Genocides in history#Americas

Genocide is the intentional destruction of a people{{Efn|Defined under the Genocide Convention as a "national, ethnical, racial, or religious group."}} in whole or in part. The term was coined in 1944 by Raphael Lemkin. It is defined in Article 2 of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (CPPCG) of 1948 as "any of the following acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial, or religious group, as such: killing members of the group; causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group; deliberately inflicting on the group's conditions of life, calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part; imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group; [and] forcibly transferring children of the group to another group."{{cite web |url=http://www2.ohchr.org/english/law/genocide.htm |title=Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide |work=Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights |date=12 January 1951 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051211121830/http://www.ohchr.org/english/law/genocide.htm |archive-date=11 December 2005}} Note: "ethnical", although unusual, is found in several dictionaries.

The preamble to the CPPCG states that "genocide is a crime under international law, contrary to the spirit and aims of the United Nations and condemned by the civilized world", and it also states that "at all periods of history genocide has inflicted great losses on humanity." Genocide is widely considered to be the epitome of human evil,{{harvnb|Towner|2011|pp=625–638}}; {{harvnb|Lang|2005|pp=5–17}}: "On any ranking of crimes or atrocities, it would be difficult to name an act or event regarded as more heinous. Genocide arguably appears now as the most serious offense in humanity's lengthy—and, we recognize, still growing—list of moral or legal violations."; {{harvnb|Gerlach|2010|p=6}}: "Genocide is an action-oriented model designed for moral condemnation, prevention, intervention or punishment. In other words, genocide is a normative, action-oriented concept made for the political struggle, but in order to be operational it leads to simplification, with a focus on government policies."; {{harvnb|Hollander|2012|pp=149–189}}: "... genocide has become the yardstick, the gold standard for identifying and measuring political evil in our times. The label 'genocide' confers moral distinction on its victims and indisputable condemnation on its perpetrators." and has been referred to as the "crime of crimes".{{sfn|Schabas|2000|pp=9, 92, 227}}{{sfn|Straus|2022|pp=223, 240}}{{sfn|Rugira|2022}} The Political Instability Task Force estimated that 43 genocides occurred between 1956 and 2016, resulting in 50 million deaths.{{sfn|Gangopadhyay|2016|p=510}} The UNHCR estimated that a further 50 million had been displaced by such episodes of violence.{{sfn|Gangopadhyay|2016|p=510}}

Definitions of genocide

The debate continues over what legally constitutes genocide. One definition is any conflict that the International Criminal Court has so designated. Mohammed Hassan Kakar argues that the definition should include political groups or any group so defined by the perpetrator.{{sfn|Kakar|1995|pp=213–214}} He prefers the definition from Frank Chalk and Kurt Jonassohn, which defines genocide as "a form of one-sided mass killing in which a state or other authority intends to destroy a group so defined by the perpetrator."{{sfn|Chalk|Jonassohn|1990}}

In literature, some scholars have popularly emphasized the role that the Soviet Union played in excluding political groups from the international definition of genocide, which is contained in the Genocide Convention of 1948,{{sfn|Staub|1989|p=8}} and in particular they have written that Joseph Stalin may have feared greater international scrutiny of the political killings that occurred in the country, such as the Great Purge;{{sfn|Gellately|Kiernan|2003|p=267}} however, this claim is not supported by evidence. The Soviet view was shared and supported by many diverse countries, and they were also in line with Raphael Lemkin's original conception,{{efn|By 1951, Lemkin was saying that the Soviet Union was the only state that could be indicted for genocide; his concept of genocide, as it was outlined in Axis Rule in Occupied Europe, covered Stalinist deportations as genocide by default, and differed from the adopted Genocide Convention in many ways. From a 21st-century perspective, its coverage was very broad, and as a result, it would classify any gross human rights violation as a genocide, and many events that were deemed genocidal by Lemkin did not amount to genocide. As the Cold War began, this change was the result of Lemkin's turn to anti-communism in an attempt to convince the United States to ratify the Genocide Convention.{{sfn|Weiss-Wendt|2005}}}} and it was originally promoted by the World Jewish Congress.{{sfn|Schabas|2009|p=160|ps=: "Rigorous examination of the travaux fails to confirm a popular impression in the literature that the opposition to the inclusion of political genocide was some Soviet machination. The Soviet views were also shared by a number of other States for whom it is difficult to establish any geographic or social common denominator: Lebanon, Sweden, Brazil, Peru, Venezuela, the Philippines, the Dominican Republic, Iran, Egypt, Belgium, and Uruguay. The exclusion of political groups was originally promoted by a non-governmental organization, the World Jewish Congress, and it corresponded to Raphael Lemkin's vision of the nature of the crime of genocide."}}

Historical genocides

= Genocides before World War I =

Raphael Lemkin applied the concept of genocide to a wide variety of events throughout human history. He and other scholars date the first genocides to prehistoric times.{{sfn|Naimark|2017|p=vii}}{{sfn|Lemos|Taylor|Kiernan|2023|p=31}}{{sfn|Irvin-Erickson|2023|p=11}} Genocide is mentioned in various ancient sources including the Hebrew Bible, in which God commanded genocide (herem) against some of the Israelites' enemies, especially Amalek.{{sfn|Naimark|2017|pp=7–9}}{{sfn|Lemos|Taylor|Kiernan|2023|pp=50–51}} Genocide in the ancient world often consisted of the massacre of men and the enslavement or forced assimilation of women and children—often limited to a particular town or city rather than applied to a larger group.{{sfn|Lemos|Taylor|Kiernan|2023|pp=39, 50}} Potential medieval examples are found in Europe, even though experts caution against applying a modern term like genocide to such events.{{sfn|Fraser|2010|p=277}} Overall, premodern examples that can be considered genocide were relatively uncommon.{{sfn|Lemos|Taylor|Kiernan|2023|p=47}} Beginning in the early modern period, racial ideologies emerged as a more important factor.{{sfn|Lemos|Taylor|Kiernan|2023|p=55}}

According to Frank Chalk, Helen Fein, and Kurt Jonassohn, if a dominant group of people had little in common with a marginalized group of people, it was easy for the dominant group to define the marginalized group as a subhuman group; the marginalized group might be labeled a threat that must be eliminated.{{sfn|Jones|2006|p=3|ps=: "The difficulty, as Frank Chalk and Kurt Jonassohn pointed out in their early study, is that such historical records as exist are ambiguous and undependable. While history today is generally written with some fealty to 'objective' facts, most previous accounts aimed rather to praise the writer's patron (normally the leader) and to emphasize the superiority of one's own gods and religious beliefs."}}

The expansion of various European colonial powers, such as the British and Spanish Empires, and the subsequent establishment of colonies on indigenous territory frequently involved acts of genocidal violence against indigenous groups in the Americas (including Brazil, Paraguay, Canada, and the United States), Australia, Africa, and Asia.{{sfn|Jones|2010|p=139}} According to Lemkin, colonisation was in itself intimately connected with genocide.{{cite journal |last=Bryant |first=Michael |title=Canaries in the Mineshaft of American Democracy: North American Settler Genocide in the Thought of Raphaël Lemkin |journal=Genocide Studies and Prevention |volume=14 |issue=1 |date=2020 |issn=1911-0359 |doi=10.5038/1911-9933.14.1.1632 |doi-access=free |pages=21–39 |url=https://digitalcommons.usf.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1632&context=gsp |access-date=24 January 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211203044955/https://digitalcommons.usf.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi%3Farticle%3D1632&context%3Dgsp |archive-date=3 December 2021}} He saw genocide as a two-phase process: in the first, the indigenous population's way of life was destroyed; and in the second, the newcomers impose their way of life on the indigenous group.{{cite book |last=Lemkin |first=Raphael |title=Axis Rule in Occupied Europe: Laws of Occupation, Analysis of Government, Proposals for Redress |year=1944 |location=Washington, DC |publisher=Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, Division of International Law |series=The Lawbook Exchange |quote=Genocide has two phases: one, destruction of the national pattern of the oppressed group; the other, the imposition of the national pattern of the oppressor. This imposition, in turn, may be made upon the oppressed population which is allowed to remain, or upon the territory alone, after removal of the population and the colonization of the area by the oppressor's own nationals. Denationalization was the word used in the past to describe the destruction of the national pattern. |page=79}}{{cite book |last=Cooper |first=John |title=Raphael Lemkin and the Struggle for the Genocide Convention |publisher=Springer |year=2008 |page=57}}

According to David Maybury-Lewis, imperial and colonial forms of genocide are enacted in two main ways, either through the deliberate clearing of territories of their original inhabitants to make them exploitable for purposes of resource extraction or colonial settlements, or through enlisting indigenous peoples as forced laborers in colonialist or imperialist projects of resource extraction.{{sfn|Maybury-Lewis|2002|page=48}} The designation of specific events as genocidal is often controversial.{{sfn|Hitchcock|Koperski|2008|pp=577–582}}

During the 17th century Beaver Wars, the Iroquois destroyed several large tribal confederacies{{emdash}}including the Mohicans, Huron, Neutral, Erie, Susquehannock, and northern Algonquins{{emdash}}with extreme brutality. The exterminatory nature of the mode of warfare practised by the Iroquois caused some historians to label these events as acts of genocide.{{cite journal |last1=Blick |first1=Jeremy P. |date=3 August 2010 |title=The Iroquois practice of genocidal warfare (1534-1787) |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14623520120097215 |journal=Journal of Genocide Research |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=405–429 |doi=10.1080/14623520120097215 |s2cid=71358963 |access-date=9 March 2022}}

= Genocides from World War I through World War II =

File:Bundesarchiv R 49 Bild-0131, Aussiedlung von Polen im Wartheland.jpg. The Generalplan Ost envisaged the deportation, extermination, Germanisation, and enslavement of all or most Poles, Czechs, Ukrainians, Belarusians and Russians.]]

In 1915, one year after the outbreak of World War I, the concept of crimes against humanity was introduced into international relations for the first time, when the Allies of World War I sent a letter to the government of the Ottoman Empire, a member of the Central Powers, to protest against the late Ottoman genocides that were taking place within the empire, among them, the Armenian genocide, the Assyrian genocide, the Greek genocide, and the Great Famine of Mount Lebanon.1915 declaration:

{{citation |url=http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/cpquery/T?&report=hr933&dbname=106& |title=Affirmation of the United States Record on the Armenian Genocide Resolution |publisher=106th Congress, 2nd Session, House of Representatives |access-date=23 January 2021 |archive-date=14 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160414183759/http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/cpquery/T?&report=hr933&dbname=106& |url-status=dead}};
{{citation |url=http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?c109:H.RES.316: |title=Affirmation of the United States Record on the Armenian Genocide Resolution (Introduced in House of Representatives) |publisher=109th Congress, 1st Session |date=15 September 2005 |access-date=23 January 2021 |archive-date=3 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160703194652/http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?c109:H.RES.316: |url-status=dead}}; {{citation |url=http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/bdquery/z?d109:HE00316: |title=H.res.316 |date=14 June 2005 |access-date=15 September 2005 |publisher=House Committee/Subcommittee:International Relations actions |archive-date=3 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160703194650/http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/bdquery/z?d109:HE00316: |url-status=dead}}: Status: Ordered to be Reported by the Yeas and Nays: 40 – 7.
{{citation |url=http://www.armenian-genocide.org/Affirmation.160/current_category.7/affirmation_detail.html |title=The French, British and Russian joint declaration |type=original source of the telegram |publisher=The Department of State |place=Washington, D.C. |date=24 May 1915 |access-date=4 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240127030626/https://www.armenian-genocide.org/Affirmation.160/current_category.7/affirmation_detail.html |archive-date=27 January 2024}} The Holocaust, the Nazi genocide of six million European Jews from 1941 to 1945 during the Second World War,{{Cite book |last=Landau |first=Ronnie S. |title=The Nazi Holocaust: Its History and Meaning |publisher=I. B. Tauris |year=2016 |isbn=978-0-85772-843-2 |edition=3rd |pages=3 |language=en}}{{Cite book |last=Herf |first=Jeffrey C. |author-link=Jeffrey Herf |url=https://archive.org/details/the-routledge-history-of-antisemitism-1138369446-9781138369443_compress |title=The Routledge History of Antisemitism |publisher=Routledge |year=2024 |isbn=978-1-138-36944-3 |editor1-last=Weitzman |editor1-first=Mark |edition=1st |location=Abingdon and New York |pages=278 |language=en |chapter=The Long Term and the Short Term: Antisemitism and the Holocaust |doi=10.4324/9780429428616 |editor2-last=Williams |editor2-first=Robert J. |editor3-last=Wald |editor3-first=James}} is the most studied genocide,{{sfn|Jongman|1996}} and it is also a prototype of genocide;{{sfn|Moses|2010|p=21}} one of the most controversial questions among comparative scholars is the question of the Holocaust's uniqueness, which led to the {{lang|de|Historikerstreit}} in West Germany during the 1980s,{{sfn|Stone|2010|pp=206–207}} and whether there exist historical parallels, which critics believe trivializes it.{{sfn|Rosenbaum|2001|loc="Foreword"}} It is considered to be the "worst case" paradigm of genocide.{{Cite web |last=Rosenbaum |first=Alan S. |title=Philosophical Reflections on Genocide and the Claim About the Uniqueness of the Holocaust |url=https://www.bu.edu/wcp/Papers/Huma/HumaRose.htm |access-date=21 March 2024 |website=Boston University |archive-url= |archive-date=}}

Genocide studies started as a side academic field of Holocaust studies, whose researchers associated genocide with the Holocaust and believed that Lemkin's definition of genocide was too broad.{{sfn|Moses|2010|p=21}} In 1985, the United Nations' (UN) Whitaker Report cited the massacre of 100,000 to 250,000 Jews in more than 2,000 pogroms which occurred as part of the White Terror during the Russian Civil War as an act of genocide; it also suggested that consideration should be given to ecocide, ethnocide, and cultural genocide.{{sfn|Bartrop|Jacobs|2014|p=1106}}

= Genocides from 1946 through 1999 =

The Genocide Convention was adopted by the UN General Assembly on 9 December 1948 and came into effect on 12 January 1951. After the necessary twenty countries became parties to the convention, it came into force as international law on 12 January 1951;{{sfn|Akande|Higgins|Sivakumaran|Webb|2018|p=64}} however, only two of the five permanent members of the UN Security Council were parties to the treaty, which caused the Convention to languish for over four decades.{{sfn|Hoffman|2010|p=260}} During the Cold War era, mass atrocities were committed by communist regimes,{{sfn|Bellamy|2012|loc="The Cold War Struggle (2): Communist Atrocities"}} as well as by anti-communist/capitalist regimes,{{sfn|Farid|2005}}{{sfn|Bellamy|2012|loc="The Cold War Struggle (1): Capitalist Atrocities"}} among them the Indonesian mass killings of 1965–66, the 1971 Bangladesh genocide, the Cambodian genocide, the Guatemalan genocide and the East Timor genocide.{{sfn|Fein|1993}} The Rwandan genocide gave an extra impetus to genocide studies in the 1990s.{{sfn|Bloxham|Moses|2010|p=2}}

= Genocides after 2000 =

File:Panorama_of_Photos_of_Genocide_Victims_-_Genocide_Memorial_Center_-_Kigali_-_Rwanda.jpg at the Kigali Genocide Memorial in Rwanda]]

In The Guardian, David Alton, Helen Clark, and Michael Lapsley wrote that the reasons for the Rwandan genocide and crimes such as the Bosnian genocide of the Yugoslav Wars had been analyzed in-depth, and they also stated that genocide prevention had been extensively discussed. They described the analyses as producing "reams of paper [that] were dedicated to analyzing the past and pledging to heed warning signs and prevent genocide."{{cite news |last1=Clark |first1=Helen |author1-link=Helen Clark (British politician) |last2=Lapsley |first2=Michael |author2-link=Michael Lapsley |last3=Alton |first3=David |author3-link=David Alton |title=The warning signs are there for genocide in Ethiopia – the world must act to prevent it |date=26 November 2021 |newspaper=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2021/nov/26/ethiopia-genocide-warning-signs-abiy-ahmed |access-date=27 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211127031651/https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2021/nov/26/ethiopia-genocide-warning-signs-abiy-ahmed |archive-date=27 November 2021 |url-status=live}}

A group of 34 non-governmental organizations and 31 individuals, calling themselves African Citizens, referred to the Rwanda: The Preventable Genocide report prepared by a panel headed by former Botswana president Quett Masire for the Organisation of African Unity, which later became the African Union.{{cite web |author1=International panel of eminent personalities |title=Rwanda: The Preventable Genocide |website=African Union |date=21 January 2004 |url=https://www.peaceau.org/uploads/report-rowanda-genocide.pdf |access-date=27 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415090941/https://www.peaceau.org/uploads/report-rowanda-genocide.pdf |archive-date=15 April 2021 |url-status=live}} African Citizens highlighted the sentences, commenting: "Indisputably, the most important truth that emerges from our investigation is that the Rwandan genocide could have been prevented by those in the international community who had the position and means to do so. ... The world failed Rwanda. ... [The United Nations] simply did not care enough about Rwanda to intervene appropriately."{{cite web |last1=Mustapha |first1=Ogunsakin |title=Group warns UN over imminent genocide in Ethiopia |website=Citizens' Gavel |date=26 November 2021 |url=https://thegavel.com.ng/group-warns-un-over-imminent-genocide-in-ethiopia |access-date=27 November 2021 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20211127163856/https://thegavel.com.ng/group-warns-un-over-imminent-genocide-in-ethiopia/ |archive-date=27 November 2021 |url-status=live}} Chidi Odinkalu, former head of the National Human Rights Commission of Nigeria, was among those involved with African Citizens.{{cite web |last1=Odinkalu |first1=Chidi |author1-link=Chidi Odinkalu |title=Lessons from Rwanda: dangers of an Ethiopian genocide increase as rebels threaten Addis |website=Eritrea Hub |date=21 November 2021 |url=https://eritreahub.org/lessons-from-rwanda-dangers-of-an-ethiopian-genocide-increase-as-rebels-threaten-addis |access-date=27 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211122014534/https://eritreahub.org/lessons-from-rwanda-dangers-of-an-ethiopian-genocide-increase-as-rebels-threaten-addis |archive-date=22 November 2021 |url-status=live}}

The ongoing Amhara genocide started in the early 1990s with the implementation of ethnic federalism under the TPLF-led ruling, and events of the Northern Ethiopia war (Tigray conflict) since 2020 that intensified the violence further with war crimes committed by the Tigray forces in both the Amhara & Afar regions. On 20 November 2021, Genocide Watch predicted genocide in Ethiopia, in the context of the war in Tigray and also the violence across the Oromia, and the Benishangul-Gumuz (Metekel) regions that worsened since 2018.{{cite web |last1=Ross |first1=Eric |last2=Hill |first2=Nat |title=Genocide Emergency: Ethiopia |website=Genocide Watch |date=20 November 2021 |url=https://www.genocidewatch.com/single-post/genocide-emergency-ethiopia-1 |access-date=23 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211123151639/https://www.genocidewatch.com/single-post/genocide-emergency-ethiopia-1 |archive-date=23 November 2021 |url-status=live}} On 21 November, Odinkalu called for genocide prevention, stating: "We need to focus on an urgent programme of Genocide Prevention advocacy on Ethiopia NOW. It may be too late in 2 weeks, guys." On 26 November, African Citizens and Alton, Clark, and Lapsley also called for the predicted genocide to be prevented.

The Rohingya genocide is an ongoing genocide of the Muslim Rohingya people consisting of arson, rape, ethnic cleansing, and infanticide by the Burmese military. The genocide has so far consisted of two phases so: the first was a military crackdown that occurred from October 2016 to January 2017, and the second has been occurring since August 2017.{{Cite web |date=23 January 2020 |title=World Court Rules Against Myanmar on Rohingya |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/01/23/world-court-rules-against-myanmar-rohingya |access-date=21 February 2023 |website=Human Rights Watch |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240422131651/https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/01/23/world-court-rules-against-myanmar-rohingya |archive-date=22 April 2024}}{{Cite web |date=7 December 2017 |title=Myanmar's Rohingya Crisis Enters a Dangerous New Phase |url=https://www.crisisgroup.org/asia/south-east-asia/myanmar/292-myanmars-rohingya-crisis-enters-dangerous-new-phase |access-date=21 February 2023 |website=www.crisisgroup.org |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240910092104/https://www.crisisgroup.org/asia/south-east-asia/myanmar/292-myanmars-rohingya-crisis-enters-dangerous-new-phase |archive-date=10 September 2024}}

The Chinese government has engaged in a series of human rights abuses against Uyghurs and other ethnic and religious minorities in Xinjiang.{{Cite news |last=Landale |first=James |date=8 February 2021 |title=Uighurs: 'Credible case' China carrying out genocide |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-55973215 |archive-date=8 February 2021 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20210208184814/https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-55973215 |url-status=live}} Legislatures in several countries, including Canada,{{Cite news |first=Ryan Patrick |last=Jones |date=22 February 2021 |title=MPs vote to label China's persecution of Uighurs a genocide |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/uighur-genocide-motion-vote-1.5922711 |publisher=Canadian Broadcasting Corporation |quote=A substantial majority of MPs — including most Liberals who participated — voted in favour of a Conservative motion that says China's actions in its western Xinjiang region meet the definition of genocide set out in the 1948 United Nations Genocide Convention. ... The final tally was 266 in favour and zero opposed. Two MPs formally abstained. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240815011450/https://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/uighur-genocide-motion-vote-1.5922711 |archive-date=15 August 2024}} the United Kingdom,{{Cite news |last=Hefffer |first=Greg |date=22 April 2021 |title=House of Commons declares Uighurs are being subjected to genocide in China |url=https://news.sky.com/story/house-of-commons-declares-uighurs-are-being-subjected-to-genocide-in-china-12283995 |work=Sky News |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240216011746/https://news.sky.com/story/house-of-commons-declares-uighurs-are-being-subjected-to-genocide-in-china-12283995 |archive-date=16 February 2024}} and France,{{cite news |url=https://www.barrons.com/news/french-parliament-denounces-china-s-uyghur-genocide-01642684207?refsec=afp-news&s=09 |work=Barron's |agency=Agence France-Presse |title=French Parliament Denounces China's Uyghur 'Genocide' |date =20 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240205084104/https://www.barrons.com/news/french-parliament-denounces-china-s-uyghur-genocide-01642684207?refsec=afp-news&s=09 |archive-date=5 February 2024}} have passed non-binding motions describing China's actions as genocide. The United States officially denounced China's treatment of Uyghurs as a genocide.{{Cite news |title=U.S. Says China Is Committing 'Genocide' Against Uighur Muslims |last=Gordon |first=Michael R. |work=The Wall Street Journal |date=19 January 2021 |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/u-s-declares-chinas-treatment-of-uighur-muslims-to-be-genocide-11611081555 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20210119192533/https://www.wsj.com/articles/u-s-declares-chinas-treatment-of-uighur-muslims-to-be-genocide-11611081555 |archive-date=19 January 2021}}

International prosecution

= ''Ad hoc'' tribunals =

In 1951, only two of the five permanent members of the UN Security Council (UNSC) were parties to the convention, namely France and the Republic of China. The treaty was ratified by the Soviet Union in 1954, the United Kingdom in 1970, the People's Republic of China in 1983 (having replaced the Taiwan-based Republic of China on the UNSC in 1971), and the United States in 1988.{{sfn|Bachman|2017|ps=: "However, the US failed to ratify the treaty until November 25, 1988."}} In the 1990s, the international law on the crime of genocide began to be enforced.{{sfn|Hoffman|2010|p=260}}

== Bosnia and Herzegovina ==

File:Srebrenica Massacre - Exhumed Grave of Victims - Potocari 2007.jpg

In July 1995, Serbian forces killed more than 8,000{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2jrsEaRIzFkC&pg=PA81|title=The United Nations |first=Kirsten Nakjavani |last=Bookmiller |year=2008 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |access-date=4 August 2013 |isbn=978-1438102993 |page=81 |via=Google Books}}{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0J_JZbLElKkC&pg=PA25 |title=Victory Has a Thousand Fathers: Sources of Success in Counterinsurgency |first1=Christopher |last1=Paul |first2=Colin P. |last2=Clarke |first3=Beth |last3=Grill |year=2010 |publisher=Rand Corporation |access-date=4 August 2013 |isbn=978-0833050786 |page=25 |via=Google Books}}{{cite news |title=Mladic Arrives in The Hague |date=31 May 2011 |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/06/01/world/europe/01serbia.html |first=Marlise |last=Simons |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240410080319/https://www.nytimes.com/2011/06/01/world/europe/01serbia.html |archive-date=10 April 2024}} Bosniaks (Bosnian Muslims), mainly men and boys, both in and around the town of Srebrenica during the Bosnian War.{{cite web |url=http://www.potocarimc.ba/_ba/liste/nestali_a.php|title=Srebrenica-Potočari: spomen obilježje i mezarje za žrtve genocida iz 1995 godine. Liste žrtava prema prezimenu |trans-title=Srebrenica-Potocari: Memorial and Cemetery for the victims of the genocide of 1995. Lists of victims by surname |language=bs |date=1995 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418221608/http://www.potocarimc.ba/_ba/liste/nestali_a.php |archive-date=18 April 2014}}{{cite web |title=ICTY: The Conflicts |publisher=International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia |access-date=5 August 2013 |url=http://www.icty.org/sid/322}} The killing was perpetrated by units of the Army of Republika Srpska which were under the command of General Ratko Mladić. The Secretary-General of the United Nations described the mass murder as the worst crime on European soil since the Second World War.{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2005/sgsm9993.doc.htm |website=UN Press Release SG/SM/9993UN, 11/07/2005 |title=Secretary-General Kofi Annan's message to the ceremony marking the tenth anniversary of the Srebrenica massacre in Potocari-Srebrenica |publisher=United Nations |access-date=9 August 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131109084054/http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2005/sgsm9993.doc.htm |archive-date=9 November 2013}}{{cite web |author=Institute for War and Peace Reporting, Tribunal Update: Briefly Noted (TU No 398, 18 March 2005) |title=Institute for War & Peace Reporting - IWPR |url=http://www.iwpr.net/?p=tri&s=f&o=235656&apc_state=henitri2005}} A paramilitary unit from Serbia known as the Scorpions, officially a part of the Serbian Interior Ministry until 1991, participated in the massacre,{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/06/24/AR2005062401501_pf.html |title=Srebrenica Video Vindicates Long Pursuit by Serb Activist |newspaper=The Washington Post |access-date=26 May 2011 |first=Daniel |last=Williams |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230815100539/https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/06/24/AR2005062401501_pf.html |archive-date=15 August 2023}}{{cite web |url=http://www.icty.org/x/cases/kordic_cerkez/tjug/en/kor-tj010226e.pdf |title=ICTY – Kordic and Cerkez Judgement – 3. After the Conflict |access-date=11 July 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240905181824/https://www.icty.org/x/cases/kordic_cerkez/tjug/en/kor-tj010226e.pdf |archive-date=5 September 2024}} along with several hundred Russian and Greek volunteers.{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XS1vHuAgcZgC&pg=PA3 |title=Memories of Mass Repression: Narrating Life Stories in the Aftermath of Atrocity |first=Norman M. |last=Naimark |author-link=Norman Naimark |year=2011 |publisher=Transaction Publishers |access-date=4 August 2013 |isbn=978-1412812047 |page=3 |via=Google Books}}{{cite news |first=Helena |last=Smith |title=Greece faces shame of role in Serb massacre |date=5 January 2003 |newspaper=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2003/jan/05/balkans.warcrimes |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240630192549/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2003/jan/05/balkans.warcrimes |archive-date=30 June 2024}}

In 2001, the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia delivered its first conviction for the crime of genocide, against General Krstić for his role in the 1995 Srebrenica massacre (on appeal he was found not guilty of genocide but was instead found guilty of aiding and abetting genocide).The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia found in [https://archive.today/20120525111049/http://www.worldlii.org/int/cases/ICTY/2001/8.html Prosecutor v. Radislav Krstic – Trial Chamber I – Judgment – IT-98-33 (2001) ICTY8 (2 August 2001)] that genocide had been committed. (see paragraph 560 for the name of the group in English on whom the genocide was committed). The judgement was upheld in [https://archive.today/20120529184845/http://www.worldlii.org/int/cases/ICTY/2004/7.html Prosecutor v. Radislav Krstic – Appeals Chamber – Judgment – IT-98-33 (2004) ICTY 7 (19 April 2004)]

In February 2007, the International Court of Justice returned a judgment in the Bosnian Genocide Case. It upheld the findings of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia that genocide had been committed in and around Srebrenica but did not find that genocide had been committed on the wider territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina during the war. The court also ruled that Serbia was not responsible for the genocide nor was it responsible for "aiding and abetting it", although it ruled that Serbia could have done more to prevent the genocide and that Serbia failed to punish the perpetrators.{{cite news |first=Arthur |last=Max |url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/n/a/2007/02/26/international/i033600S38.DTL&type=politics |title=Court: Serbia failed to prevent genocide |publisher=The San Francisco Chronicle |agency=Associated Press |date=26 February 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070810091849/http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=%2Fn%2Fa%2F2007%2F02%2F26%2Finternational%2Fi033600S38.DTL&type=politics |archive-date=10 August 2007}} Before this ruling, the term Bosnian Genocide had been used by some academics{{cite web |url=http://www.honors.ucr.edu/Courses/hnpg036p.htm |title=HNPG 036P (or 033T) History: Bosnian Genocide In the Historical Perspective |publisher=University of California Riverside |date=2003 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070516181854/http://www.honors.ucr.edu/Courses/hnpg036p.htm |archive-date=16 May 2007}}{{cite web |url=https://www.honors.ucr.edu/Courses/winter2007.htm |title=Winter 2007 Honors Courses |publisher=University of California Riverside |date=2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070810134723/http://www.honors.ucr.edu/Courses/winter2007.htm |archive-date=10 August 2007}}{{cite web |url=http://www.honors.ucr.edu/Courses/winter2008.htm |title=Winter 2008 Honors Courses |publisher=University of California Riverside |date=2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071029073204/http://www.honors.ucr.edu/Courses/winter2008.htm |archive-date=29 October 2007}} and human rights officials.{{cite web |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2001/12/11/milosevic-face-bosnian-genocide-charges |title=Milosevic to Face Bosnian Genocide Charges |work=Human Rights Watch |date=11 December 2001 |access-date=10 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231202195854/https://www.hrw.org/news/2001/12/11/milosevic-face-bosnian-genocide-charges |archive-date=2 December 2023}}

In 2010, Vujadin Popović, Lieutenant Colonel and the Chief of Security of the Drina Corps of the Bosnian Serb Army, and Ljubiša Beara, Colonel and Chief of Security of the same army, were convicted of genocide, extermination, murder and persecution by the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia for their role in the Srebrenica massacre and were each sentenced to life in prison.{{Cite news |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2010/WORLD/europe/06/10/hague.srebrenica.verdict/?hpt=T1 |title=Seven convicted over 1995 Srebrenica massacre |work=CNN |date=10 June 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230223180650/http://edition.cnn.com/2010/WORLD/europe/06/10/hague.srebrenica.verdict/?hpt=T1 |archive-date=23 February 2023}}{{Cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/10283403 |title=Life for Bosnian Serbs over genocide at Srebrenica |work=BBC News |date=10 June 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240713055735/https://www.bbc.com/news/10283403 |archive-date=13 July 2024}}{{Cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/bosnia/7818653/Bosnian-Serbs-convicted-of-genocide-over-Srebrenica-massacre.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/bosnia/7818653/Bosnian-Serbs-convicted-of-genocide-over-Srebrenica-massacre.html |archive-date=12 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |title=Bosnian Serbs convicted of genocide over Srebrenica massacre |work=The Daily Telegraph |date=10 June 2010 |location=London |first=Bruno |last=Waterfield}}{{cbignore}} In 2016 and 2017, Radovan Karadžić{{cite news |newspaper=The Hindu |agency=Reuters |date=24 March 2016 |title=Radovan Karadzic sentenced to 40-year imprisonment for Srebrenica genocide, war crimes |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/international/Radovan-Karadzic-sentenced-to-40-year-imprisonment-for-Srebrenica-genocide-war-crimes/article14173135.ece |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200611230628/https://www.thehindu.com/news/international/Radovan-Karadzic-sentenced-to-40-year-imprisonment-for-Srebrenica-genocide-war-crimes/article14173135.ece |archive-date=11 June 2020}} and Ratko Mladić were sentenced for genocide.{{cite web |url=http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=58143#.WhadpdLiXIU |title=UN hails conviction of Mladic, the 'epitome of evil,' a momentous victory for justice |date=22 November 2017 |publisher=UN News Centre |access-date=23 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180501013118/https://news.un.org/en/story/2017/11/636942-un-hails-conviction-mladic-epitome-evil-momentous-victory-justice |archive-date=1 May 2018}}

German courts handed down convictions for genocide during the Bosnian War. Novislav Djajic was indicted for his participation in the genocide, but the Higher Regional Court failed to find that there was sufficient certainty for a criminal conviction for genocide. Nevertheless, Djajic was found guilty of 14 counts of murder and one count of attempted murder.{{cite web |url=http://www.trial-ch.org/en/ressources/trial-watch/trial-watch/profils/profile/135/action/show/controller/Profile/tab/legal-procedure.html |title=Novislav Djajic |work=Trial Watch |date=19 June 2013 |access-date=15 February 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160214040321/http://www.trial-ch.org/en/ressources/trial-watch/trial-watch/profils/profile/135/action/show/controller/Profile/tab/legal-procedure.html |archive-date=14 February 2016|df=dmy-all}} At Djajic's appeal on 23 May 1997, the Bavarian Appeals Chamber found that acts of genocide were committed in June 1992, confined within the administrative district of Foca.[https://archive.today/20120525111049/http://www.worldlii.org/int/cases/ICTY/2001/8.html Prosecutor v. Radislav Krstic – Trial Chamber I – Judgment – IT-98-33 (2001) ICTY8 (2 August 2001)], The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, paragraph 589. citing Bavarian Appeals Court, Novislav Djajic case, 23 May 1997, 3 St 20/96, section VI, p. 24 of the English translation. The Higher Regional Court ({{lang|de|Oberlandesgericht}}) of Düsseldorf, in September 1997, handed down a genocide conviction against Nikola Jorgic, a Bosnian Serb from the Doboj region who was the leader of a paramilitary group located in the Doboj region. He was sentenced to four terms of life imprisonment for his involvement in genocidal actions that took place in regions of Bosnia and Herzegovina, other than Srebrenica.Oberlandesgericht Düsseldorf, "Public Prosecutor v Jorgic", 26 September 1997 (Trial Watch) [http://www.trial-ch.org/en/ressources/trial-watch/trial-watch/profils/profile/283/action/show/controller/Profile/tab/legal-procedure.html Nikola Jorgic] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140224162507/http://www.trial-ch.org/en/ressources/trial-watch/trial-watch/profils/profile/283/action/show/controller/Profile/tab/legal-procedure.html |date=24 February 2014 }} On 29 November 1999, the Higher Regional Court (Oberlandesgericht) of Düsseldorf "condemned Maksim Sokolovic to 9 years in prison for aiding and abetting the crime of genocide and for grave breaches of the Geneva Conventions."Trial watch [http://www.trial-ch.org/en/ressources/trial-watch/trial-watch/profils/profile/139/action/show/controller/Profile/tab/legal-procedure.html Maksim Sokolovic] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150706082940/http://www.trial-ch.org/en/ressources/trial-watch/trial-watch/profils/profile/139/action/show/controller/Profile/tab/legal-procedure.html |date=6 July 2015}}

== Rwanda ==

The International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) is a court under the auspices of the United Nations for the prosecution of offences committed during the Rwandan genocide during April and May 1994, commencing on 6 April. The ICTR was created on 8 November 1994 by the UN Security Council to resolve claims in Rwanda, or by Rwandan citizens in nearby states, between 1 January and 31 December 1994. For approximately 100 days from the assassination of President Juvénal Habyarimana on 6 April through mid-July, at least 800,000 people were killed according to a Human Rights Watch estimate.{{cite web |last=Des Forges |first=Alison |author-link=Alison Des Forges |date=1999 |url=https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/media_2020/12/rwanda-leave-none-to-tell-the-story.pdf |title='Leave None to Tell the Story' |publisher=Human Rights Watch |access-date=6 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240118065846/https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/media_2020/12/rwanda-leave-none-to-tell-the-story.pdf |archive-date=18 January 2024}}{{cite web |date=20 November 2014 |title=Joseph Sebarenzi Shares his Perspective on the Genocide in Rwanda in Two Lectures |url=https://humanities.byu.edu/joseph-sebarenzi-shares-his-perspective-on-the-genocide-in-rwanda-in-two-lectures/ |access-date=6 November 2022 |website=BYU Humanities |publisher=BYU College of Humanities |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240810062023/https://humanities.byu.edu/joseph-sebarenzi-shares-his-perspective-on-the-genocide-in-rwanda-in-two-lectures/ |archive-date=10 August 2024}}{{cite web |last=Maron |first=Jeremy |date=2022 |title=What led to the genocide against the Tutsi in Rwanda? |url=https://humanrights.ca/story/what-led-genocide-against-tutsi-rwanda |access-date=6 November 2022 |publisher=Canadian Museum for Human Rights |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240813065104/https://humanrights.ca/story/what-led-genocide-against-tutsi-rwanda |archive-date=13 August 2024}}

As of mid-2011, the ICTR had convicted 57 people and acquitted 8. Another ten persons were still on trial while one (Bernard Munyagishari) is awaiting trial; nine remain at large.{{cite web |url=http://www.unictr.org/Cases/StatusofCases/tabid/204/Default.aspx |title=United Nations International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda: Status of Cases |publisher=ICTR |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110813085127/http://www.unictr.org/Cases/StatusofCases/tabid/204/Default.aspx |archive-date=13 August 2011}} The first trial, of Jean-Paul Akayesu, ended in 1998 with his conviction for genocide and crimes against humanity.{{cite web |url=http://www.unictr.org/Cases/tabid/127/PID/18/default.aspx?id=4&mnid=4 |title=United Nations International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda: Status of Cases |work=ICRT |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121202141407/http://www.unictr.org/Cases/StatusofCases/tabid/204/Default.aspx |archive-date=2 December 2012}} Jean Kambanda, the interim prime minister during the genocide, pleaded guilty. This was the world's first conviction for genocide, as defined by the 1948 Convention.{{cite web |date=5 April 2021 |title=Rwanda: The First Conviction for Genocide |url=https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/rwanda-the-first-conviction-for-genocide |access-date=6 November 2022 |website=Holocaust Encyclopedia |publisher=United States Holocaust Memorial Museum |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240612021642/https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/rwanda-the-first-conviction-for-genocide |archive-date=12 June 2024}}

== Cambodia ==

{{see also|Autogenocide|Cambodian genocide|Cambodian genocide denial|Killing Fields|Tuol Sleng Genocide Museum}}

File:Skulls from the killing fields.jpg memorial in Cambodia]]

The Khmer Rouge, led by Pol Pot, Ta Mok, and others, perpetrated the mass killing of ideologically suspect groups, ethnic minorities such as ethnic Vietnamese, Chinese or Sino-Khmers, Chams, and Thais, former civil servants, former government soldiers, Buddhist monks, secular intellectuals and professionals, and former city dwellers. Khmer Rouge cadres who were defeated in factional struggles were also liquidated in purges. Man-made famine and slave labor resulted in many hundreds of thousands of deaths.{{cite book |first=Marek |last=Sliwinski |title=Le génocide khmer rouge: une analyze démographique |language=fr |trans-title=The Khmer Rouge Genocide: A Demographic Analysis |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B4RAunnjWRsC |year=1995 |publisher=Harmattan |isbn=978-2-7384-3525-5 |pages=82 |via=Google Books}} Craig Etcheson suggested that the death toll was between 2 and 2.5 million, with a most likely figure of 2.2 million. After spending five years excavating 20,000 grave sites, he concluded that "these mass graves contain the remains of 1,386,734 victims of execution."{{cite web |last=Sharp |first=Bruce |title=Counting Hell: The Death Toll of the Khmer Rouge Regime in Cambodia |date=1 April 2005 |url=http://www.mekong.net/cambodia/deaths.htm |website=Mekong.Net |publisher=Mekong Network |access-date=13 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240622222914/https://www.mekong.net/cambodia/deaths.htm |archive-date=22 June 2024}} Steven Rosefielde argued that the Khmer Rouge were not racist by claiming that they did not intend to exterminate ethnic minorities, and he also stated that the Khmer Rouge did not intend to exterminate the Cambodian people as a whole; in his view, the Khmer Rouge's brutality was the product of an extreme version of communist ideology.{{cite book |last=Rosefielde |first=Steven |title=Red Holocaust |title-link=Red Holocaust (2009 book) |publisher=Routledge |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-415-77757-5 |pages=119}}

On 6 June 2003, the Cambodian government and the United Nations reached an agreement to set up the Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia (ECCC), which would focus exclusively on crimes committed by the most senior Khmer Rouge officials during the period of Khmer Rouge rule of Cambodia from 1975 to 1979.{{cite web |url=http://unakrt-online.org/Docs/GA%20Documents/A-Res-57-228B.pdf |title=Resolution adopted by the General Assembly: 57/228 Khmer Rouge trials B1 |work=United Nations General Assembly |date=22 May 2003 |access-date=11 December 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070703061139/http://www.unakrt-online.org/Docs/GA%20Documents/A-Res-57-228B.pdf |archive-date=3 July 2007}} The judges were sworn in during early July 2006.{{cite news |first=Kevin |last=Doyle |url=http://content.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1647257,00.html |title=Putting the Khmer Rouge on Trial |magazine=Time |date=26 July 2007 |access-date=13 February 2016}}{{cite news |first=Ian |last=MacKinnon |url=https://www.theguardian.com/international/story/0,,2028421,00.html |title=Crisis talks to save Khmer Rouge trial |newspaper=The Guardian |date=7 March 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071116020356/http://www.guardian.co.uk/international/story/0%2C%2C2028421%2C00.html |archive-date=16 November 2007 |df=dmy}}{{cite web |url=http://www.cambodia.gov.kh/krt/english/ |title=The Khmer Rouge Trial Task Force |work=Royal Cambodian Government |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050403182720/http://www.cambodia.gov.kh/krt/english/ |archive-date=3 April 2005}} The investigating judges were presented with the names of five possible suspects by the prosecution on 18 July 2007:{{cite news |first=Andrew |last=Buncombe |title=Judge quits Cambodia genocide tribunal |newspaper=The Independent |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/judge-quits-cambodia-genocide-tribunal-2368644.html |location=London |date=11 October 2011}} File:KSAMPHAN3July2009-1.jpg on 3 July 2009]]

Kang Kek Iew was formally charged with war crimes and crimes against humanity and detained by the Tribunal on 31 July 2007. He was indicted on charges of war crimes and crimes against humanity on 12 August 2008.{{Cite news |url=http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/world/2008-08-12-1013612312_x.htm |title=Cambodian tribunal indicts Khmer Rouge jailer |first=Ker |last=Munthit |newspaper=USA Today |agency=Associated Press |date=12 August 2008 |access-date=5 February 2017}} His appeal was rejected on 3 February 2012, and he continued serving a sentence of life imprisonment.{{cite web |url=http://www.eccc.gov.kh/en/articles/kaing-guek-eav-alias-duch-sentenced-life-imprisonment-supreme-court-chamber-0 |title=Kaing Guek Eav alias Duch Sentenced to Life Imprisonment by the Supreme Court Chamber |publisher=Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia |date=3 February 2012 |access-date=5 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240811074110/https://www.eccc.gov.kh/en/articles/kaing-guek-eav-alias-duch-sentenced-life-imprisonment-supreme-court-chamber-0 |archive-date=11 August 2024}}
Nuon Chea, a former prime minister, was indicted on charges of genocide, war crimes, crimes against humanity, and several other crimes under Cambodian law on 15 September 2010. He was transferred into the custody of the ECCC on 19 September 2007. His trial began on 27 June 2011.{{cite web |url=http://www.eccc.gov.kh/en/case/topic/2 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110517092819/http://www.eccc.gov.kh/en/case/topic/2 |url-status=dead |archive-date=17 May 2011 |title=Case 002 |publisher=Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia |access-date=5 February 2017}}{{cite web |url=http://www.eccc.gov.kh/sites/default/files/documents/courtdoc/D427Eng.pdf |title=002/19-09-2007: Closing Order |publisher=Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia |date=15 September 2010 |access-date=5 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240727154723/https://www.eccc.gov.kh/sites/default/files/documents/courtdoc/D427Eng.pdf |archive-date=27 July 2024}} On 16 November 2018, he was sentenced to life in prison for genocide.{{cite news |title=UN genocide adviser welcomes historic conviction of former Khmer Rouge leaders |publisher=UN News |date=16 November 2018 |url=https://news.un.org/en/story/2018/11/1025981 |access-date=18 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240719092705/https://news.un.org/en/story/2018/11/1025981 |archive-date=19 July 2024}}
Khieu Samphan, a former head of state, was indicted on charges of genocide, war crimes, crimes against humanity, and several other crimes under Cambodian law on 15 September 2010. He was transferred into the custody of the ECCC on 19 September 2007. His trial also began on 27 June 2011. On 16 November 2018, he was sentenced to life in prison for genocide.
Ieng Sary, a former foreign minister, was indicted on charges of genocide, war crimes, crimes against humanity, and several other crimes under Cambodian law on 15 September 2010. He was transferred into the custody of the ECCC on 12 November 2007. His trial began on 27 June 2011. He died in March 2013.
Ieng Thirith, wife of Ieng Sary and a former minister for social affairs, was indicted on charges of genocide, war crimes, crimes against humanity, and several other crimes under Cambodian law on 15 September 2010. She was transferred into the custody of the ECCC on 12 November 2007. Proceedings against her have been suspended pending a health evaluation.{{cite web |url=http://www.eccc.gov.kh/sites/default/files/documents/courtdoc/E138_1_7_EN-1.PDF |title=002/19-09-2007: Decision on immediate appeal against Trial Chamber's order to release the accused Ieng Thirith |publisher=Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia |date=13 December 2011 |access-date=5 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240330155822/https://eccc.gov.kh/sites/default/files/documents/courtdoc/E138_1_7_EN-1.PDF |archive-date=30 March 2024}}

Some of the international jurists and the Cambodian government disagreed over whether any other people should be tried by the Tribunal.

= International Criminal Court =

The ICC can only prosecute crimes that were committed on or after 1 July 2002.{{cite web |url=http://legal.un.org/icc/statute/99_corr/cstatute.htm |title=Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court: Article 11 |publisher=United Nations Office of Legal Affairs |date=17 July 1999 |access-date=4 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240823022000/https://legal.un.org/icc/statute/99_corr/cstatute.htm |archive-date=23 August 2024}}{{cite web |url=http://www.icc-cpi.int/Menus/ICC/About+the+Court |title=ICC: About the court |publisher=ICC |access-date=6 February 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100309082156/http://www.icc-cpi.int/Menus/ICC/About%2Bthe%2BCourt |archive-date=9 March 2010}}

== Darfur, Sudan ==

{{see also|Darfur genocide|Second Sudanese Civil War|War in Darfur}}

File:Omar al-Bashir, 12th AU Summit, 090131-N-0506A-342.jpg, wanted by the ICC]]

The racial conflict in Darfur, Sudan,{{Cite news |url=http://www.pbs.org/newshour/indepth_coverage/africa/darfur/militia.html |title= Crisis in Sudan | Janjaweed Militia | PBS |work=PBS NewsHour |publisher=PBS |date=28 January 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070128121659/http://www.pbs.org/newshour/indepth_coverage/africa/darfur/militia.html |archive-date=28 January 2007}} which started in 2003,{{Cite news |first=Makau |last=Mutua |date=14 July 2004 |url=https://www.csmonitor.com/2004/0714/p09s02-coop.html |title=Racism at root of Sudan's Darfur crisis |work=The Christian Science Monitor |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240216123225/https://www.csmonitor.com/2004/0714/p09s02-coop.html |archive-date=16 February 2024}}{{Cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/bps/additionalcontent/18/33606981/Darfurs-Sorrow-A-History-of-Destruction-and-Genocide |title=Darfur's Sorrow: A History of Destruction and Genocide. -- Britannica Online Encyclopedia |date=8 December 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091208024419/https://www.britannica.com/bps/additionalcontent/18/33606981/Darfurs-Sorrow-A-History-of-Destruction-and-Genocide |archive-date=8 December 2009}} was declared a genocide by United States Secretary of State Colin Powell on 9 September 2004 in testimony before the Senate Foreign Relations Committee.{{cite news |url=http://www.pbs.org/newshour/updates/sudan_09-09-04.html |title=Powell Declares Killing in Darfur 'Genocide' |work=The NewsHour with Jim Lehrer |publisher=PBS |date=9 September 2004 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040911045335/http://www.pbs.org/newshour/updates/sudan_09-09-04.html |archive-date=11 September 2004}}{{cite news |first=Rebecca |last=Leung |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/witnessing-genocide-in-sudan-08-10-2004/ |work=CBS News |title=Witnessing Genocide in Sudan |date=8 October 2004 |access-date=10 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240616094055/https://www.cbsnews.com/news/witnessing-genocide-in-sudan-08-10-2004/ |archive-date=16 June 2024}} Since that time however, no other permanent member of the UN Security Council has followed suit. In January 2005, an International Commission of Inquiry on Darfur, authorized by UN Security Council Resolution 1564 of 2004, issued a report stating that "the Government of the Sudan has not pursued a policy of genocide."{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/News/dh/sudan/com_inq_darfur.pdf |title=Report of the International Commission of Inquiry on Darfur to the United Nations Secretary-General |publisher=United Nations |page=4 |date=25 January 2005 |access-date=5 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170712030935/https://www.un.org/News/dh/sudan/com_inq_darfur.pdf |archive-date=12 July 2017}} Nevertheless, the Commission cautioned that "The conclusion that no genocidal policy has been pursued and implemented in Darfur by the Government authorities, directly or through the militias under their control, should not be taken in any way as detracting from the gravity of the crimes perpetrated in that region. International offences such as the crimes against humanity and war crimes that have been committed in Darfur may be no less serious and heinous than genocide."

In March 2005, the Security Council formally referred the situation in Darfur to the ICC, taking into account the Commission report but without mentioning any specific crimes.{{cite web |url=http://www.icc-cpi.int/library/cases/N0529273.darfureferral.eng.pdf |title=Security Council Resolution 1593 (2005) |publisher=United Nations Security Council |date=31 March 2005 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050529082238/http://www.icc-cpi.int/library/cases/N0529273.darfureferral.eng.pdf |archive-date=29 May 2005 |df=dmy}} Two permanent members of the Security Council, the United States and China, abstained from the vote on the referral resolution.{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/press/en/2005/sc8351.doc.htm |title=Security Council Refers Situation in Darfur, Sudan, to Prosecutor of International Criminal Court |website=UN Press Release SC/8351 |date=31 March 2005 |publisher=United Nations |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240313023658/https://press.un.org/en/2005/sc8351.doc.htm |archive-date=13 March 2024}} As of his fourth report to the Security Council, the Prosecutor found "reasonable grounds to believe that the individuals identified [in the UN Security Council Resolution 1593] have committed crimes against humanity and war crimes", but did not find sufficient evidence to prosecute for genocide.{{cite web |url=http://www.icc-cpi.int/library/organs/otp/OTP_ReportUNSC4-Darfur_English.pdf |title=Fourth Report of the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court, to the Security Council pursuant to UNSC 1593 (2005) |publisher=International Criminal Court (ICC) |date=14 December 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070614011746/http://www.icc-cpi.int/library/organs/otp/OTP_ReportUNSC4-Darfur_English.pdf |archive-date=14 June 2007 |df=dmy}}

In April 2007, the ICC issued arrest warrants against the former Minister of State for the Interior, Ahmad Harun, and a Janjaweed militia leader, Ali Kushayb, for crimes against humanity and war crimes.{{cite web |url=http://www.icc-cpi.int/library/organs/otp/ICC-OTP-ST20080605-ENG.pdf |title=Statement by Mr. Luis Moreno Ocampo, Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court, to the United Nations Security Council pursuant to UNSCR 1593 (2005) |publisher=International Criminal Court (ICC) |date=5 June 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080813022926/http://www.icc-cpi.int/library/organs/otp/ICC-OTP-ST20080605-ENG.pdf |archive-date=13 August 2008}} On 14 July 2008, the ICC filed ten charges of war crimes against Sudan's president Omar al-Bashir, three counts of genocide, five of crimes against humanity, and two of murder. Prosecutors claimed that al-Bashir "masterminded and implemented a plan to destroy in substantial part" three tribal groups in Darfur because of their ethnicity.{{Cite news |first1=Peter |last1=Walker |first2=James |last2=Sturcke |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/jul/14/sudan.warcrimes1?gusrc=rss&feed=worldnews |title=Darfur genocide charges for Sudanese president Omar al-Bashir |access-date=15 July 2008 |work=The Guardian |date=14 July 2008 |location=London |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240603185633/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/jul/14/sudan.warcrimes1?gusrc=rss&feed=worldnews |archive-date=3 June 2024}} On 4 March 2009, the ICC issued a warrant for al-Bashir's arrest for crimes against humanity and war crimes but not for genocide. This is the first warrant issued by the ICC against a sitting head of state.{{cite news |author=Staff |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7923102.stm |title=Warrant issued for Sudan's leader |work=BBC News |date=4 March 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190603022324/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7923102.stm |archive-date=3 June 2019}}

= International Court of Justice =

== Ukraine ==

Two days after the start of the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022, on 26 February, Ukraine brought the case of Allegations of Genocide under the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide before the International Court of Justice. The case followed false Russian accusations of genocide in Donbas which genocide scholars have described as accusation in a mirror as part of a campaign of genocide incitement.{{cite web |date=27 May 2022 |title=Independent Legal Analysis of the Russian Federation's Breaches of the Genocide Convention in Ukraine and the Duty to Prevent |url=https://newlinesinstitute.org/wp-content/uploads/English-Report.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220616080955/https://newlinesinstitute.org/wp-content/uploads/English-Report.pdf |archive-date=16 June 2022 |access-date=22 July 2022 |work=New Lines Institute for Strategy and Policy; Raoul Wallenberg Centre for Human Rights}} The court is conducting an investigation of all allegations of genocide in Ukraine. In November 2022, Ukraine's Prosecutor General Andriy Kostin said that during the course of five proceedings on genocide by law enforcement, investigators had recorded "more than 300 facts that belong precisely to the definition of genocide".{{Cite news |title=Ukrainian law enforcement officers record more than 300 cases of genocide – top prosecutor |url=https://www.ukrinform.net/rubric-ato/3605179-ukrainian-law-enforcement-officers-record-more-than-300-cases-of-genocide-top-prosecutor.html |access-date=21 February 2023 |work=Ukrinform |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230516214328/https://www.ukrinform.net/rubric-ato/3605179-ukrainian-law-enforcement-officers-record-more-than-300-cases-of-genocide-top-prosecutor.html |archive-date=16 May 2023}}

== Rohingya ==

On 11 November 2019, The Gambia lodged an application to the International Court of Justice against Myanmar. It alleged that Myanmar has committed mass murder, rape, and destruction of communities against the Rohingya group in Rakhine state since about October 2016 and that those actions violated the Genocide Convention.{{Cite news |date=1 November 2019 |title=Factbox: Myanmar on trial for Rohingya genocide – the legal cases |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-myanmar-rohingya-justice-factbox-idUSKBN1XV0MU |access-date=22 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230221232536/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-myanmar-rohingya-justice-factbox-idUSKBN1XV0MU |archive-date=21 February 2023}}

== Israel ==

On December 29, 2023, South Africa filed an application instituting proceedings with the International Court of Justice against Israel, alleging that it had violated its obligations under the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (the "Genocide Convention") during its 2023 offensive in the Gaza Strip.{{cite web |title=Application instituting proceedings and request for the indication of provisional measures. Document Number 192-20231228-APP-01-00-EN |url=https://www.icj-cij.org/node/203394 |website=International Court of Justice |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240811151441/https://www.icj-cij.org/node/203394 |archive-date=11 August 2024}} South Africa's standing is based on the erga omnes partes nature of the Genocide Convention, which allows and obligates States Parties to the convention to take measures to prevent and punish the crime of genocide. South Africa requested indication of provisional measures by the court, including that Israel end its military operations, to "protect against further, severe and irreparable harm to the rights of the Palestinian people under the Genocide Convention", triggering an urgent preliminary hearing. Public hearings on the provisional measures question were held on January 11 (oral arguments by South Africa) and January 12 (oral arguments by Israel), respectively.{{cite web |title=Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide in the Gaza Strip (South Africa v. Israel) |url=https://www.icj-cij.org/case/192 |website=International Court of Justice |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240821170703/https://www.icj-cij.org/case/192 |archive-date=21 August 2024}}

Notes

References

Sources

{{cite book |last1=Akande |first1=Dapo | author1-link = Dapo Akande |last2=Higgins |first2=Rosalyn | author2-link = Rosalyn Higgins, Lady Higgins |last3=Sivakumaran |first3=Sandesh |last4=Webb |first4=Philippa |year=2018 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Cst-DwAAQBAJ |title=Oppenheim's International Law: United Nations |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-192-53718-8 |via=Google Books}}

{{cite book |last=Bachman |first=Jeffrey S. |year=2017 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G-1HDwAAQBAJ |title=The United States and Genocide: (Re)Defining the Relationship with Genocide |edition=E-book |location=London |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-351-69216-8 |via=Google Books}}
{{cite book |editor1-last=Bartrop |editor1-first=Paul R. | editor1-link = Paul R. Bartrop |editor2-last=Jacobs |editor2-first=Steven Leonard |editor2-link=Steven L. Jacobs |year=2014 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JB4UBgAAQBAJ |title=Modern Genocide: The Definitive Resource and Document Collection |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-610-69364-6 |via=Google Books}}
{{cite book |last=Bellamy |first=Alex J. |author-link=Alex J. Bellamy |year=2012 |url=https://oxford.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199288427.001.0001/acprof-9780199288427 |title=Massacres and Morality: Mass Atrocities in an Age of Civilian Immunity |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-199-28842-7}}
{{cite book |last1=Bloxham |first1=Donald |author1-link=Donald Bloxham |last2=Moses |first2=A. Dirk |author2-link=Dirk Moses |year=2010 |chapter=Editors' Introduction: Changing Themes in the Study of Genocide |editor1-last=Bloxham |editor1-first=Donald |editor1-link=Donald Bloxham |editor2-last=Moses |editor2-first=A. Dirk |editor2-link=Dirk Moses |title=The Oxford Handbook of Genocide Studies |location=New York |publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=1–15 |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199232116.013.0001 |doi-access=free |isbn=978-0-19-923211-6}}

{{cite book |last1=Chalk |first1=Frank |last2=Jonassohn |first2=Kurt |title=The History and Sociology of Genocide: Analyses and Case Studies |publisher=Yale University Press |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-300-04446-1 |url=https://archive.org/details/historysociology00chal}}

{{cite journal |last=Farid |first=Hilmar |date=March 2005 |title=Indonesia's original sin: mass killings and capitalist expansion, 1965–66 |journal=Inter-Asia Cultural Studies |publisher=Routledge |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=3–16 |doi=10.1080/1462394042000326879 |s2cid=145130614 |issn=1464-9373}}
{{cite journal |last=Fein |first=Helen |date=October 1993 |title=Revolutionary and Antirevolutionary Genocides: A Comparison of State Murders in Democratic Kampuchea, 1975 to 1979, and in Indonesia, 1965 to 1966 |journal=Comparative Studies in Society and History |publisher=Cambridge University Press |volume=35 |issue=4 |pages=796–823 |doi=10.1017/S0010417500018715|issn=0010-4175 |jstor=179183 |s2cid=145561816}}
{{cite book |last=Forge |first=John |title=Designed to Kill: The Case Against Weapons Research |year=2012 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-9400757356}}
{{cite book |last1=Fraser |first1=James E. |author1-link=James E. Fraser (historian) |chapter=Early Medieval Europe: The Case of Britain and Ireland |pages=259–279 |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199232116.013.0014 |editor1-last=Bloxham |editor1-first=Donald |editor1-link=Donald Bloxham |editor2-last=Moses |editor2-first=A. Dirk |editor2-link=A. Dirk Moses |title=The Oxford Handbook of Genocide Studies |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-19-161361-6}}

{{cite book |last=Gangopadhyay |first=Partha |date=2016 |chapter=Economic Foundations of Religious Killings and Genocide with Special Reference to Pakistan, 1978–2012 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4KdHDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA510 |title=Economic Aspects of Genocides, Other Mass Atrocities, and Their Prevention |editor1-first=Charles H. |editor1-last=Anderton |editor2-first=Jurgen |editor2-last=Brauer |editor2-link=Jurgen Brauer |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-937829-6 |pages=510–535}}
{{cite book |last1=Gellately |first1=Robert |last2=Kiernan |first2=Ben |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ay76mYBLU3sC |title=The Specter of Genocide: Mass Murder in Historical Perspective |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-521-52750-7 |via=Google Books}}
{{cite book |last=Gerlach |first=Christian |author-link=Christian Gerlach |title=Extremely Violent Societies: Mass Violence in the Twentieth-Century World |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-49351-2 |page=6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=48N-XbOltMEC&q=%22Genocide+is+an+action-oriented+model+designed+for%22&pg=PA6 |date=2010 |via=Google Books}}

{{cite book |last1=Hitchcock |first1=Robert K. |last2=Koperski |first2=Thomas E. |year=2008 |chapter=Genocides against Indigenous Peoples |title=The Historiography of Genocide |editor-last=Stone |editor-first=Dan |editor-link=Dan Stone (historian) |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |pages=577–618 |isbn=9781403992192}}
{{cite book |last=Hoffman |first=Stefan-Ludwig |year=2010 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ES8ptQvfVvAC |title=Human Rights in the Twentieth Century |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-49410-6 |via=Google Books}}
{{cite journal |last=Hollander |first=Paul |author-link=Paul Hollander |title=Perspectives on Norman Naimark's Stalin's Genocides |journal=Journal of Cold War Studies |date=1 July 2012 |volume=14 |issue=3 |pages=149–189 |doi=10.1162/JCWS_a_00250 |s2cid=57560838}}

{{cite book |last=Irvin-Erickson |first=Douglas |author-link=Douglas Irvin-Erickson |chapter=The history of Raphaël Lemkin and the UN Genocide Convention |chapter-url=https://www.elgaronline.com/edcollchap/book/9781800379343/book-part-9781800379343-9.xml |pages=7–26 |doi=10.4337/9781800379343.00009 |editor1-last=Simon |editor1-first=David J. |editor2-last=Kahn |editor2-first=Leora |title=Handbook of Genocide Studies |date=2023 |publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing |isbn=9781800379336 |language=en}}

{{cite book |last=Jones |first=Adam |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BqdVudSuTRIC |title=Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction |publisher=Routledge/Taylor & Francis Publishers |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-415-35385-4 |via=Google Books}} [http://www.genocidetext.net/gaci_excerpts.htm Excerpts] [http://www.genocidetext.net/gaci_origins.pdf Chapter 1: Genocide in prehistory, antiquity, and early modernity] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010110108/http://www.genocidetext.net/gaci_origins.pdf |date=10 October 2017}}
{{cite book |last=Jones |first=Adam |author-link=Adam Jones (Canadian scholar) |title=Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction |year=2010 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0415486187 |edition=2nd |chapter= 3. Genocides of Indigenous Peoples}}
{{cite book |editor1-last=Jongman |editor-first=Albert J. |year=1996 |title=Contemporary Genocides: Causes, Cases, Consequences |location=Leiden, Netherlands |publisher=Interdisciplinary Research Program on the Root Causes of Human Rights Violations}}

{{cite book |last=Kakar |first=Mohammed Hassan |date=1995 |title=Afghanistan: The Soviet Invasion and the Afghan Response, 1979–1982 |url=http://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=ft7b69p12h&brand=eschol |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-5209-1914-3 |via=Google Books}}

{{cite book |last1=Lang |first1=Berel |title=Genocide and Human Rights: A Philosophical Guide |date=2005 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK |isbn=978-0-230-55483-2 |pages=5–17 |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1057/9780230554832_1 |language=en |chapter=The Evil in Genocide |doi=10.1057/9780230554832_1}}
{{cite book |last1=Lemos |first1=T. M. |last2=Taylor |first2=Tristan S. |last3=Kiernan |first3=Ben |author3-link=Ben Kiernan |pages=31–56 |chapter=Introduction to Volume I |doi=10.1017/9781108655989.003 | title=The Cambridge World History of Genocide |volume=1: Genocide in the Ancient, Medieval and Premodern Worlds |year=2023 | publisher=Cambridge University Press |editor1-last=Kiernan |editor1-first=Ben |editor1-link=Ben Kiernan |editor2-last=Lemos |editor2-first=T. M. |editor3-last=Taylor |editor3-first=Tristan S. |isbn=978-1-108-65598-9}}

{{cite book |last=Maybury-Lewis |first=David |author-link=David Maybury-Lewis |chapter=Genocide against Indigenous peoples |title=Annihilating Difference: The Anthropology of Genocide |year=2002 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0520230293}}
{{cite book |last=Moses |first=A. Dirk |author-link=A. Dirk Moses |title=Genocide and Settler Society: Frontier Violence and Stolen Indigenous Children in Australian History |year=2004 |publisher=Berghahn Books |isbn=978-1571814104}}
{{cite book |last=Moses |first=A. Dirk |author-link=Dirk Moses |year=2010 |chapter=Raphael Lemkin, Culture, and the Concept of Genocide |editor1-last=Bloxham |editor1-first=Donald |editor1-link=Donald Bloxham |editor2-last=Moses |editor2-first=A. Dirk |editor2-link=Dirk Moses |title=The Oxford Handbook of Genocide Studies |location=New York |publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=19ff |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199232116.013.0002 |isbn=978-0-19-923211-6}}

{{cite book |last1=Naimark |first1=Norman M. |author1-link=Norman Naimark |title=Genocide: A World History |date=2017 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-976527-0}}

{{cite book |last=Rosenbaum |first=Alan S. |year=2001 |title=Is the Holocaust Unique? Perspectives on Comparative Genocide |edition=2nd |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-367-00714-0}}
{{Cite web |last=Rugira |first=Lonzen |date=20 April 2022 |title=Why Genocide is "the crime of crimes" |url=https://panafricanreview.com/why-genocide-is-the-crime-of-crimes/ |access-date=11 April 2024 |website=Pan African Review |language=en-US |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240613194309/https://panafricanreview.com/why-genocide-is-the-crime-of-crimes/ |archive-date=13 June 2024}}

{{cite book |last=Schabas |first=William A. |author-link=William Schabas |year=2000 |url=http://ndl.ethernet.edu.et/bitstream/123456789/56846/1/4.pdf |title=Genocide in International Law: The Crimes of Crimes |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0-521-78262-7 |edition=1st |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240616093051/http://ndl.ethernet.edu.et/bitstream/123456789/56846/1/4.pdf |archive-date=16 June 2024}}
{{cite book |last=Schabas |first=William A. |author-link=William Schabas |year=2009 |title=Genocide in International Law: The Crime of Crimes |edition=2nd |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-71900-1}}
{{cite book |last=Staub |first=Ervin |author-link=Ervin Staub |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=29u-vt_KgGEC |title=The Roots of Evil: The Origins of Genocide and Other Group Violence |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, UK |isbn=978-0-521-42214-7 |year=1989 |via=Google Books}}
{{cite book |last=Stone |first=Dan |author-link=Dan Stone (historian) |title=Histories of the Holocaust |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-19-956679-2}}
{{Cite book |last=Straus |first=Scott |author-link=Scott Straus |year=2022 |url=https://archive.org/details/genocide-the-power-and-problems-of-a-concept-9780228009511_compress_202404 |title=Genocide: The Power and Problems of a Concept |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |isbn=978-0-2280-0951-1 |editor1-last=Graziosi |editor1-first=Andrea |language=en |editor2-last=Sysyn |editor2-first=Frank E.}}

{{Cite journal |last=Towner |first=Emil B. |date=2011 |title=Quantifying Genocide: What Are We Really Counting (On)? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41709663 |journal=JAC |volume=31 |issue=3/4 |pages=625–638 |jstor=41709663 |issn=2162-5190}}

{{cite journal |last=Weiss-Wendt |first=Anton |author-link=Anton Weiss-Wendt |date=December 2005 |title=Hostage of Politics: Raphael Lemkin on 'Soviet Genocide' |journal=Journal of Genocide Research |publisher=Routledge |volume=7 |issue=4 |pages=551–559 |doi=10.1080/14623520500350017 |s2cid=144612446 |issn=1462-3528}}