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Dhao language#Grammar

{{Short description|Language spoken on Ndao island Indonesia}}

{{distinguish|Ndau language|Pendau language}}

{{Infobox language

|name=Dhao

|nativename={{lang|nfa|Ndao}}

|pronunciation={{IPA|[ˈɖ͡ʐao]}}

|region=Lesser Sunda Islands

|states=Indonesia

|speakers=5,000

|date=1997

|ref=e18

|familycolor=Austronesian

|fam2=Malayo-Polynesian

|fam3=Sumba–Flores?

|fam4=Sumba–Hawu

|fam5=Savu

|script=Latin

|iso3=nfa

|glotto=dhao1237

|glottorefname=Dhao

|notice=IPA

|coordinates={{coord|10|49|S|122|40|E}}

|pushpin_map=Indonesia Lesser Sunda Islands#Indonesia

|pushpin_map_caption=Location of Ndao island, where Dhao is spoken.

|pushpin_label=Ndao island

}}

The Dhao language, better known to outsiders by its Rotinese name {{lang|mis|Ndao}} (Ndaonese, Ndaundau), is the language of Ndao Island in Indonesia. Traditionally classified as a Sumba language in the Austronesian family, it may actually be a non-Austronesian (Papuan) language.See Savu languages for details. It was once considered a dialect of Hawu, but is not mutually intelligible.

Phonology

Dhao phonology is similar to that of Hawu, but somewhat more complex in its consonants.

class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"

|+Consonants{{harvp|Grimes|2006}}{{Cite conference |last=Grimes |first=Charles E. |year=1999 |editor-last=Dardjowidjojo |editor-first=Soenjono |editor2-last=Nasanius |editor2-first=Yassir |title=Implikasi penelitian fonologis untuk cara menulis bahasa-bahasa daerah di Kawasan Timur Indonesia |trans-title=Implications from phonological research for ways of writing vernacular languages in eastern Indonesia |url=http://e-ubb.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/1998-C-Grimes-PELBBA-orthography.pdf |conference=PELBBA 12: Pertemuan Linguistik (Pusat Kajian) Bahasa dan Budaya Atma Jaya Kedua Belas |language=Indonesian |location=Yogyakarta |publisher=Kanisius |pages=173–197}}

colspan="2" |

! Labial

! Alveolar

! Palatal

! Velar

!Pharyngeal

! Glottal

colspan="2" | Nasal

| {{IPA link|m}}

| {{IPA link|n}}

| {{IPA link|ɲ}}

| {{IPA link|ŋ}}

|

|

rowspan="3" | Plosive

! voiceless

| {{IPA link|p}}

| {{IPA link|t}}

| {{IPA link|tʃ}}

| {{IPA link|k}}

|

| {{IPA link|ʔ}}

voiced

| {{IPA link|b}}

| {{IPA link|d}}

| {{IPA link|dʒ}}

| {{IPA link|ɡ}}

|

|

implosive

| {{IPA link|ɓ}}

| {{IPA link|ɗ}}

| {{IPA link|ʄ}}

| {{IPA link|ɠ}}

|

|

colspan="2" | Fricative

| ({{IPA link|f}})

| {{IPA link|s}}

|

|

|{{IPA link|ʕ}}~{{IPA link|∅}}

| {{IPA link|h}}

colspan="2" | Affricate

| {{IPA link|bβ}}

| {{IPA link|ɖʐ}}

|

|

|

|

colspan="2" | Approximant

| ({{IPA link|w}})

| {{IPA link|l}}, {{IPA link|r}}

| ({{IPA link|j}})

|

|

|

Consonants of the {{IPA|/n/}} column are apical, those of the {{IPA|/ɲ/}} column laminal. {{IPA|/f w j/}} are found in Malay loan words. In a practical orthography developed for writing the language, implosives are written {{angle bracket|b' d' j' g'}}, the affricates {{angle bracket|bh dh}} (the dh is slightly retroflex), and the voiced glottal onset as a double vowel. The {{IPA|/ʕ/}} is sometimes silent, but contrasts with a glottal stop onset in vowel-initial words within a phrase. Its phonemic status is not clear. It has an "extremely limited distribution", linking noun phrases ({{IPA|/ʔiki/|lang=nfa}} 'small', {{IPA|/ʔana ʕiki/|lang=nfa}} 'small child') and clauses ({{IPA|/ʕaa/|lang=nfa}} 'and', {{IPA|/ʕoo/|lang=nfa}} 'also').

Vowels are {{IPA|/i u e ə o a/}}, with {{IPA|/ə/}} written {{angle bracket|è}}. Phonetic long vowels and diphthongs are vowel sequences. The penultimate syllable/vowel is stressed. (Every vowel constitutes a syllable.)

{{IPA|/ŋe/ [ŋe]|lang=nfa}} 'this.object (grammar)', {{IPA|/neʔe/ [ˈneʔe]|lang=nfa}} 'this', {{IPA|/ŋaŋee/ [ŋaˈŋeː]}} 'thinking', {{IPA|/ŋali/ [ˈŋali]|lang=nfa}} 'senile', {{IPA|/ŋəlu/ [ˈŋəlːu]|lang=nfa}} 'wind'.

A stressed schwa lengthens the following consonant: {{IPA|/meda/ [ˈmeda]|lang=nfa}} 'yesterday', {{IPA|/məda/ [ˈmədːa]|lang=nfa}} 'night'.

Syllables are consonant-vowel or vowel-only.

f, q, v, w, x, y and z are only used in loanwords and foreign names.

Grammar

Dhao has a nominative–accusative subject–verb–object word order, unlike Hawu. Within noun phrases, modifiers follow the noun. There are a set of independent pronouns, and also a set of pronominal clitics.

class="wikitable"

|+Personal pronouns{{harvp|Balukh|2020|p=87}}

PronounIndependentClitic
I

|{{lang|nfa|ja’a}}||{{lang|nfa|ku}}

thou

|{{lang|nfa|èu}}||{{lang|nfa|mu}}

s/he

|{{lang|nfa|nèngu}}||{{lang|nfa|na}} ({{lang|nfa|ne}})

we (inclusive)

|{{lang|nfa|èdhi}}||{{lang|nfa|ti}}

we (exclusive)

|{{lang|nfa|ji’i}}||{{lang|nfa|nga}}

y'all

|{{lang|nfa|miu}}||{{lang|nfa|mi}}

they

|{{lang|nfa|rèngu}}||{{lang|nfa|ra}} ({{lang|nfa|si}})

When the clitics are used for objects, there are proximal forms in the third person, {{lang|nfa|ne}} 'this one' and {{lang|nfa|si}} 'these', the latter also for collective plurals. When used for subjects and the verb begins with a vowel, they drop their vowel with a few irregularities:In some cases, the clitics in -u and sometimes in -i assimilate with the verb rather than just dropping. Ku-, mu-, and mi- (but not ti-) do this with {{IPA|aʔa}} 'to know' and {{IPA|are}} 'to take': {{IPA|koʔa moʔa taʔa miʔa}}; {{IPA|kore more tare mere}}. This does not happen with other initial vowels such as schwa, such as {{IPA|əti}} 'to see' ({{IPA|kəti məti}} ...). {{lang|nfa|keʔa meʔa neʔa teʔa ŋeʔa meʔa reʔa}} 'to know'. Many words that translate prepositions in English are verbs in Dhao, and inflect as such. Dhao also has a single 'intradirective' verb, {{lang|nfa|laʔ}} 'to go', in which the clitics follow: {{lang|nfa|laku lamu laʔa}} or {{lang|nfa|laʔe lati}} ({{sc|na}}) {{lang|nfa|lami lasi}}.

Demonstratives distinguish proximal (here, now, this), distal (there, then, that), and remote (yonder, yon).

class="wikitable"

|+Demonstratives{{harvp|Balukh|2020|p=90}}

DemonstrativeSingularPlural
Proximal

|{{lang|nfa|ne'e}}, {{lang|nfa|ne}} ||{{lang|nfa|se'e}}, {{lang|nfa|se}}

Distal

|{{lang|nfa|èèna}}, {{lang|nfa|na}} ||{{lang|nfa|sèra}}, {{lang|nfa|sa}}

Remote

|{{lang|nfa|nèi}}, {{lang|nfa|ni}}||{{lang|nfa|sèi}}, {{lang|nfa|si}}

Sample clauses ({{harvp|Grimes|2006}}).Compare the Hawu equivalents at Hawu language#Grammar.

{{interlinear|number=ex:

|Lazarus kako maɖʐutu nebβe ɖʐasi.

|(name) walk follow shore sea

|'Lazarus walked/was walking along the edge of the sea.'|lang=nfa}}

{{interlinear|number=ex:

|həia ra kako taruu asa Baʔa.

|then they walk cont. PATH Ba’a

|'Then they continued walking/traveling towards Ba’a.'|lang=nfa}}

{{interlinear|number=ex:

|ropa ra poro r-are kətu na,

|when they cut they-PFV head he/his

|'When they had cut off his head,'|lang=nfa}}

{{interlinear|number=ex:

|{te ŋaa} ra pa-maɖʐe ne.

|but they CAUS-die this.one

|'But they killed him.'|lang=nfa}}

{{interlinear|number=ex:

|laɖʐe ama na maɖʐe,

|if/when father he/his die

|'When his father dies,'|lang=nfa}}

{{interlinear|number=ex:

|na əra titu kəna.

|he strong very much

|'He was incredibly strong.'|lang=nfa}}

Notes

{{reflist}}

References

{{refbegin}}

  • {{Cite conference |last=Grimes |first=Charles E. |date=2006 |url=http://www.sil.org/asia/philippines/ical/papers/Grimes-Hawu_Dhao.pdf |title=Hawu and Dhao in Eastern Indonesia: Revisiting Their Relationship}}
  • {{Cite thesis |last=Balukh |first=J. I. |title=A Grammar of Dhao: An Endangered Austronesian Language in Eastern Indonesia |date=2020 |degree=PhD |publisher=Leiden University |hdl=1887/136759 |hdl-access=free}}

{{refend}}

External links

  • [http://www.omniglot.com/writing/dhao.htm Alphabet and pronunciation]

{{Central Malayo-Polynesian languages}}

{{Languages of Indonesia}}

Category:Savu languages

Category:Languages of Indonesia