | last3 = van Vuuren | first3 = B.J. | last4 = Hui | first4 = C. | year = 2012 | title = Spatial sorting drives morphological variation in the invasive bird, Acridotheres tristis | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 7 | issue = 5| page = e38145 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0038145 | pmid = 22693591 | pmc = 3364963 | bibcode = 2012PLoSO...738145B | doi-access = free }} Dispersal-relevant traits are significantly correlated with distance from the range core, with strong sexual dimorphism, indicative of sex-biased dispersal. Morphological variations are significant in wing and head traits of females, suggesting females as the primary dispersing sex. In contrast, traits not related to dispersal such as those associated with foraging show no signs of spatial sorting but are significantly affected by environmental variables such as vegetation and intensity of urbanisation. To study the invasion genetics and landscape-scale dynamics of A. tristis in South Africa, scientists have recently developed 16 polymorphic nuclear microsatellite markers{{cite journal | last1 = Berthouly-Salazar | first1 = C. | last2 = Cassey | first2 = P. | last3 = van Vuuren | first3 = B.J. | last4 = van Rensburg | first4 = B.J. | last5 = Hui | first5 = C. | last6 = le Roux | first6 = J.J. | year = 2012 | title = Development and characterization of 13 new, and cross amplification of 3, polymorphic nuclear microsatellite loci in the Common myna (Acridotheres tristis) | journal = Conservation Genetics Resources | volume = 4 | issue = 3| pages = 621–624 | doi = 10.1007/s12686-012-9607-8 | bibcode = 2012ConGR...4..621B | s2cid = 16022159 | hdl = 10019.1/113194 | hdl-access = free }} using the next generation sequencing (NGS) approach.

In Hawaii, it is out-competing many native birds for food and nesting areas.{{cite web|url=http://hbs.bishopmuseum.org/birds/rlp-monograph/pdfs/07-ZOST-ESTR/COMY.pdf|title=COMMON MYNA Acridotheres tristis|website=Hbs.bishopmuseum.org|quotation=No introduced species in Hawaii has elicited so much opinion as the Common Myna, perhaps in part due to its intelligence and amusing anthropomorphic qualities. Although they were thought to be of "great value to the aviculturist" in Hawaii for controlling pests (Bryan 1937b), it was also generally vilified for its noisy habits, "quarrelsome" and opportunistic nature, disturbance to domestic pigeons, fruit-eating and nest-robbing habits, and the possibility of its adversely affecting native bird populations (e.g., Finsch 1880; Wilson 1890a; Rothschild 1900; Perkins 1901, in Evenhuis 2007:75)|access-date=18 March 2022}}

In the late 1990s a few myna birds had escaped or were released from captivity in Tel-Aviv.{{Cite web |title=ציפורים, פורטל צפרות - אתר הצפרות הישראלי |url=https://www.birds.org.il/he/species-page/432/species-description |access-date=2025-04-09 |website=www.birds.org.il |language=en}} Since then its wild population had exploded, and in a birding survey in 2024 it was found to be the second most observed bird in Israel.{{Cite news |last=קוריאל |first=אילנה |date=2024-04-08 |title=הספירה השנתית: אלו 10 הציפורים הנפוצות בישראל |url=https://www.ynet.co.il/environment-science/article/sybuhtxla |access-date=2025-04-09 |work=Ynet |language=he}} It is presumed to be responsible for the decline in the populations of some of Israel’s common native birds.{{Cite web |date=2020-01-03 |title=Invasive parakeets and mynas are replacing Israel's native birds |url=https://www.birdguides.com/articles/ornithology/invasive-parakeets-and-mynas-are-replacing-israels-native-birds/ |access-date=2025-04-09 |website=BirdGuides |language=en}}

The common myna is a hollow-nesting species; that is, it nests and breeds in protected hollows found either naturally in trees or artificially on buildings (for example, recessed windowsills or low eaves).{{sfn|Bomford|Sinclair|2002|p=34}} Compared to native hollow-nesting species, the common myna is extremely aggressive, and breeding males will actively defend areas ranging up to 0.83 hectares in size (though males in densely populated urban settings tend to only defend the area immediately surrounding their nests).{{sfn|Pell|Tidemann|1997a|p=148}}

This aggressiveness has enabled the common myna to displace many breeding pairs of native hollow-nesters, thereby reducing their reproductive success. In Australia, their aggressiveness has enabled them to chase native birds as large as galahs out of their nests.

The common myna is also known to maintain up to two roosts simultaneously; a temporary summer roost close to a breeding site (where the entire local male community sleeps during the summer, the period of highest aggression), and a permanent all-year roost where the female broods and incubates overnight. Both male and female common mynas will fiercely protect both roosts at all times, leading to further exclusion of native birds.{{sfn|Pell|Tidemann|1997a|p=148}}

The common myna (which feeds mostly on ground-dwelling insects, tropical fruits such as grapes, plums and some berries and, in urban areas, discarded human food){{sfn|Pell|Tidemann|1997a|p=147}} poses a serious threat to Australian blueberry crops, though its main threat is to native bird species.{{sfn|Bomford|Sinclair|2002|p=30}}

In Hawaii, where the common myna was introduced to control pest armyworms and cutworms in sugarcane crops, the bird has helped to spread the robust Lantana camara weed across the islands' open grasslands.{{cite journal | last = Pimentel | first = D. |author2=Lori Lach |author3=Rodolfo Zuniga |author4=Doug Morrison | title = Environmental and Economic Costs of Nonindigenous Species in the United States | journal = BioScience | volume = 50 | issue = 1 | pages = 53–56 | date = January 2000 | url = http://www.news.cornell.edu/releases/Jan99/species_costs.html | doi = 10.1641/0006-3568(2000)050[0053:EAECON]2.3.CO;2| doi-access = free }} It also has been recorded as the fourth-ranking avian pest in the fruit industry by a 2004 survey of the Hawaiian Farm Bureau and the sixth in number of complaints of avian pests overall.{{cite journal|author=Koopman, ME|author2=W C Pitt|name-list-style=amp|year=2007|title=Crop diversification leads to diverse bird problems in Hawaiian agriculture|journal=Human–Wildlife Conflicts|volume=1|issue=2|pages=235–243|url=http://www.aphis.usda.gov/wildlife_damage/nwrc/publications/07pubs/pitt072.pdf|access-date=2011-01-26|archive-date=2009-01-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090110114413/http://www.aphis.usda.gov/wildlife_damage/nwrc/publications/07pubs/pitt072.pdf|url-status=dead}}

Common mynas can cause considerable damage to ripening fruit, particularly grapes, but also figs, apples, pears, strawberries, blueberries, guava, mangoes and breadfruit. Cereal crops such as maize, wheat and rice are susceptible where they occur near urban areas. Roosting and nesting commensal with humans create aesthetic and health concerns. Common mynas are known to carry avian malaria and exotic parasites such as the Ornithonyssus bursia mite, which can cause dermatitis in humans. The common myna can help spread agricultural weeds: for example, it spreads the seeds of Lantana camara, which has been classed as a Weed of National Significance because of its invasiveness. Common mynas are regularly observed to usurp nests and hollows, destroy the eggs and kill the young of native bird species, including seabirds and parrots. There is evidence that common mynas have killed small land

mammals such as mice, squirrels and possums, but further research on these occurrences is under consideration.{{Cite web | url=https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/biosecurity/vertebrate-pests/pest-animals-in-nsw/pest-birds/myna-birds | title=Myna birds| year=2018}}

{{expand section|date=January 2022}}

The common myna, being a major agricultural pest and posing a threat to native species in non-native countries, is controlled by various factors. Mynas are either killed or chased away as control. Poison, shooting, cage traps, and bird-scaring devices are currently used for control.

== In culture ==

In Sanskrit literature, the common myna has a number of names, most are descriptive of the appearance or behaviour of the bird. In addition to सारिका (IAST: sārikā), the names for the common myna include कलहप्रिया (IAST: kalahapriyā), which means "one who is fond of arguments" referring to the quarrelsome nature of this bird; चित्रनेत्र (IAST: chitranetra), meaning "pretty eyes", पीतनेत्र (IAST: pītanetra), "yellow-eyes" and पीतपाद (IAST: pītapāda), "yellow-legs".{{cite book |title=Birds in Sanskrit Literature |last=Dave |first=K. N.|edition=revised |year=2005 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Private Ltd. |location=Delhi |isbn=978-81-208-1842-2 |pages=468, 516 }}

The bird called śārikā ({{langx|sa|सारिक}} or शारिका){{efn|Also śāri ({{langx|sa|शारि}})}} most often refers to the common myna,{{Refn|group="lower-alpha"|Turdus salica is actually not a thrush but a synonym of Acridotheres tristis, the common myna.}} though there are other candidates.

File:Acridotheres tristis Raiganj.WB.India Sayan.Dey.jpg|Raiganj, WB, India

File:Acridotheres tristis 40973073.jpg|Cairns, Queensland, Australia

File:Common Myna (Acridotheres tristis)- Immature at nest in Kolkata I IMG 7877.jpg|Sub-adult in a nest in West Bengal

File:Javan and Indian Myna.jpg|A captive housed with a Javan myna

File:Common myna at Satchari National Park.jpg|In Bangladesh

File:Common Myna basking.JPG|Basking

File:Common Myna bathing.JPG|Bathing in a rain water puddle

File:Indian Myna in Patiala.jpg|In Patiala

File:Young Indian Mynah Bird.jpg|A juvenile bathing in Australia

File:Common Mynah (डाङ्ग्रे रुपी) 2.jpg|In Nepal

File:Common Myna in Srinagar.jpg|Two in Srinagar

File:Kapok leaves I IMG 5949.jpg|Perching among the foliage of a Kapok in Kolkata

File:Common myna Mumbai India.jpg|Mumbai, India

{{notelist}}

{{Reflist|30em|refs=

{{citation|translator1-last=Goldman |translator1-first=Robert P. |translator1-link=Robert P. Goldman |translator2-last=Sutherland Goldman |translator2-first=Sally J. |translator2-link= |translator3-last=Nooten |translator3-first=Barend A. van |translator3-link= |title=The Rāmāyaṇa of Vālmīki: An Epic of Ancient India |volume=VI: Yuddhakāṇḍa |publisher=Princeton University Press |date=2009 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vDibDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA712 |page=712, n29 |isbn=9781400833269}}

{{citation|last1=Horsfield |first1=Thomas |author1-link=Thomas Horsfield |last2=Moore |first2=Frederic |author2-link=Frederic Moore |chapter= 806. Acridotheres Tristis, Linn. Sp. |title=A catalogue of the birds in the Museum of the Honorable East India Company |volume=2 |publisher=East India Company. Museum. |date=1856–1858 |chapter-url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/182055#page/86/mode/1up |pages=532–534 |quote=..Thurdus Salica, F. (B.) Hamilton, MS. I., p. 12 / Paradise Grackle, Latham. / The Common Hill Mynah.}}

}}

{{refbegin}}

• {{cite journal| last1 = Bomford | first1 = M. |first2=Ron |last2=Sinclair | title = Australian research on bird pests: impact, management and future directions | journal = Emu | volume = 102 | year = 2002 | issue = 1 | page = 35 | url = http://www.publish.csiro.au/?act=view_file&file_id=MU01028.pdf | doi = 10.1071/MU01028| bibcode = 2002EmuAO.102...29B | s2cid = 83464835 }}
• {{cite journal|last1=Cruz |first1=S.S. |last2= Reynolds |first2=S.J.|title= Eradication and control programmes for invasive mynas (Acridotheres spp.) and bulbuls (Pycnonotus spp.): defining best practice in managing invasive bird populations on oceanic islands|editor1= C.R. Veitch|editor2= M.N. Clout|editor3= A.R. Martin|editor4= J.C. Russell |editor5=C.J. West |date=2019|journal= Island Invasives: Scaling up to Meet the Challenge|pages= 302–308|series=Occasional Paper SSC no. 62|location= Gland, Switzerland|publisher= IUCN|url= http://www.issg.org/pdf/publications/2019_Island_Invasives/SaavedraCruz.pdf}}
• {{cite journal | doi = 10.1071/MU9960166 | last = Martin | first = W.K. | title = The Current and Potential Distribution of the Common Myna Acridotheres tristis in Australia | journal = Emu | volume = 96 | year = 1996 | pages = 169–170 | url = http://www.publish.csiro.au/?act=view_file&file_id=MU9960166.pdf | issue = 3| bibcode = 1996EmuAO..96..166M }}
• {{cite journal|last1=Pell|first1=A.S.|last2=Tidemann|first2=C.R.|title=The Ecology of the Common Myna in Urban Nature Reserves in the Australian Capital Territory|journal=Emu – Austral Ornithology|volume=97|issue=2|year=1997a|pages=141–149|issn=0158-4197|doi=10.1071/MU97018|bibcode=1997EmuAO..97..141P |url=}}
• {{cite journal|last1=Saavedra|first1= S|first2=A |last2=Maraver|first3= JD|last3= Anadón|first4= JL |last4=Tella|date= 2015|title= A survey of recent introduction events, spread and mitigation efforts of mynas (Acridotheres sp.) in Spain and Portugal|journal=Animal Biodiversity and Conservation|volume=38|issue=1|pages= 121–127|url= http://abc.museucienciesjournals.cat/files/ABC_38-1_pp_121-127.pdf |publisher=Museu de Ciències Naturals de Barcelona|doi= 10.32800/abc.2015.38.0121|hdl= 10261/120917|hdl-access= free}}

{{refend}}

{{refbegin}}

• {{cite book | last = Feare | first = Chris |author2=Craig, Adrian | year = 1999 | title = Starlings and Mynas |publisher = Princeton University Press | isbn = 978-0-7136-3961-2}}
• {{cite book|last1=Grimmett|first1=Richard|last2=Inskipp|first2=Carol|last3=Inskipp|first3=Tim|title=Birds of India, Pakistan, Nepal, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Sri Lanka, and the Maldives|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J0eCZwEACAAJ|year=2012|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-15349-0}}
• {{cite journal|last1=Pell|first1=A.S.|last2=Tidemann|first2=C.R.|title=The impact of two exotic hollow-nesting birds on two native parrots in savannah and woodland in eastern Australia|journal=Biological Conservation|volume=79|issue=2–3|year=1997b|pages=145–153|issn=0006-3207|doi=10.1016/S0006-3207(96)00112-7|bibcode=1997BCons..79..145P |url=http://www.indianmynaaction.org.au/documents/Pell_Tidemann_myna_impacts1997.pdf|access-date=2021-02-28|archive-date=2015-02-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150228082055/http://indianmynaaction.org.au/documents/Pell_Tidemann_myna_impacts1997.pdf|url-status=dead}}

{{refend}}

{{Commons}}

• [http://ibc.lynxeds.com/species/common-myna-acridotheres-tristis Common Myna videos, photos & sounds] on the Internet Bird Collection
• (Indian Myna =) Common Myna – [http://sabap2.adu.org.za/docs/sabap1/758.pdf Species text in The Atlas of Southern African Birds].
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20090219095917/http://www.indianmyna.org/documents/Indian_Myna_Handbookl.pdf Indian Myna Control Handbook]
• {{ITIS | id=554025 | taxon=Acridotheres tristis | access-date=23 February 2009 }}
• [http://srilankawilderness.blogspot.com/2010/05/common-mynaacridotheres-tristis.html Common Myna video] on Wild Sri Lanka
• [http://sres-associated.anu.edu.au/myna/index.html ANU Indian Common Myna page] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100217222034/http://sres-associated.anu.edu.au/myna/index.html |date=2010-02-17 }} about mynas as an invasive species in Australia and what can be done to control them

{{Taxonbar|from=Q116667}}

common myna

common myna

Category:Birds of Southern Africa

Category:Birds of South Asia

Category:Birds of Southeast Asia

Category:Birds of the Indian Ocean

Category:Birds of the Middle East

Category:Birds of Hawaii

Category:Talking birds

common myna

Category:Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus

Category:Invasive bird species