Genocides in history (World War I through World War II)

In 1915, during World War I, the concept of crimes against humanity was introduced into international relations for the first time when the Allied Powers sent a letter to the government of the Ottoman Empire, a member of the Central Powers, protesting massacres that were taking place within the Empire.1915 declaration:

• {{citation |url=http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/cpquery/T?&report=hr933&dbname=106& |title=Affirmation of the United States Record on the Armenian Genocide Resolution |publisher=106th Congress, 2nd Session, House of Representatives |access-date=23 January 2021 |archive-date=14 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160414183759/http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/cpquery/T?&report=hr933&dbname=106&}};
• {{citation |url=http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?c109:H.RES.316: |title=Affirmation of the United States Record on the Armenian Genocide Resolution (Introduced in House of Representatives) |publisher=109th Congress, 1st Session |date=15 September 2005 |access-date=23 January 2021 |archive-date=3 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160703194652/http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?c109:H.RES.316:}}; {{citation |url=http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/bdquery/z?d109:HE00316: |title=H.res.316 |date=14 June 2005 |access-date=15 September 2005 |publisher=House Committee/Subcommittee:International Relations actions |archive-date=3 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160703194650/http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/bdquery/z?d109:HE00316:}}: Status: Ordered to be Reported by the Yeas and Nays: 40 – 7.
• {{citation |url=http://www.armenian-genocide.org/Affirmation.160/current_category.7/affirmation_detail.html |title=The French, British and Russian joint declaration |type=original source of the telegram |publisher=The Department of State |place=Washington, D.C. |date=24 May 1915 |access-date=4 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240127030626/https://www.armenian-genocide.org/Affirmation.160/current_category.7/affirmation_detail.html |archive-date=27 January 2024}}

{{Main|Late Ottoman genocides|Armenian genocide|Sayfo|Greek genocide|Great Famine of Mount Lebanon|Dersim massacre}}

File:Morgenthau336.jpg wrote, "Scenes like this were common all over the Armenian provinces, in the spring and summer months of 1915. Death in its several forms—massacre, starvation, exhaustion—destroyed the larger part of the refugees. The Turkish policy was that of extermination under the guise of deportation".{{sfn|Morgenthau|1918|p=246}}]]

On 24 May 1915, the Allied Powers (Britain, France, and Russia) jointly issued a statement which for the first time ever explicitly charged a government, the Ottoman Empire, with committing a "crime against humanity" in reference to that regime's persecution of its Christian minorities, including Armenians, Assyrians and Greeks.{{sfn|Midlarsky|2005|p=342}} Many researchers consider these events a single genocide rather than separate genocides, based on their belief that all of these genocides were part of the planned ethnoreligious purification of the Turkish state, a policy which was implemented and advanced by the Young Turks.{{bulleted list|

| {{harvnb|Jones|2006|pp=171–72}} A resolution was placed before the IAGS membership to recognise the Greek and Assyrian/Chaldean components of the Ottoman genocide against Christians, alongside the Armenian strand of the genocide (which the IAGS has already formally acknowledged). The result, passed emphatically in December 2007 despite not inconsiderable opposition, was a resolution which I co-drafted, reading as follows:... (IAGS resolution is on p. 172)

| {{harvnb|IAGS|2007}}

| {{cite news |url=http://news.am/eng/news/16644.html |title=Genocide Resolution approved by Swedish Parliament – full text |publisher=Armenia NEWS.am |date=15 March 2010 |access-date=15 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240228191526/https://news.am/eng/news/16644.html |archive-date=28 February 2024}}

| {{harvnb|Gaunt|2006|p=1}}

| {{harvnb|Schaller|Zimmerer|2008|p=11}}

}}

This joint statement stated, "[i]n view of these new crimes of Turkey against humanity and civilisation, the Allied Governments announce publicly to the Sublime Porte that they will hold personally responsible for these crimes all members of the Ottoman Government, as well as those of their agents who are implicated in such massacres."

The Greek genocide{{cite web |url=http://www.aina.org/news/20071215131949.htm |publisher=Assyrian International News Agency |date=15 December 2007 |title=International Genocide Scholars Association Officially Recognizes Assyrian, Greek Genocides |access-date=15 December 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240303033001/http://aina.org/news/20071215131949.htm |archive-date=3 March 2024}} refers to the fate of the Greek population of the Ottoman Empire both during and after World War I (1914–18). Like the Armenians and the Assyrians, the Greeks were also subjected to massacres, expulsions, death marches and various other forms of persecution by the Young Turks.{{sfn|Jones|2006}}{{harvnb|Betts|2010|pp=214–}}: "Already in the period 1912–14, the Young Turk leadership aimed to replace the multi-ethnic and multi-confessional.... The elimination of the Armenian, Assyrian, and Greek populations was an integral part of the Young Turk struggle for ..." The mass killing of Greeks continued to occur under the rule of the Turkish National Movement during the Greco-Turkish War phase of the Turkish War of Independence.{{cite book |title=Death by Government |first=Rudolph |last=Rummel |author-link=R. J. Rummel |year=1994 |publisher=Transaction Publishers |url=https://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/NOTE1.HTM}} George W. Rendel of the British Foreign Office, among other diplomats, documented the massacres and deportations of Greeks during the post-Armistice period.{{sfn|Rendel|1922}} Estimates of the number of Anatolian Greeks who were killed range from 348,000 to 900,000.{{bulleted list|

| {{harvnb|Jones|2006|pp=150–51}}: 'By the beginning of the First World War, a majority of the region's ethnic Greeks still lived in present-day Turkey, mostly in Thrace (the only remaining Ottoman territory in Europe, abutting the Greek border), and along the Aegean and Black Sea coasts. They would be targeted both prior to and alongside the Armenians of Anatolia and the Assyrians of Anatolia and Mesopotamia… The major populations of "Anatolian Greeks" include those along the Aegean coast and those in Cappadocia (central Anatolia), but not the Greeks of the Thrace region west of the Bosphorus… A "Christian genocide" framing acknowledges the historic claims of Assyrian and Greek peoples, and the movements now stirring for recognition and restitution among Greek and Assyrian diasporas. It also brings to light the quite staggering cumulative death toll among the various Christian groups that were targeted for genocide… of the 1.5 million Greeks of Asia minor—Ionians, Pontians, and Cappadocians—approximately 750,000 were massacred and 750,000 were exiled. Pontian deaths alone totaled 353,000.'

| {{harvnb|Jones|2006|p=166}}: 'An estimate of the Pontian Greek death toll at all stages of the anti-Christian genocide is about 350,000; for all the Greeks of the Ottoman realm taken together, the toll surely exceeded half a million, and may approach the 900,000 killed that a team of US researchers found in the early postwar period. Most surviving Greeks were expelled to Greece as part of the tumultuous "population exchanges" that set the seal on a heavily "Turkified" state.'

| {{harvnb|Akçam|2007|p=107}}

| {{harvnb|Rummel|1998|p=[http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/SOD.CHAP5.HTM Chapter 5]}}

}}

{{main article|Destruction of the Thracian Bulgarians in 1913}}

The Assyrian genocide (also known as the Sayfo or the Seyfo; Aramaic: ܩܛܠܐ ܕܥܡܐ ܐܬܘܪܝܐ or ܣܝܦܐ, {{langx|tr|Süryani Soykırımı}}) was committed against the Assyrian population of the Ottoman Empire during the First World War by the Young Turks.{{sfn|Aprim|2005|p=40}} The Assyrian population of northern Mesopotamia (Tur Abdin, Hakkâri, Van, Siirt region in modern-day southeastern Turkey and Urmia region in northwestern Iran) was forcibly relocated and massacred by Ottoman (Turkish and allied Kurdish) forces between 1914 and 1920.{{sfn|Ye'or|Kochan|Littman|2002|pp=148–149}}{{better source needed|date=December 2022}} This genocide paralleled the Armenian genocide and Greek genocide.{{sfn|Jones|2006|p={{Google books|id=BqdVudSuTRIC|p=54}}}} The Assyro-Chaldean National Council stated in a 4 December 1922, memorandum that the total death toll is unknown, but it estimated that about 750,000 Assyrians were murdered between 1914 and 1918.{{sfn|Yacoub|1985|p=156}}

The Armenian genocide ({{Langx|hy|Հայոց Ցեղասպանություն}}, translit.: {{lang|hy-Latn|Hayots' Ts'eġaspanout'youn}}; {{Langx |tr|Ermeni Soykırımı and Ermeni Kıyımı}}) refers to the deliberate and systematic destruction of the Armenian population of the Ottoman Empire which occurred both during and just after World War I. It was implemented through extensive massacres and deportations, with the deportations consisting of forced marches under conditions which were designed to lead to the death of the deportees. The total number of resulting deaths is generally held to have been between one and one and a half million.{{bulleted list|

| {{harvnb|Dadrian|1995|p=}}{{page needed|date=November 2024}}

| {{harvnb|Balakian|2003|pp=xv–xvi}}

| {{harvnb|Bloxham|2005|p=vii}}

| {{harvnb|Akçam|2012|pp=257–260}}

}}

File:Marcharmenians.jpg to a prison in the nearby Mezireh district, April 1915.]]

The genocide began on 24 April 1915, when Ottoman authorities arrested some 250 Armenian intellectuals and community leaders in Constantinople. Thereafter, the Ottoman military uprooted Armenians from their homes and forced them to march hundreds of miles, without food or water, to the desert of what is now Syria. The Armenians were massacred regardless of their age or gender, with rape and other acts of sexual abuse being commonplace.{{sfn|Kieser|Schaller|2002|p=114}} The majority of Armenian diaspora communities were founded as a result of these events. Mass killings continued to be committed by the Republic of Turkey during the Turkish–Armenian War phase of the Turkish War of Independence.{{sfn|Walker|1980|pp=156–170}}{{sfn|Akçam|2007|p=327}}

Modern Turkey succeeded the Ottoman Empire in 1923 and since then, it has denied the fact that a genocide occurred. In recent years, it has resisted calls to acknowledge the crime by scholars, countries and international organisations.

{{main|1915 genocide in Diyarbekir}}

In 1915, a genocide was committed in Diyarbekir vilayet, claiming the lives of most Armenians, Syriac Christians, Greek Orthodox, and Greek Catholics living there.{{sfn|Gaunt|2006|pp=71–79, 152–154}} The genocide was ordered by governor Mehmed Reshid, partly with the backing of the CUP Central Committee.{{bulleted list|

| {{harvnb|Üngör|2011|pp=35, 63–64, 99}}

| {{harvnb|Gaunt|2006|pp=295–297}}

| {{harvnb|Gaunt|2017|pp=65–66, 155}}

}} According to historian David Gaunt, "These figures indicate that although the eradication of the Assyrian [Syriac] population was extreme, it was still not as total as for the Armenians."{{sfn|Gaunt|2017|p=65}} According to historian Uğur Ümit Üngör, "all Christian communities of Diyarbekir were equally hit by the genocide, although the Armenians were often particularly singled out for immediate destruction".{{sfn|Üngör|2011|p=99}}

During the Armenian genocide, many Yazidis were killed by Hamidiye cavalry.{{sfn|Maisel|2018|p=266}} According to Aziz Tamoyan, as many as 300,000 Yazidis were killed with the Armenians, while others fled to Transcaucasia.{{sfn|Rezvani|2014|p=145}}

{{Further|Deportations of Kurds (1916–1934)|Kurds in Turkey|Kurdish–Turkish conflict}}

Concurrent to the Late Ottoman genocides most sources suggest that as many as 700,000 Kurds were deported during World War I, although there are no reliable statistics.{{sfn|Üngör|2009|pp=55–56}} Safrastian (1948) estimates that half of these deported Kurds died.{{sfn|Üngör|2009|p=225}} Genocide scholar Üngör writes that "it would require a separate study to calculate meticulously how many were deported".{{sfn|Üngör|2009|p=225}}

A few decades later deportations continued. The Dersim massacre for example refers to the depopulation of Dersim in Turkish Kurdistan, in 1937–38, in which approximately 13,000–40,000 Alevi Kurds were killed and thousands more of them were driven into exile.{{sfn|Osterlund|2015}}{{sfn|McDowall|2004|p=209}} A key component of the Turkification process was a policy of massive population resettlement. The main document, the 1934 Law on Resettlement, was used to target the region of Dersim as one of its first test cases, with disastrous consequences for the local population.{{sfn|Andreopoulos|1997|p=11}}

Many Kurds and some ethnic Turks consider the events which took place in Dersim a genocide. A prominent proponent of this view is İsmail Beşikçi.{{sfn|Besikçi|1990|p=}}{{pn|date=March 2025}} Under international laws, the actions of the Turkish authorities were arguably not genocide, because they were not aimed at the extermination of a people, but at resettlement and suppression.{{sfn|van Bruineßen|1994}} A Turkish court ruled in 2011 that the events could not be considered genocide because they were not directed systematically against an ethnic group.{{sfn|Saymaz|2011}} Scholars such as Martin van Bruinessen, have instead talked of an ethnocide directed against the local language and identity.{{sfn|van Bruineßen|1994|p=}}{{pn|date=March 2025}}

{{further|Category:Human rights in the Russian Empire|Human rights in the Soviet Union|Soviet war crimes}}

{{Main|Urkun}}

In 1916, in territory which is currently part of Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan, an uprising against Tsarist Russia occurred. A public commission in Kyrgyzstan called the crackdown of 1916 in which 100,000 to 270,000 Kyrgyz were killed,{{sfn|Morrison|2020|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=GNQGEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA539 539]}}{{sfn|Sokol|2016|p=158}} a genocide, though Russia rejected this characterisation.{{cite news |title=Commission Calls 1916 Tsarist Mass Killings Of Kyrgyz Genocide Print Share |url=http://www.rferl.org/content/kyrgyzstan-1916-russia-mass-killings-genocide/27926414.html |work=Radio Free Europe |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230612173453/https://www.rferl.org/a/kyrgyzstan-1916-russia-mass-killings-genocide/27926414.html |archive-date=12 June 2023}} Russian sources put the death toll at 3,000.{{sfn|Pushkareva|1984}}

{{main|Pogroms during the Russian Civil War|Antisemitism in the Russian Empire|Pogroms in the Russian Empire|Antisemitism in Russia|Antisemitism in the Soviet Union|History of the Jews in Russia|History of the Jews in the Soviet Union}}

File:Братська_могила_жертв_петлюрівського_погрому.jpg in Khmelnytskyi.]]

The Whitaker Report of the United Nations cited the massacre of 100,000 to 250,000 Jews in more than 2,000 pogroms which occurred during the White Terror in Russia as an act of genocide.{{cite web |title=UN Whitaker Report on Genocide, 1985, paragraphs 14 to 24 pages 5 to 10» . |url=http://www.preventgenocide.org/prevent/UNdocs/whitaker/section5.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190613150627/http://www.preventgenocide.org/prevent/UNdocs/whitaker/section5.htm |archive-date=13 June 2019 |website=Prevent Genocide International}} During the Russian Civil War, between 1918 and 1921, a total of 1,236 pogroms were committed against Jews in 524 towns in Ukraine. Estimates of the number of Jews who were killed in these pogroms range from 30,000 to 60,000.{{sfn|Finberg|Lyubchenko|2008|pp=128–135}}{{sfn|Vital|1987|p=359}} Of the recorded 1,236 pogroms and excesses, 493 of them were carried out by Ukrainian People's Republic soldiers who were under the command of Symon Petliura, 307 of them were carried out by independent Ukrainian warlords, 213 of them were carried out by Denikin's army, 106 of them were carried out by the Red Army and 32 of them were carried out by the Polish Army.{{sfn|Pipes|1996|p=262}}

{{Main|Decossackisation}}

During the Russian Civil War the Bolsheviks engaged in a genocidal campaign against the Don Cossacks.{{bulleted list|

| {{harvnb|Geller|Nekrich|1988|pp=235–236}}

| {{harvnb|Figes|1997|p=660}}

| {{harvnb|Rayfield|2004|p=[https://archive.org/details/stalinhishangmen00dona/page/83 83]}}

| {{harvnb|Rummel|1996|p=2}}

}} University of York Russian specialist Shane O'Rourke states that "ten thousand Cossacks were systematically slaughtered in a few weeks in January 1919" and he also states that this mass-slaughter "was one of the main factors which led to the disappearance of the Cossacks as a nation."{{cite web |url=http://www.york.ac.uk/admin/presspr/pressreleases/cossacks.htm |title=Soviet order to exterminate Cossacks is unearthed |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091210025518/http://www.york.ac.uk/admin/presspr/pressreleases/cossacks.htm |archive-date=10 December 2009 |website=University of York Communications Office |date=21 January 2003}} The late Alexander Nikolaevich Yakovlev, head of the Presidential Committee for the Rehabilitation of Victims of Political Repression, notes that "hundreds of thousands of Cossacks were killed".{{sfn|Yakovlev|2002|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ChRk43tVxTwC&dq=Hundreds+of+thousands+of+Cossacks+were+killed&pg=PA102 102]}} Historian Robert Gellately claims that "the most reliable estimates indicate that between 300,000 and 500,000 were killed or deported in 1919–20" out of a population of around three million.{{sfn|Gellately|2007|pp=70–71}}

Peter Holquist states that the overall number of executions which were carried out is difficult to establish. In some regions hundreds were executed. In Khoper, the tribunal was very active, with a one-month total of 226 executions. The Tsymlianskaia tribunal oversaw the execution of over 700 people. The Kotel'nikovo tribunal executed 117 in early May and nearly 1,000 were executed overall. Others were not quite as active. The Berezovskaia tribunal made a total of twenty arrests in a community of 13,500 people. Holquist also notes that some of the White reports of Red atrocities in the Don were consciously scripted for agitation purposes.{{sfn|Holquist|1994|pp=481–482}} In one example, an insurgent leader reported that 140 were executed in Bokovskaia, but later provided a different account, according to which only eight people in Bokovskaia were sentenced to death, and the authorities did not manage to carry these sentences out. This same historian emphasises he is "not seeking to downplay or dismiss very real executions by the Soviets".{{sfn|Holquist|1997|pp=138–139}}

Research by Pavel Polian from the Russian Academy of Sciences on the subject of forced migrations in Russia shows that more than 45,000 Cossacks were deported from the Terek province to Ukraine. Their land was distributed among pro-soviet Cossacks and Chechens.{{sfn|Polian|2004|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8ktrYux1gTMC&q=cossacks&pg=PT1 60]}}

{{main|Genocide of the Ingrian Finns}}

The genocide of the Ingrian Finns ({{langx|fi|Inkeriläisten kansanmurha}}) was a series of events triggered by the Russian Revolution in the 20th century, in which the Soviet Union deported, imprisoned and killed Ingrians and destroyed their culture.{{sfn|Reuter|2019|p=}}{{pn|date=March 2025}} In the process, Ingria, in the historical sense of the word, ceased to exist.{{sfn|Kaisalmi|2018|p=1}} Before the persecution there were 140,000 to 160,000 Ingrians{{Cite journal |date=2020 |title=Inkeriläiset – unohdetut suomalaiset. |trans-title=The Ingrians - the forgotten Finns. |url=https://www.kansallismuseo.fi/uploads/Inkerilaiset-vihko-SUOMI-20-02-05.pdf |journal=National Museum of Finland |access-date=24 October 2020 |archive-date=22 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211222203459/https://www.kansallismuseo.fi/uploads/Inkerilaiset-vihko-SUOMI-20-02-05.pdf |url-status=live}}{{Cite web |url=http://www.inkeri.ee/fi/historiaa/inkerinmaan-historiaa |access-date=24 October 2020 |website=Inkeri |language=fi-fi |archive-date=8 January 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140108012720/http://www.inkeri.ee/fi/historiaa/inkerinmaan-historiaa |url-status=live |title=Inkeri - Inkerinmaan historiaa |trans-title=Ingria - The history of Ingria}} in Russia and today approximately 19,000 (including several thousand repatriated since 1990.{{Cite web |url=https://yle.fi/a/3-7921422 |script-title=ru:Репатриация ингерманландцев во многом изменила Финляндию |title=Repatriatsiya ingermanlandtsev vo mnogom izmenila Finlyandiyu |trans-title=The repatriation of the Ingrians changed Finland in many ways |language=ru |date=10 April 2015 |website=Yle |access-date=22 May 2023 |archive-date=7 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221207210239/https://yle.fi/a/3-7921422 |url-status=live}}).

{{Main|History of the Soviet Union (1927–1953)|Human rights in the Soviet Union|Political repression in the Soviet Union|Population transfer in the Soviet Union|Droughts and famines in Russia and the Soviet Union|Great Purge|Gulag|Excess mortality in the Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin}}

Multiple documented instances of unnatural mass death occurred in the Soviet Union when it was under the rule of Joseph Stalin. The causes of these unnatural mass deaths include Union-wide famines in the early 1920s and early 1930s and deportations of ethnic minorities. Stalin declared a need to extract a "tribute" or a "tax" from the peasantry due to his factional struggles with the Bukharin wing of the party, peasant resistance to the NEP under Lenin, and the need for industrialisation.{{sfn|Viola|2014|p=}}{{pn|date=March 2025}} This idea was supported by most of the party in the 1920s.{{sfn|Viola|2014|p=}}{{pn|date=March 2025}} The tribute collected by the party took on the form of a virtual war against the peasantry that would lead to its cultural destruction and the relegating of the countryside to essentially a colony homogenised to the urban culture of the Soviet elite.{{sfn|Viola|2014|p=}}{{pn|date=March 2025}} This campaign of "colonising" the peasantry had its roots both in old Russian Imperialism and modern social engineering of the nation state yet with key differences to the latter such as Soviet repression reflecting more the weakness of said state rather than its strength.{{sfn|Viola|2014|p=}}{{pn|date=March 2025}} There have also been more selective discussions of collectivisation as a project of colonialism in regard to Ukraine{{bulleted list|

| {{harvnb|Irvin-Erickson|2021|p=}}{{pn|date=March 2025}}

| {{harvnb|Hechter|2021|p=}}{{pn|date=March 2025}}

| {{harvnb|Hrynevych|2021|p=}}{{pn|date=March 2025}}

| {{harvnb|Klid|2021|p=}}{{pn|date=March 2025}}

}} and Kazakhstan.{{harvnb|Sabol|2017|loc=Internal Colonization|p=}}: "This work compares the process and practice of nineteenth-century American and Russian internal colonization—a form of contiguous, continental expansion, imperialism, and colonialism or imperialism that incorporated indigenous lands and peoples. Both the republican United States and tsarist Russia exercised internal colonization, yet they remain neglected in many studies devoted to nineteenth-century imperialism and colonialism." On 26 April 1991 the Supreme Soviet of the Russian Socialist Federal Soviet Republic, under its chairman Boris Yeltsin, passed the law On the Rehabilitation of Repressed Peoples with Article 2 denouncing all mass deportations as "Stalin's policy of defamation and genocide."{{sfn|Perovic|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=O19gDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA320 320]}}

{{Main|Holodomor}}

{{Further|Kazakh famine of 1930–1933|Soviet famine of 1930–1933}}

File:HolodomorKharkiv.jpg

During the Soviet famine of 1930–1933, Ukraine, Kazakhstan and some densely populated regions of Russia were all affected, but the highest number of deaths occurred in Ukraine.{{sfn|Wolowyna|2021|p=}}{{cite web |author=Harvard Ukrainian Research Institute |date=2018 |title=The Great Famine Project: Total Direct Famine Losses of Population per 1,000 by Raion in Ukraine for 1933 |url=https://gis.huri.harvard.edu/population-losses |website=gis.huri.harvard.edu |access-date=23 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221105110527/https://gis.huri.harvard.edu/population-losses |archive-date=5 November 2022 |url-status=live}} The events which occurred there are referred to as the Holodomor and they are also recognised as a genocide by multiple governments.{{cite web |title=International Recognition of the Holodomor |url=http://www.holodomoreducation.org/news.php/news/4 |website=Holodomor Education |access-date=26 December 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151231045936/http://www.holodomoreducation.org/news.php/news/4 |archive-date=31 December 2015}} The famine was caused by a variety of factors with different explanations depending on the scholar. According to Simon Payaslian, the scholarly consensus classifies the Soviet famine (at least the famine in Ukraine) as a genocide,{{sfn|Payaslian|2021}} but some scholars say that it remains a significant issue in modern politics and they do not believe that Soviet policies would fall under the legal definition of genocide.{{sfn|Marples|2005}}{{sfn|Kulchytsky|2007}} Several scholars have disputed the belief that the famine was a genocidal act which was committed by the Soviet government, including J. Arch Getty,{{harvnb|Getty|2000}}: "Similarly, the overwhelming weight of opinion among scholars working in the new archives (including Courtois's co-editor Werth) is that the terrible famine of the 1930s was the result of Stalinist bungling and rigidity rather than some genocidal plan." Stephen G. Wheatcroft,{{sfn|Wheatcroft|2018}} R. W. Davies,{{sfn|Davies|Wheatcroft|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=4s1lCwAAQBAJ&pg=PR14 xiv]}} and Mark Tauger.{{sfn|Tauger|2018}} Getty says that the "overwhelming weight of opinion among scholars working in the new archives ... is that the terrible famine of the 1930s was the result of Stalinist bungling and rigidity rather than some genocidal plan." Wheatcroft says that the Soviet government's policies during the famine were criminal acts of fraud and manslaughter, though not outright murder or genocide.{{harvnb|Wheatcroft|2020|p=594}}: "We may well ask whether having revolutionarily high expectations is a crime? Of course it is, if it leads to an increase in the level of deaths, as a result of insufficient care being taken to safeguard the lives of those put at risk when the high ambitions failed to be fulfilled, and especially when it was followed by a cover-up. The same goes for not adjusting policy to unfolding evidence of crisis. But these are crimes of manslaughter and fraud rather than of murder. How heinous are they in comparison, say, with shooting over 600,000 citizens wrongly identified as enemies in 1937–8, or in shooting 25,000 Poles identified as a security risk in 1940, when there was no doubt as to the outcome of the orders? The conventional view is that manslaughter is less heinous than cold blooded murder." While Wheatcroft rejects the genocide characterisation of the famine, he states that "the grain collection campaign was associated with the reversal of the previous policy of Ukrainisation."{{sfn|Davies|Wheatcroft|2009|p=xv}}

A 2020 Journal of Genocide Research article by Oleh Wolowyna estimated a total of 8.7 million deaths across the entire Soviet Union, including 3.9 million in Ukraine, 3.3 million in Russia, and 1.3 million in Kazakhstan, plus a lower number in other republics.{{sfn|Wolowyna|2020|p=}} According to the All-Union census of 1926–1937, the rural population in the North Caucasus decreased by 24%. In the Kuban alone, from November 1932 to the spring of 1933, the number of documented victims of famine was 62,000. According to other historians, the real death toll is many times higher.{{sfn|Osadchenko|Rudneva|2012|p=}} For example, one paper estimates over 14% of the Krasnodar Oblast which roughly includes the Kuban perished due to the famine.{{sfn|Wolowyna|2020|p=}} The self-identification of the Ukrainian population of Kuban decreased from 915,000 in 1926, to 150,000 in 1939.{{sfn|Ellman|2007|pp=683–684}}

According to some scholars, collectivisation in the Soviet Union and the lack of favoured industries were the primary contributors to famine mortality (52% of excess deaths), and some evidence shows that ethnic Ukrainians and Germans were discriminated against.{{sfn|Naumenko|2021|pp=156–157, 189}} Lewis Siegelbaum, professor of History at Michigan State University, states that Ukraine was hit particularly hard by grain quotas which were set at levels which most farms could not produce. The 1933 harvest was poor, coupled with the extremely high quota level, which led to starvation conditions. The shortages were blamed on kulak sabotage, and authorities distributed what supplies were available only in the urban areas.{{sfn|Naimark|2023|pp=165–166}} According to a Centre for Economic Policy Research paper published in 2021 by Andrei Markevich, Natalya Naumenko, and Nancy Qian, regions with higher Ukrainian population shares were struck harder with centrally planned policies corresponding to famine, and Ukrainian populated areas were given lower amounts of tractors which were correlated to a reduction in famine mortality, ultimately concluding that 92% of famine deaths in Ukraine along with 77% of famine deaths in parts of Russia and Belarus can be explained by the fact that there was systematic bias against Ukrainians.{{sfn|Markevich|Naumenko|Qian|2021|p=}} The collectivisation and high procurement quota explanation for the famine is somewhat called into question by the fact that the oblasts of Ukraine with the highest losses being Kyiv and Kharkiv which produced far lower amounts of grain than other sections of the country. Oleh Wolowyna comments that peasant resistance and the ensuing repression of said resistance was a critical factor for the famine in Ukraine and parts of Russia populated by national minorities like Germans and Ukrainians allegedly tainted by "fascism and bourgeois nationalism" according to Soviet authorities.{{sfn|Wolowyna|2020|p=}}

Ukraine's Yuschenko administration recognised the Holodomor as an act of genocide and it also pressured international governments to do the same.{{sfn|Fawkes|2006}}{{harvnb|Andriewsky|2015|p=}}: "On 28 November 2006, the Parliament of Ukraine, with the president’s support and in consultation with the National Academy of Sciences, voted to recognize the Ukrainian Famine of 1932–33 as a deliberate act of genocide against the Ukrainian people ("Zakon Ukrainy pro Holodomor"). A vigorous international campaign was subsequently initiated by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs to have the United Nations, the Council of Europe, and other governments do the same." This move was opposed by the Russian government and some members of the Ukrainian parliament, especially the Communists. A Ukrainian court found Joseph Stalin, Vyacheslav Molotov, Lazar Kaganovich, Genrikh Yagoda, Yakov Yakovlev, Stanislav Kosior, Pavel Postyshev, Vlas Chubar and Mendel Khatayevich posthumously guilty of genocide on 13 January 2010.{{cite news |url=http://www.kyivpost.com/news/nation/detail/57679/ |title=Sentence to Stalin, his comrades for organizing Holodomor takes effect in Ukraine |work=Kyiv Post |date=21 January 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110123071649/http://www.kyivpost.com/news/nation/detail/57679/ |archive-date=23 January 2011}} As of 2010, the Russian government's official position was that the famine took place, but it was not an ethnic genocide;{{sfn|Fawkes|2006}} former Ukrainian president Viktor Yanukovych supported this position.{{cite news |agency=Interfax-Ukraine |url=http://www.kyivpost.com/news/nation/detail/65137/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101122202838/http://www.kyivpost.com/news/nation/detail/65137/ |archive-date=22 November 2010 |title=Yanukovych: Famine of 1930s was not genocide against Ukrainians |newspaper=Kyiv Post |date=27 April 2010}} A ruling of 12 January 2010 by Kyiv's Court of Appeal declared the Soviet leaders guilty of "genocide against the Ukrainian national group in 1932–33 through the artificial creation of living conditions intended for its partial physical destruction."{{Cite news |agency=Interfax-Ukraine |title=Our Ukraine Party: Yanukovych violated law on Holodomor of 1932–1933 |newspaper=Kyiv Post |date=27 April 2010 |url=http://www.kyivpost.com/news/politics/detail/65188/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100501041658/http://www.kyivpost.com/news/politics/detail/65188/ |archive-date=1 May 2010 |access-date=10 August 2010}}

Some historians and scholars consider the Kazakh famine of 1932–33 to have been a genocide of Kazakhs.{{sfn|Sabol|2017|p=47}} The Soviet authorities undertook a campaign of persecution against the nomads in the Kazakhs, believing that the destruction of the class was a worthy sacrifice for the collectivisation of Kazakhstan.{{sfn|Pianciola|2004|p=}}{{sfn|Pianciola|2009|p=}} Europeans in Kazakhstan had disproportionate power in the party which has been argued as a cause of why indigenous nomads suffered the worst part of the collectivisation process rather than the European sections of the country.{{sfn|Payne|2011|p=}} Regarding the Kazakh catastrophe, Michael Ellman states that it "seems to be an example of 'negligent genocide' which falls outside the scope of the UN Convention".{{sfn|Ellman|2007|p=}} However, historian Robert Kindler refuses to call the famine a genocide, claiming that doing so masks the culpability of lower-level cadres who were locally rooted among the Kazakhs themselves.{{sfn|Kindler|2018|p=11}} Historian Sarah Cameron argues that while Stalin did not intend to starve Kazakhs, he did see some deaths as a necessary sacrifice to achieve the political and economic goals of the regime.{{cite book |title=The Hungry Steppe: Famine, Violence, and the Making of Soviet Kazakhstan |first=Sarah |last=Cameron |date=2018 |publisher=Cornell University Press |isbn=978-1501730450 |page=99}} However, Sarah Cameron believes that while the famine combined with a campaign against nomads was not genocide in the sense of the UN definition, it does comply with Raphael Lemkin's original concept of genocide, which considered destruction of culture to be as genocidal as physical annihilation.{{sfn|Wheatcroft|2020|p=}} Historian Stephen Wheatcroft criticises this view because he believed that the high expectations of central planners were sufficient to demonstrate their ignorance of the ultimate consequences of their actions.{{sfn|Wheatcroft|2020|p=}} Wheatcroft views the state's policies during the famine as criminal acts, though not as intentional murder or genocide.{{sfn|Wheatcroft|2020|p=}} Niccolò Pianciola argues that from Raphael Lemkin's point of view on genocide, all nomads of the Soviet Union were victims of the crime, not just the Kazakhs.{{sfn|Pianciola|2021|p=}} A monument for the famine's victims was constructed in 2017.{{cite news |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/kazakhstan-unveils-monument-victims-soviet-era-famine/28520523.html |title=Kazakhstan Unveils Monument to Victims of Soviet-Era Famine |newspaper=Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty |date=31 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240529031422/https://www.rferl.org/a/kazakhstan-unveils-monument-victims-soviet-era-famine/28520523.html |archive-date=29 May 2024}} The Turkic Council has described the famine as a "criminal Stalinist ethnic policy".{{cite web |url=https://www.turkkon.org/en/haberler/message-of-the-turkic-council-secretary-general-on-the-occasion-of-the-remembrance-day-of-the-victims-of-political-repressions-and-starvation_2255 |title=Message of the Turkic Council Secretary General on the occasion of the Remembrance Day of the Victims of Political Repressions and Starvation |date=31 May 2021 |publisher=Turkic Council |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221127092243/https://www.turkkon.org/en/haberler/message-of-the-turkic-council-secretary-general-on-the-occasion-of-the-remembrance-day-of-the-victims-of-political-repressions-and-starvation_2255 |archive-date=27 November 2022}} A genocide remembrance day is held on 31 May for the victims of the famine.{{sfn|Richter|2020|p=}}{{pn|date=March 2025}}

{{Main|The Polish Operation of the NKVD (1937–1938)|Soviet invasion of Poland|Katyn massacre}}

File:Katyn massacre 5.jpg in the Katyn Forest in 1940]]

Several scholars write that the killing, on the basis of nationality and politics, of more than 120,000 ethnic Poles in the Soviet Union from 1937 to 1938 was genocide.{{sfn|Sommer|2010|pp=417–418}} An NKVD official remarked that Poles living in the Soviet Union were to be "completely destroyed". Under Stalin the NKVD's Polish operation soon arrested some 144,000, of whom 111,000 were shot and surviving family members deported to Kazakhstan.{{sfn|Naimark|2010|pp=85–86}}{{sfn|Goldman|2011|p=217}}{{cite book |last=Conquest |first=Robert |author-link=Robert Conquest |title=The Great Terror: A reassessment |title-link=The Great Terror |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=1990 |pages=405–407 |quote=The Purge affected not only the Polish Party members but the Polish population as a whole. Between 1926 and 1939 Poles in the Soviet Union decreased by 168,000.}}

According to historian Michael Ellman, "The 'national operations' of 1937–38, notably the 'Polish operation', may qualify as genocide as defined by the UN Convention, although there is as yet no legal ruling on the matter".{{sfn|Ellman|2007|p=}}{{pn|date=March 2025}} Karol Karski argues that the Soviet actions against Poles are genocide according to international law. He says that while the extermination was targeting other nationalities as well and according to the criteria other than ethnicity, but as long as Poles were singled out basing on their ethnicity, that makes the actions to be genocide.{{sfn|Karski|2013}} The historian Terry Martin, refers to the "national operations", including the "Polish Operation", as ethnic cleansing and "ethnic terror". According to Martin, the singling out of diaspora nationalities for arrest and mass execution "verged on the genocidal".{{sfn|Lu|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Dz_CDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA33 33]}} Historian Timothy Snyder called the Polish Operation genocidal: "It is hard not to see the Soviet "Polish Operation" of 1937-38 as genocidal: Polish fathers were shot, Polish mothers sent to Kazakhstan, and Polish children left in orphanages where they would lose their Polish identity. As more than 100,000 innocent people were killed on the spurious grounds that theirs was a disloyal ethnicity, Stalin spoke of "Polish filth"."{{sfn|Snyder|2010|ref=Snyder2010b}} Norman Naimark called Stalin's policy towards Poles in the 1930s "genocidal"{{sfn|Naimark|2016|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=IB-hDQAAQBAJ&q=%22Polish+operation%22 78]}} but did not consider the entire Great Purge genocidal since it targeted political opponents as well.{{sfn|Naimark|2016|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=IB-hDQAAQBAJ&q=%22Polish+operation%22 78]}} Simon Sebag Montefiore presents a similar opinion.{{sfn|Montefiore|2010|p=229}}

In practice abandoning its 'official socialist' ideology of the "fraternity of peoples", the Soviets in the Great Terror of 1937–1938 targeted "a national group as an enemy of the state." During their Polish operation against party enemies the NKVD hit "Soviet Poles and other Soviet citizens associated with Poland, Polish culture, or Roman Catholicism. The Polish ethnic character of the operation quickly prevailed in practice... ." Stalin was pleased at "cleaning out this Polish filth." Among the several different nationalities targeted in the Great Terror (e.g., Latvians, Estonians, Finns, Belarusians), "ethnic Poles suffered more than any other group."{{harvnb|Snyder|2010|pp=93–94, 96, 103–104|ref=Snyder2010c}}. In the Polish operation Snyder lists 143,810 arrested, 111,091 executed, mostly Poles (p. 103). Other operations targeted Latvians, Estonians, Finns (p. 104), and "the Belarusian intelligentsia" (p. 98). In 1940 the Soviets also killed thousands of Polish POWs, among about 22,000 Polish citizens shot in the Katyn forest and other places.{{sfn|Naimark|2010|pp=91–92}}{{harvnb|Davies|2001|pp=58–59, 422}} (Soviet President Gorbachev sent Polish President Jaruzelski documentary evidence re Katyn "proving that the mass murder of c.25,000 Polish officers had been perpetrated by the Soviet NKVD in 1940").

{{Main|Deportation of the Chechens and Ingush|Deportation of the Karachays|Deportation of the Kalmyks|Deportation of the Balkars|Deportation of the Meskhetian Turks|Volga Germans#Soviet Deportation}}

Image:Bundesarchiv Bild 137-037542, Westpreußen, Russlanddeutsche Flüchtlinge.jpg, Germany, early 1920s.]]

The decree on the deportation of Volga Germans was published on 28 August 1941.{{sfn|Pohl|1999|p=34}} Men aged 15–55 and later women between the ages of 16 and 45 were forced to work in the forests and mines of Siberia and Central Asia under conditions similar to those prevailing in the slave labor camps of the Gulag. The expulsion of the Germans from the Volga ended in January 1942.{{sfn|Pohl|1999|p=2}} The number sent to Siberia and Kazakhstan totaled approximately 438,000. Together with 27,000 evicted in the same ethnic cleansing of the Stalingrad Oblast and 47,000 of the Saratov Oblast, the total number sent to forced internal exile was about 950,000, of which 30% died during deportation (285,000), and most never returned to the Volga Region.

On 26 February 2004 the plenary assembly of the European Parliament recognised the deportation of Chechen people during Operation Lentil (23 February 1944), as an act of genocide, on the basis of the 1907 IV Hague Convention: The Laws and Customs of War on Land and the CPPCG.{{cite web |url=http://www.unpo.org/article/438 |title=Chechnya: European Parliament recognises the genocide of the Chechen People in 1944 |work=Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization |date=27 February 2004 |access-date=13 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240706091848/https://www.unpo.org/article/438 |archive-date=6 July 2024}}

The event began on 23 February 1944, when the entire population of Checheno-Ingushetia was summoned to local party buildings where they were told they were to be deported as punishment for their alleged collaboration with the Germans. The inhabitants were rounded up and imprisoned in Studebaker trucks and sent to Siberia.{{sfn|Dunlop|1998|p=65}}{{sfn|Gammer|2006|p=170}}

• Many times, resistance was met with slaughter, and in one such instance, in the aul of Khaibakh, about 700 people were locked in a barn and burned to death. By the next summer, Checheno-Ingushetia was dissolved; a number of Chechen and Ingush placenames were replaced with Russian ones; mosques and graveyards were destroyed, and a massive campaign to burn numerous historical Chechen texts was nearly complete.{{sfn|Gammer|2006|p=182}} Many people from remote villages were executed per Lavrentiy Beria's verbal order that any Chechen or Ingush deemed 'untransportable should be liquidated' on the spot.{{sfn|Burds|2007|pp=304–305}}
• Throughout the North Caucasus, about 700,000 people were deported (according to Dalkhat Ediev, 724,297,{{sfn|Ediev|2003|p=302|loc=Table 109}} of which the majority, 412,548, were Chechens, along with 96,327 Ingush, 104,146 Kalmyks, 39,407 Balkars and 71,869 Karachais). Many died on the trip, of exposure in Siberia's extremely harsh environment. The NKVD, supplying the Russian perspective, gives the statistic of 144,704 killed in 1944–1948 alone (with a death rate of 23.5% for all groups). Estimates for Chechen deaths alone (excluding the NKVD statistic), range from about 130,000 to 200,000 thus ranging from over a quarter of the total Chechen population to nearly half being killed (of those that were deported, not counting those killed on the spot) in those 4 years alone.{{bulleted list|

| {{harvnb|Bugai|1991|p=67}}

| {{harvnb|Dunlop|1998|pp=62–71}}

| {{harvnb|Mawdsley|1998|p=72}}

| {{harvnb|Bancheli|Bartmann|Srebrnik|2004|p=229}}

| {{harvnb|Griffin|2004|p=[https://archive.org/details/caucasusjourneyt00grif/page/188 188]}}

| {{harvnb|Gammer|2006|pp=166–171}}

| {{harvnb|Griffin|2012|p=40}}

}}

File:AntanasSniečkus7-11-1970Vlns.jpg, the leader of the Communist Party of Lithuania, supervised the mass deportations of Lithuanians.{{sfn|Roszkowski|2016|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=RnKlDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA2549 2549]}}]]

The mass deportations of up to 17,500 Lithuanians, 17,000 Latvians and 6,000 Estonians carried out by Stalin's government marked the start of another genocide. Added to the killing of the Forest Brethren and the renewed Dekulakization which followed the Soviet reconquest of the Baltic states at the end of World War II, the total number of people who were deported to Siberia consisted of 118,559 Lithuanians, 52,541 Latvians, and 32,540 Estonians.{{sfn|Naimark|2010|p=89}} The high death rate of the deportees during their first few years in exile, caused by the failure of the Soviet authorities to provide them with suitable clothing and housing after they reached their destination, led some sources to label the affair an act of genocide.{{bulleted list|

| {{harvnb|Rummel|1996|p=}}

| {{harvnb|Pohl|2000|p=}}

| {{harvnb|Mälksoo|2001|p=}}

}} Based on the Martens Clause and the principles of the Nuremberg Charter, the European Court of Human Rights held that the March deportation constituted a crime against humanity.{{cite web |website=Postimees |date=31 March 2009 |url=http://arvamus.postimees.ee/100868/martin-arpo-kommunismiaja-kuritegude-tee-euroopa-inimoiguste-kohtuni?id=100868 |title=Martin Arpo: kommunismiaja kuritegude tee Euroopa Inimõiguste Kohtuni |language=et |trans-title=Martin Arpo: the path of crimes of the communist era to the European Court of Human Rights |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412041751/https://arvamus.postimees.ee/100868/martin-arpo-kommunismiaja-kuritegude-tee-euroopa-inimoiguste-kohtuni |archive-date=12 April 2021}}{{cite web |url=http://www.derechos.org/nizkor/impu/kolk.html |title=ECHR decision on the case Kolk and Kislyiy v. Estonia: Non-Applicability of Statutory Limitations to Crimes against Humanity |publisher=derechos.org |work=Council of Europe |date=17 January 2006 |access-date=15 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061005113613/http://www.derechos.org/nizkor/impu/kolk.html |archive-date=5 October 2006}} According to Erwin Oberlander, these deportations are a crime against humanity, rather than genocide.{{sfn|Oberländer|2011|pp=253–254}}

Lithuania began holding trials for genocide in 1997. Latvia and Estonia followed in 1998.{{sfn|Travis|2013|p=82}} Latvia has since convicted four security officers and in 2003 it sentenced a former KGB agent to five years in prison. Estonia tried and convicted ten men and is investigating others. In Lithuania by 2004 23 cases were before the courts, but as of the end of the year none had been convicted.{{sfn|Budryte|2005|p=182}}

In 2007 Estonia charged Arnold Meri (then 88 years old), a former Soviet Communist Party official and highly decorated former Red Army soldier, with genocide. Shortly after the trial opened, it was suspended because of Meri's frail health and then abandoned when he died.{{Cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/6959632.stm |work=BBC News |title=Estonian man on genocide charge |date=23 August 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231017164331/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/6959632.stm |archive-date=17 October 2023}} A memorial in Vilnius, Lithuania, is dedicated to genocidal victims of Stalin and Hitler,{{cite web |url=http://people.cohums.ohio-state.edu/odlin1/Graphics/lith/lithgen.htm |title=Genocide in Lithuania |publisher=people.cohums.ohio-state.edu |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060911160640/http://people.cohums.ohio-state.edu/odlin1/Graphics/lith/lithgen.htm |archive-date=11 September 2006}}{{better source needed|date=March 2012}} and the Museum of Genocide Victims in Lithuania, which opened on 14 October 1992 in the former KGB headquarters, chronicles the imprisonment and deportation of Lithuanians.{{cite web |last=Peikštenis |first=Eugenijus |url=http://genocid.lt/muziejus/en/695/c/ |title=Lithuanian Museum of Genocide Victims |work=Genocide and Resistance Research Centre of Lithuania |access-date=26 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240413115825/http://www.genocid.lt/muziejus/en/695/c/ |archive-date=13 April 2024}}

{{main|Deportation of the Crimean Tatars}}

File:Uskut.jpg, photo taken 1945 after the complete deportation of its inhabitants]]

The ethnic cleansing{{sfn|Levene|2013|p=333}}{{sfn|Naimark|2002|p=104}}{{sfn|Kohl|Kozelsky|Ben-Yehuda|2008|p=92}} and deportation of the Crimean Tatars from Crimea was ordered by Joseph Stalin as a form of collective punishment for alleged collaboration with the Nazi occupation regime in Taurida Subdistrict during 1942–1943. The state-organised removal is known as the {{lang|crh|Sürgünlik}} in Crimean Tatar. A total of more than 230,000 people were deported (the entire ethnic Crimean Tatar population), of which more than 100,000 were killed via starvation or disease.

Many activists, politicians, scholars and historians go even further and consider this deportation a crime of genocide.{{bulleted list|

| {{harvnb|Tatz|Higgins|2016|p=28}}

| {{harvnb|Uehling|2015|p=3}}

| {{harvnb|Blank|2015|p=18}}

| {{harvnb|Legters|1992|p=104}}

}} Professor Lyman H. Legters argued that the Soviet penal system, combined with its resettlement policies, should count as genocidal since the sentences were borne most heavily specifically on certain ethnic groups, and that a relocation of these ethnic groups, whose survival depends on ties to its particular homeland, "had a genocidal effect remediable only by restoration of the group to its homeland".{{sfn|Legters|1992|p=104}} Soviet dissidents Ilya Gabay{{sfn|Fisher|2014|p=150}} and Pyotr Grigorenko{{sfn|Allworth|1998|p=216}} both classified the event as a genocide. Historian Timothy Snyder included it in a list of Soviet policies that "meet the standard of genocide."{{sfn|Snyder|2010|ref=Snyder2010b}}

On 12 December 2015, the Ukrainian Parliament issued a resolution recognising this event as genocide and established 18 May as the "Day of Remembrance for the victims of the Crimean Tatar genocide."{{Cite news |work=Radio Free Europe |title=Ukraine's Parliament Recognizes 1944 'Genocide' Of Crimean Tatars |date=21 January 2016 |url=http://www.rferl.org/content/ukraine-tatar-deportation-parliament-genocide/27360343.html |access-date=4 August 2017 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20151206072149/http://www.rferl.org/content/ukraine-tatar-deportation-parliament-genocide/27360343.html |archive-date=6 December 2015}} The parliament of Latvia recognised the event as an act of genocide on 9 May 2019.{{Cite web |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/latvian-lawmakers-label-1944-deportation-of-crimean-tatars-as-act-of-genocide/29933467.html |title=Latvian Lawmakers Label 1944 Deportation Of Crimean Tatars As Act Of Genocide |date=9 May 2019 |website=Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty |access-date=10 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240227034819/https://www.rferl.org/a/latvian-lawmakers-label-1944-deportation-of-crimean-tatars-as-act-of-genocide/29933467.html |archive-date=27 February 2024}}{{Cite web |url=http://www.saeima.lv/lv/aktualitates/saeimas-zinas/27934-saeima-pienem-pazinojumu-par-krimas-tataru-deportaciju-75-gadadienu-atzistot-notikuso-par-genocidu |title=Saeima pieņem paziņojumu par Krimas tatāru deportāciju 75.gadadienu, atzīstot notikušo par genocīdu |language=lv |trans-title=The Saeima adopts a statement on the 75th anniversary of the deportation of the Crimean Tatars, recognizing what happened as genocide |date=9 May 2019 |website=saeima.lv |access-date=11 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240508182351/https://www.saeima.lv/lv/aktualitates/saeimas-zinas/27934-saeima-pienem-pazinojumu-par-krimas-tataru-deportaciju-75-gadadienu-atzistot-notikuso-par-genocidu |archive-date=8 May 2024}} The Parliament of Lithuania did the same on 6 June 2019.{{Cite web |date=6 September 2019 |title=Lithuanian parliament recognizes Soviet crimes against Crimean Tatars as genocide |url=https://www.baltictimes.com/lithuanian_parliament_recognizes_soviet_crimes_against_crimean_tatars_as_genocide/ |website=The Baltic Times |access-date=6 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240227034011/https://www.baltictimes.com/lithuanian_parliament_recognizes_soviet_crimes_against_crimean_tatars_as_genocide/ |archive-date=27 February 2024}} Canadian Parliament passed a motion on 10 June 2019, recognising the Crimean Tatar deportation of 1944 as a genocide perpetrated by Stalin, designating 18 May to be a day of remembrance.{{Cite web |url=http://www.ukrweekly.com/uwwp/foreign-affairs-committee-passes-motion-by-wrzesnewskyj-on-crimean-tatar-genocide/ |title=Foreign Affairs Committee passes motion by Wrzesnewskyj on Crimean Tatar genocide |date=21 June 2019 |access-date=23 January 2021 |archive-date=19 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200419000357/http://www.ukrweekly.com/uwwp/foreign-affairs-committee-passes-motion-by-wrzesnewskyj-on-crimean-tatar-genocide/}}

Genocide scholar Raz Segal considers the coercive Magyarisation policy and violent actions of Miklos Horthy's Kingdom of Hungary towards all inhabitants of Transcarpathia considered non-Hungarian (including Rusyns and Jews) to constitute a genocide.{{sfn|Segal|2016|pp=1–18}}

File:James A Stout, William K Hale, John Ransey, and J.A. Clouse 1926.webp in 1926, second from the left, and John Ramsey, third from left, are flanked by two U.S. marshals.]]

The Osage Indian murders was a plot by William King Hale and others to kill full-blood Osage to gain the mineral rights for their reservation.{{sfn|Fixico|2012|p=41}} The events have been characterised as a genocide due to the intentions of its perpetrators to destroy the Osage nation.{{sfn|Morska|2022|p=}}{{cite book |title=American Mythologies: New Essays on Contemporary Literature |date=2005 |publisher=Liverpool University Press |isbn=978-0-85323-736-5 |edition=DGO - Digital original |doi=10.2307/j.ctt5vjbd1 |jstor=j.ctt5vjbd1 |quote="To authorize the Osage terror as genocide and to connect a corner of Oklahoma to a global tribal history, she recreates the Holocaust as a site of hybridity."}}{{sfn|Asenap|2023}} While some label the murders themselves as an instance of genocide, others include the murders in a longer process of genocide against the Osage nation.{{sfn|Coyne|2023}}{{sfn|Bryant|2020|p=}} Estimates vary widely as to the percentage of the Osage nation killed in the murders, with the lowest estimate being 10% of 591 full-blood Osage being killed.{{cite journal |last=United States Census |date=1930 |title=Indian Population of the United States |url=https://www2.census.gov/library/publications/decennial/1930/population-indians/1930sr-indians-ch02.pdf |journal=1930 Federal Population Census |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240305191547/https://www2.census.gov/library/publications/decennial/1930/population-indians/1930sr-indians-ch02.pdf |archive-date=5 March 2024 |quote=At that time the mixed bloods had reached about 33 percent or the total. Since then, the population has steadily increased, but the number or full bloods has continued to decline. In 1910, 591, or 43.0%, claimed to be of full blood, but by 1930 the number of full bloods had declined to 545, or 23.3 percent.}}

{{Main|Japanese colonial empire|Japanese war crimes}}

{{see also|Unit 731}}

{{main|Kantō Massacre}}

The Kantō Massacre was a mass murder in the Kantō region of Japan committed in the aftermath of the 1923 Great Kantō earthquake.{{cite news |url=https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20230831-it-hurts-my-heart-japan-s-kanto-massacre-100-years-on |title='It hurts my heart': Japan's Kanto massacre, 100 years on |date=31 August 2023 |work=France 24 |agency=Agence France-Presse |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240213203938/https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20230831-it-hurts-my-heart-japan-s-kanto-massacre-100-years-on |archive-date=13 February 2024}} With the explicit and implicit approval of parts of the Japanese government, the Japanese military, police, and vigilantes murdered an estimated 6,000 people: mainly ethnic Koreans, but also Chinese and Japanese people mistaken to be Korean, and Japanese communists, socialists, and anarchists.{{bulleted list|

| {{cite encyclopedia |url=https://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Article/E0004775 |script-title=ko:관동대학살 |title=Gwandong Dai Hagsal |trans-title=The Great Kanto Massacre |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Korean Culture |publisher=Academy of Korean Studies |language=ko |access-date=3 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230624025128/https://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Article/E0004775 |archive-date=24 June 2023}}

| {{cite news |url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2013/08/29/national/history/yokohama-recalls-texts-describing-1923-massacre-of-koreans/ |title=Yokohama recalls texts describing 1923 'massacre' of Koreans |work=The Japan Times |date=29 August 2013 |access-date=3 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240709151041/https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2013/08/29/national/history/yokohama-recalls-texts-describing-1923-massacre-of-koreans/ |archive-date=9 July 2024}}

| {{cite news |first=Robert |last=Neff |url=https://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/culture/2016/08/317_213147.html |title=1923 Kanto Earthquake Massacre seen through American viewpoints |website=The Korea Times |date=31 August 2016 |access-date=3 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240903082536/https://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/culture/2016/08/317_213147.html |archive-date=3 September 2024}}

}}{{bulleted list|

| {{Cite news |date=29 September 2019 |script-title=ja:関東大震災の朝鮮人虐殺事件 小池都知事の追悼文不送付など問題となっている背景へ迫る |title=Kantō daishinsai no Chōsen hito gyakusatsu jiken Koike-to chiji no tsuitō bun fu sōfu nado mondai to natte iru haikei e semaru |language=ja |trans-title=The Great Kanto Earthquake Korean Massacre: A look into the background of the controversy surrounding Governor Koike's failure to send a message of condolence |newspaper=KoreaWorldTimes |url=https://www.koreaworldtimes.com/topics/news/6059/ |access-date=28 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240709151326/https://www.koreaworldtimes.com/topics/news/6059/ |archive-date=9 July 2024}}

| {{cite web |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2021/10/25/un-remembering-the-massacre-how-japans-history-wars-are-challenging-research-integrity-domestically-and-abroad/ |title=Un-remembering the Massacre: How Japan's "History Wars" are Challenging Research Integrity Domestically and Abroad |website=Georgetown University |date=25 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240912084549/https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2021/10/25/un-remembering-the-massacre-how-japans-history-wars-are-challenging-research-integrity-domestically-and-abroad/ |archive-date=12 September 2024}}

| {{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=Kokushi Daijiten |script-title=ja:亀戸事件 |title=Kameido jiken |url=http://rekishi.jkn21.com/ |access-date=11 August 2012 |year=2012 |publisher=Shogakukan |location=Tokyo |language=ja |trans-title=Kameido Incident |oclc=683276033 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070825113418/http://rekishi.jkn21.com/ |archive-date=25 August 2007}}

}}

{{Main|Musha Incident|Taiwan under Japanese rule|Korea under Japanese rule}}

File:Nanking bodies 1937.jpg, 1937]]

During the Nanjing Massacre which was committed during the early months of the Second Sino-Japanese War, the Japanese committed mass killings against the Chinese population of the city, during which at least 200,000 people were killed.{{sfn|Yoshida|2006|p=60}}{{sfn|Yang|2001|p=}}{{sfn|Yoshida|1998|p=160}} Bradley Campbell described the Nanjing Massacre as a genocide, because the Chinese were unilaterally killed en masse by the Japanese during the aftermath of the battle for the city, despite its successful and certain outcome.{{harvnb|Campbell|2009|p=154}}: "Also, genocide may occur in the aftermath of warfare when mass killings continue after the outcome of a battle or a war has been decided. For instance, after the Chinese city of Nanking was occupied by the Japanese in December 1937, Japanese soldiers massacred over 250,000 residents of the city." However, Jean-Louis Margolin does not believe that the Nanjing atrocities should be considered a genocide because only prisoners of war were executed in a systematic manner and the targeting of civilians was sporadic and done without orders by individual actors.{{sfn|Margolin|2006|pp=5–6}} Yuki Tanaka argues that while the Japanese government did not endorse a clear policy of genocide, the military campaign in China was "undoubtedly genocidal", with Nanjing being a typical example of a genocidal massacre.{{sfn|Tanaka|2023|p=398}}

{{main|Three Alls policy}}

The Three Alls policy was a Japanese scorched earth policy adopted in China during World War II, the three "alls" being "kill all, burn all, loot all".{{sfn|Fairbank|Goldman|2006|p=320}} This policy was designed as retaliation against the Chinese for the Communist-led Hundred Regiments Offensive in December 1940.{{sfn|Grasso|Corrin|Kort|2024|p=129}} According to American historian Herbert Bix, the prototype of the Three Alls policy policy were the "annihilation campaigns" launched in late 1938 by the North China Area Army to "pacify" the Hebei province, which was a hotbed of guerrilla resistance.{{sfn|Bix|2000|p=365}} Emperor Hirohito gave his approval of the "annihilation campaign" in an order he signed on 2 December 1938.{{sfn|Bix|2000|p=365}} In a study published in 1996, historian Mitsuyoshi Himeta claims that the Three Alls policy was both directly and indirectly responsible for the deaths of "more than 2.7 million" Chinese civilians.{{sfn|Felton|2015|p=}}

{{main|Nanshitou massacre}}

The Nanshitou Massacre was large-scale unnatural deaths among the refugees detained by the Imperial Japanese Army and Wang Jingwei regime at the Nanshitou Refugee Camp in Guangzhou, China, between 1942 and 1945. The event was triggered by the Japanese expulsion of Chinese residents from Japanese-occupied Hong Kong in 1942, which resulted in refugees crowding into the city of Guangzhou by ferry along the Pearl River.{{Cite web |date=30 November 2016 |script-title=zh:細菌粥　放疫蚊　做活人實驗　揭二戰日軍毒殺逾萬港人 |title=Xìjùn zhōu fàng yì wén zuòhuó rén shíyàn jiē èrzhàn rìjūn dúshā yú wàn gǎng rén |language=zh |trans-title=Bacteria porridge, releasing epidemic mosquitoes, conducting experiments on living people, revealing that the Japanese army poisoned more than 10,000 Hong Kong people in World War II |url=http://eastweek.my-magazine.me/main/61209 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170808073212/http://eastweek.my-magazine.me/main/61209 |archive-date=8 August 2017 |website=EASTWEEK |publication-place=Hong Kong}} They were stopped at Nanshitou for physical examinations.{{Cite web |date=27 April 2014 |script-title=zh:日军在广州拿活人做实验 6搬尸工数月才搬完尸骨 |title=Rìjūn zài guǎngzhōu ná huó rén zuò shíyàn 6 bān shī gōngshù yuè cái bān wán shīgǔ |language=zh |trans-title=The Japanese army conducted experiments on living people in Guangzhou. It took 6 corpse movers several months to move the bones. |url=http://world.people.com.cn/n/2014/0427/c1002-24947810.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240226132313/http://world.people.com.cn/n/2014/0427/c1002-24947810.html |archive-date=26 February 2024 |access-date=26 February 2024 |website=Guangzhou Daily |publication-place=Guangzhou}}{{Cite web |date=9 August 2003 |script-title=zh:调查：日军在广州难民营用细菌武器屠杀难民 |title=Diàochá: Rìjūn zài guǎngzhōu nànmín yíng yòng xìjùn wǔqì túshā nànmín |language=zh |trans-title= Investigation: Japanese troops used bacterial weapons to massacre refugees in Guangzhou refugee camp |url=http://lianghui.china.com.cn/chinese/zhuanti/qhrj/388024.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240226132317/http://lianghui.china.com.cn/chinese/zhuanti/qhrj/388024.htm |archive-date=26 February 2024 |access-date=26 February 2024 |website=Southern Metropolis Daily |publication-place=Guangzhou}} A former soldier of Unit 8604 stated that the unit was instructed to poison Chinese refugees with the pathogens of typhoid and paratyphoid, which they put into the thin porridge and drinking water prepared for the refugees, causing a large number of deaths.{{sfn|Yuanheng|Xiangqiong|2019}} Additionally, survivors claimed that the Japanese used detainees for human experimentation.{{sfn|Dongxun|1995|p=}}

{{main|Sook Ching}}

Sook Ching was a mass killing that occurred from 18 February to 4 March 1942 in Singapore after it fell to the Japanese. It was a systematic purge and massacre of anti-Japanese elements in Singapore, with the Singaporean Chinese particularly targeted by the Japanese military during the occupation.{{cite web |title=Heritage Trails – A photography journey to document our Singapore heritage |url=https://heritagetrails.sg/content/586/Sook_Ching_Centre.html/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111008002817/http://heritagetrails.sg/content/586/Sook_Ching_Centre.html |archive-date=8 October 2011}} However, Japanese soldiers engaged in indiscriminate killing, and did not try to identify who was anti-Japanese.{{sfn|Blackburn|2000|p=75}} Retrospective analysis places the number killed at between 40,000 and 50,000.{{sfn|Lee|2005|p=}}{{sfn|Rigg|2024|pp=98–99}}

{{Main|Pacific War|South-East Asian theatre of World War II|Japanese occupation of the Philippines}}

Various atrocities were also committed during the Japanese colonial era, one of them was the Manila massacre.{{sfn|Cepeda|2018}}

{{main|Napalpí massacre}}

The Napalpí massacre occurred on 19 July 1924, in Napalpí a rural village in the Chaco Province of Northeast Argentina. It involved the massacre of 400 indigenous people of the Toba and Mocoví ethnicity by the Argentine Police and ranchers.{{sfn|Salamanca|2008|p=}}{{pn|date=March 2025}}{{sfn|Vérité|2022}}

{{main|Kinder der Landstrasse}}

{{lang|de|Kinder der Landstrasse}} was a project implemented by the Swiss foundation Pro Juventute from 1926 to 1973. The aim of the project was to assimilate the itinerant Yenish people in Switzerland by institutionalising the parents and forcibly removing their children and placing them in orphanages or foster homes.{{sfn|Huonker|Ludi|2001}}

{{see also|Italian concentration camps in Libya|Libyan genocide (1929–1934)}}

The Second Italo-Senussi War,{{sfn|Cooper|Grandolini|2015|p=5}} also known as the Pacification of Libya,{{sfn|Cardoza|2006|p=109}} or the Libyan Genocide,{{sfn|Ahmida|2023|pp=118–119}}{{sfn|Mann|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=cGHGPgj1_tIC&pg=PA309 309]}}{{bulleted list|

|{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gSg0lQkyJoIC&pg=PA146 |title=Making of Modern Libya, The: State Formation, Colonization, and Resistance |edition=Second |last=Ahmida |first=Ali Abdullatif |date=23 March 2011 |publisher=SUNY Press |isbn=978-1-4384-2893-2 |page=146 |language=en |via=Google Books}}

|{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rgGA91skoP4C&pg=PA259 |title=Dictionary of Genocide: A-L |last1=Totten |first1=Samuel |last2=Bartrop |first2=Paul Robert |author1-link=Samuel Totten |author2-link=Paul R. Bartrop |date=2008 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-0-313-34642-2 |page=259}}

|{{harvnb|Duggan|2007|p=497}}

}} was a prolonged conflict in Italian Libya between Italian military forces and indigenous rebels associated with the Senussi Order that lasted from 1923 until 1932,{{sfn|Epton|1953|p=126}}{{sfn|Stewart|1986|p=196}} when the principal Senussi leader, Omar Mukhtar, was captured and executed.{{cite web |url=http://www.regioesercito.it/reparti/mvsn/mvsnlib23.htm |trans-title=The Militia's participation in the reconquest of Libya |title=La partecipazione della Milizia alla riconquista della Libia |publisher=Regioesercito |language=it |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240511002853/http://www.regioesercito.it/reparti/mvsn/mvsnlib23.htm |archive-date=11 May 2024}} The pacification resulted in mass deaths of the indigenous people in Cyrenaica—one quarter of Cyrenaica's entire population of 225,000 people died during the conflict.{{sfn|Mann|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=cGHGPgj1_tIC&pg=PA309 309]}}{{sfn|Ahmida|2023|pp=131–132}} Italy committed major war crimes during the conflict; including the use of chemical weapons, the refusal to take prisoners of war and the execution rather than the capture of surrendering combatants, and mass executions of civilians.{{sfn|Duggan|2007|p=497}} Italian authorities committed ethnic cleansing by forcibly expelling 100,000 Bedouin Cyrenaicans, half the population of Cyrenaica, from their settlements that were slated to be given to Italian settlers.{{sfn|Cardoza|2006|p=109}}{{Cite book |first1=Donald |last1=Bloxham |author1-link=Donald Bloxham |first2=A. Dirk |last2=Moses |author2-link=A. Dirk Moses |title=The Oxford Handbook of Genocide Studies |location=Oxford, England |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2010 |page=358}} In 2008, Italy apologised for its killing, destruction and repression of the Libyan people during the period of colonial rule, and it went on to say that its apology was a "complete and moral acknowledgement of the damage inflicted on Libya by Italy during the colonial era."{{Cite report |title=The Report: Libya 2008 |publisher=Oxford Business Group |year=2008 |page=17}}

The Second Italo-Ethiopian War, also referred to as the Second Italo-Abyssinian War, was a war of aggression which was fought between Italy and Ethiopia from October 1935 to February 1937.{{sfn|Barker|1971|p=33}}{{sfn|Mockler|2003|pp=172–173}} In Ethiopia it is often referred to simply as the Italian Invasion ({{langx|am|ጣልያን ወረራ|translit=Ṭalyan warära}}), and in Italy as the Ethiopian War ({{langx|it|Guerra d'Etiopia}}). It is seen as an example of the expansionist policy that characterised the Axis powers and the ineffectiveness of the League of Nations before the outbreak of the Second World War. By all estimates, hundreds of thousands of Ethiopian civilians died as a result of the Italian invasion, which have been described by some historians as constituting genocide,{{sfn|Labanca|2004|p=}}{{pn|date=April 2025}}{{sfn|Bentrovato|Bentrovato|2024|p=52}} and by others as "bordering on genocide".{{sfn|Bentrovato|Bentrovato|2024|pp=61–62}}

{{main|La Matanza}}

{{lang|es|La Matanza}} (Spanish for 'The Massacre') refers to a large scale government killings in western El Salvador{{sfn|Beverly|1982|p=59}}{{sfn|Bosch|1999|p=7}}{{sfn|Cuéllar Martínez|2004}} following a communist-indigenous rebellion that took place between 22 and 25 January 1932. After the revolt was suppressed, which resulted in the deaths of 10,000 to 40,000 people.{{sfn|Tulchin|Bland|1992|p=167}}{{sfn|Beverly|1982|p=59}}

{{Main|Simele massacre}}

The Simele massacre was a massacre committed by the armed forces of the Kingdom of Iraq during a campaign which systematically targeted the Assyrian Christian population of northern Iraq in August 1933. The term is not only used in reference to the massacre which occurred in Simele, it is also used in reference to the killing spree which occurred in 63 Assyrian villages in the Dohuk and Mosul districts and caused the death of between 5,000{{sfn|Zubaida|2000|p=370}} and 6,000 Assyrians.{{cite web |title=Displaced persons in Iraqi Kurdistan and Iraqi refugees in Iran |url=http://www.fidh.org/IMG/pdf/iq350a.pdf |work=fidh.org |publisher=International Federation for Human Rights |date=January 2003 |access-date=23 September 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240723061604/https://www.fidh.org/IMG/pdf/iq350a.pdf |archive-date=23 July 2024}}{{sfn|DeKelaita|2009|p=}}

The Simele massacre inspired Raphael Lemkin to invent the concept of genocide.{{sfn|Donabed|2015|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=bwLdCQAAQBAJ&pg=PT110 110–]}} In 1933, Lemkin delivered a presentation to the Legal Council of the League of Nations conference on international criminal law in Madrid, for which he prepared an essay on the Crime of Barbarity as a crime against international law. The concept of the "crime of barbarity" evolved into the idea of genocide, and it was based on the Simele massacre, Armenian genocide, and later the Holocaust.{{cite web |title=Raphael Lemkin |url=http://www.europaworld.org/issue40/raphaellemkin22601.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100416164051/http://www.europaworld.org/issue40/raphaellemkin22601.htm |archive-date=16 April 2010 |publisher=EuropeWorld |date=22 June 2001 |access-date=23 September 2011}}

In 1937, Dominican dictator Rafael Trujillo ordered the execution of Haitians who were living in the Dominican Republic. The Parsley massacre, known as "El Corte" (the Cutting) in the Dominican Republic, lasted approximately five days. The name of the massacre comes from claims that soldiers used a Shibboleth to identify suspected Haitians, showing them parsley leaves and asking them to pronounce the name of the plant. Spanish-speaking Dominicans would be able to pronounce the Spanish word for parsley ("perejil") correctly, whereas native Haitian Creole speakers would struggle to pronounce the 'r' adequately. Those who mispronounced "perejil" were assumed to be Haitian and slaughtered. The massacre resulted in the deaths of 20,000 to 30,000 people.{{sfn|Gosh|2012}}

In the 1930s, the Kuomintang's Republic of China government supported Muslim warlord Ma Bufang when he launched seven expeditions into Golog, causing the deaths of thousands of Tibetans.{{sfn|Bulag|2002|p=54}} Uradyn Erden Bulag called the events that followed genocidal, while David Goodman called them ethnic cleansing. One Tibetan counted the number of times Ma attacked him, remembering the seventh attack that made life impossible.{{sfn|Hui|1961|p=16}} Ma was anti-communist and he and his army wiped out many Tibetans in northeast and eastern Qinghai and they also destroyed Tibetan Buddhist Temples.{{sfn|Goodman|2004|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=DbkfQATHikQC&q=ma+bufang+ethnic+cleansing+tibetans&pg=PA72 72]}}{{sfn|Mayaram|2009|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=QVSVux0wIW0C&q=hui+traders+tibetans&pg=PA75 76–77]}} Ma also patronised the Panchen Lama, who was exiled from Tibet by the Dalai Lama's government.{{cn|date=March 2025}}

{{Main|Nazism|Nazi Party|Nazi racial theories|Nazi Germany|Anti-Jewish legislation in pre-war Nazi Germany|Racial policy of Nazi Germany|Hunger Plan|Persecution of homosexuals in Nazi Germany and the Holocaust|Religion in Nazi Germany|Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses in Nazi Germany|Consequences of Nazism}}

{{further|German war crimes|Waffen-SS|War crimes of the Wehrmacht}}

File:WW2-Holocaust-Europe.png in German-occupied Europe.]]

{{main|The Holocaust}}

{{further|History of the Jews during World War II|Holocaust survivors|Holocaust victims|Names of the Holocaust|Responsibility for the Holocaust}}

The Holocaust is widely recognised as a genocide. The term "genocide" appeared in the indictment of 24 German leaders. Count three of the indictment stated that all of the defendants had "conducted deliberate and systematic genocide – namely, the extermination of racial and national groups...."{{sfn|Monroe|2011|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=jfWCEiDUVo0C&pg=PA10 10–]}}

The term "Holocaust" (derived from the Greek words {{lang|el-latn|hólos}}, "whole" and {{lang|el-latn|kaustós}}, "burnt") is often used to describe the killing of approximately six million European Jews, as part of a program of deliberate extermination which was planned and executed by the National Socialist German Workers Party in Germany, which was led by Adolf Hitler.{{sfn|Niewyk|Nicosia|2000|p=45}} Many scholars do not include other groups in the definition of the Holocaust, because they choose to limit it to the genocide of the Jews.{{bulleted list|

| {{harvnb|Weissman|2004|p=[https://archive.org/details/fantasiesofwitne00weis/page/94 94]}}: "Kren illustrates his point with his reference to the Kommissararbefehl. 'Should the (strikingly unreported) systematic mass starvation of Soviet prisoners of war be included in the Holocaust?' he asks. Many scholars would answer no, maintaining that 'the Holocaust' should strictly refer to those events which involved the systematic killing of the Jews'."

| {{citation |title=The Holocaust: Definition and Preliminary Discussion |publisher=Yad Vashem |quote=The Holocaust, as presented in this resource center, is defined as the sum total of all anti-Jewish actions carried out by the German regime between 1933 and 1945: from stripping the German Jews of their legal and economic status in the 1930s, to segregating and starving Jews in the various occupied countries, to the murder of close to six million Jews in Europe. The Holocaust is part of a broader aggregate of acts of oppression and murder of various ethnic and political groups in Europe by the Germans.}}

| {{harvnb|Niewyk|Nicosia|2000|p=45}}

}}{{cite encyclopedia |title=Holocaust |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |year=2007 |quote=the systematic state-sponsored killing of six million Jewish men, women, and children and millions of others by Germany and its collaborators during World War II. The Germans called this "the final solution to the Jewish question."}}{{full citation needed|date=September 2024}}

{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761559508/Holocaust.html |title=Holocaust |encyclopedia=Encarta |date=1993 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/5kwpf3JYp?url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761559508/Holocaust.html |archive-date=31 October 2009 |quote=Holocaust, the almost complete destruction of Jews in Europe by Germany and its collaborators during World War II (1939–1945). The leadership of Germany ordered the extermination of 5.6 million to 5.9 million Jews (see National Socialism). Jews often refer to the Holocaust as the Shoah (from the Hebrew word for "catastrophe" or "total destruction").}}{{bulleted list|

| {{harvnb|Paulson|2011}}: "The Holocaust was the Germans' assault on the Jews between 1933 and 1945. It culminated in what the Germans called the 'Final Solution of the Jewish Question in Europe', in which six million Jews were murdered."

| {{cite web |url=http://www.auschwitz.dk/ |title=Auschwitz |website=Auschwitz.dk |quote=The Holocaust was the systematic annihilation of six million Jews by the Germans during World War 2. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240518035118/http://auschwitz.dk/ |archive-date=18 May 2024}}

| {{cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.chgs.umn.edu/educational/edResource/definition.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090116174139/http://www.chgs.umn.edu/educational/edResource/definition.html |archive-date=16 January 2009 |title=Holocaust |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of the Holocaust |publisher=Center for Holocaust and Genocide Studies |quote=(Heb., sho'ah). In the 1950s the term came to be applied primarily to the destruction of the Jews of Europe under the German regime, and it is also employed in order to describe the annihilation of other groups of people during World War II. The mass extermination of Jews has become the archetype of GENOCIDE, and the terms sho'ah and 'holocaust' have become linked to the attempt by the German state to destroy European Jewry during World War II... One of the first to use the term in this historical perspective was the Jerusalem historian BenZion Dinur (Dinaburg), who, in the spring of 1942, stated that the Holocaust was a 'catastrophe' that symbolized the unique situation of the Jewish people among the nations of the world.}}

| {{citation |publisher=Center for Holocaust and Genocide Studies |title=List of definitions |contribution=Holocaust |quote=A term for the state-sponsored, systematic persecution and annihilation of European Jewry by Germany and its collaborators between 1933 and 1945.}}{{full citation needed|date=September 2024}}

| {{cite dictionary |url=http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/holocaust |title=The Holocaust |dictionary=Compact Oxford English Dictionary |quote=the mass murder of Jews under the German regime in World War II. |access-date=23 January 2021 |archive-date=10 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160210215837/http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/holocaust}}

| {{citation |title=The 33rd Annual Scholars' Conference on the Holocaust and the Churches |type=definition |contribution=The Holocaust |quote=the German attempt to annihilate European Jewry}}, cited in {{harvnb|Hancock|2004|pp=383–396}}

| {{harvnb|Bauer|2001|p=10}}

| {{harvnb|Dawidowicz|1986|p=xxxvii}}: "'The Holocaust' is the term that Jews themselves have chosen to describe their fate during World War II."

}}

File:Einsatzgruppe shooting.jpg, 14 October 1942]]

The Holocaust was accomplished in stages. Legislation to remove the Jews from civil society was enacted years before the outbreak of World War II. Concentration camps were established in which inmates were used as slave laborers and murdered through over-work. When Nazi Germany conquered new territories in Eastern Europe, specialised units which were called {{lang|de|Einsatzgruppen}} murdered Jews and political opponents in mass shootings.{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/6724481.stm |title=Ukrainian mass Jewish grave found |work=BBC News |date=5 June 2007 |access-date=15 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230527025555/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/6724481.stm |archive-date=27 May 2023}} Jews and Romani people were crammed into ghettos before they were crammed into box cars and transported to extermination camps by freight train where, if they survived the journey, the majority of them were murdered in gas chambers. Every arm of Germany's bureaucracy was involved in the logistics of the mass murder, turning the country into what one Holocaust scholar has called "a genocidal nation."{{sfn|Berenbaum|Kramer|United States Holocaust Memorial Museum|2005|p=103}}

This list gives a total of over 3.8 million; of these, 80–90% were estimated to have been Jews. These seven camps thus accounted for half of the total number of Jews who were murdered in the entire Nazi Holocaust. Virtually the entire Jewish population of Poland was murdered in these camps.{{sfn|Dawidowicz|1986|p=403}}

Since 1945, the most commonly cited figure for the total number of Jews who were murdered has been six million. The Yad Vashem Holocaust Martyrs' and Heroes' Remembrance Authority in Jerusalem, writes that there is no precise figure for the number of murdered Jews,{{cite web |title=The Central Database of Shoah Victims' Names |url=http://yvng.yadvashem.org/index.html?language=en |publisher=Yad Vashem |access-date=8 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240615142429/https://collections.yadvashem.org/en/names |archive-date=15 June 2024}} but it has been able to find documentation of more than three million names of Jewish victims,{{cite web |title=The Holocaust: Tracing Lost Family Members |url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Holocaust/tracing.html |work=Jewish Virtual Library |access-date=8 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180411061558/http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/tracing-family-members-lost-in-the-holocaust |archive-date=11 April 2018}}{{better source needed|date=July 2024}} which it displays at its visitors center. The figure most commonly used is the six million attributed to Adolf Eichmann, a senior SS official.{{efn|Wilhelm Höttl, an SS officer and a Doctor of History, testified at the Nuremberg Trials and Eichmann's trial that at a meeting he had with Eichmann in Budapest in late August 1944, "Eichmann ... told me that, according to his information, some 6,000,000 (six million) Jews had perished until then – 4,000,000 (four million) in extermination camps and the remaining 2,000,000 (two million) through shooting by the Operations Units and other causes, such as disease, etc."{{cite web |title=The Testimony of Dr. Wilhelm Hoettl |url=http://www.nizkor.org/hweb/people/e/eichmann-adolf/transcripts/Testimony-Abroad/Wilhelm_Hoettl-07.html |website=Nizkor Project |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130605090823/http://www.nizkor.org/hweb/people/e/eichmann-adolf/transcripts/Testimony-Abroad/Wilhelm_Hoettl-07.html |archive-date=5 June 2013}}{{cite web |last=Khan |first=David |title=The Secret History of the Author of the Secret Front |url=http://david-kahn.com/articles-secret-history-author-front.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040607002323/http://david-kahn.com/articles-secret-history-author-front.htm |archive-date=7 June 2004}}{{cite web |title=The Trial of German Major War Criminals |url=http://www.nizkor.org/hweb/imt/tgmwc/tgmwc-02/tgmwc-02-20-05.shtml |website=Nizkor Project |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130517183809/http://www.nizkor.org/hweb/imt/tgmwc/tgmwc-02/tgmwc-02-20-05.shtml |archive-date=17 May 2013}}}}

File:Auschwitz Resistance 280 cropped.jpg}} burn corpses in the fire pits at Auschwitz II-Birkenau.{{cite web |url=http://auschwitz.org/en/ |title=Auschwitz-Birkenau Memorial and Museum in Oświęcim, Poland |work=auschwitz.org |access-date=17 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160329103113/http://auschwitz.org/en/ |archive-date=29 March 2016}}]]

There were about eight to ten million Jews in the territories controlled directly or indirectly by Germany (the uncertainty arises from the lack of knowledge about how many Jews there were in the Soviet Union). The six million murdered in the Holocaust thus represent 60 to 75 percent of these Jews. Of Poland's 3.3 million Jews, about 90 percent were murdered.{{cite web |title=Responses to common Holocaust-denial claims |url=http://archive.adl.org/holocaust/response.asp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130222013622/http://archive.adl.org/holocaust/response.asp |archive-date=22 February 2013 |publisher=ADL |access-date=8 November 2013}} The same proportion were murdered in Latvia and Lithuania, but most of Estonia's Jews were evacuated in time.{{cite web |title=Estonia |url=https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/Estonia |website=United States Holocaust Memorial Museum |access-date=3 October 2024 |archive-url= |archive-date=}} Of the 750,000 Jews in Germany and Austria in 1933, only about a quarter survived. Although many German Jews emigrated before 1939, the majority of these fled to Czechoslovakia, France or the Netherlands, from where they were later deported and murdered.{{cite web |title=German Jewish Refugees, 1933–1939 |url=https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/german-jewish-refugees-1933-1939 |website=United States Holocaust Memorial Museum |access-date=3 October 2024 |archive-url= |archive-date=}}

In Czechoslovakia, Greece, the Netherlands, and Yugoslavia (whose territories were divided into the German-Italian Puppet state Independent State of Croatia run by the Ustaše and the German Occupied Territory of the Military Commander in Serbia governed by Milan Nedić's Government of National Salvation), over 70 percent were murdered. In The Independent State of Croatia, Ustaše and the German Army carried out extermination of Jews as well as Roma in Ustaše-run concentration camps like Jasenovac, while a considerable number of Jews were rounded up by the Ustaše and turned over to the Germans for extermination in Nazi Germany. In the Territory of the Military Commander in Serbia, the German Army carried out the extermination of Jews as well as Roma with support and assistance from Milan Nedić's regime and Dimitrije Ljotić's fascist organisation Yugoslav National Movement (Zbor), who had joint control over the Banjica concentration camp with the German Army in Belgrade.{{harvnb|Glenny|2000|p=502}}: "The Nazis were assisted by several thousand ethnic Germans as well as by supporters of Dijmitrje Ljotic's Yugoslav fascist movement, Zbor, and General Milan Nedic's quisling administration. But the main Eengine of extermination was the regular army. The destruction of the Serbian Jews gives the lie to {{lang|de|Wehrmacht}} claims that it took no part in the genocidal programmes of the Nazis. Indeed, General Bohme and his men in German-occupied Serbia planned and carried out the murder of over 20,000 Jews and Gypsies without any prompting from Berlin"{{cite web |url=https://www.yadvashem.org/education/educational-materials/books/suffering.html |title=The Suffering of the Roma in Serbia during the Holocaust |publisher=Yad Vashem |first=Richelle Budd |last=Caplan |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240521095648/https://www.yadvashem.org/education/educational-materials/books/suffering.html |archive-date=21 May 2024}} 50 to 70 percent were murdered in Romania, Belgium and Hungary. It is likely that a similar proportion were killed in Belarus and Ukraine, but these figures are less certain. Countries with notably lower proportions of deaths include Bulgaria, Denmark, France, Italy, and Norway. Albania was the only country occupied by Germany that had a significantly larger Jewish population in 1945 than in 1939. About two hundred native Jews and over a thousand refugees were provided with false documents, hidden when necessary, and generally treated as honored guests in the country.Shoah Research Center;– Albania [http://www1.yadvashem.org/odot_pdf/Microsoft%20Word%20-%205725.pdf] The Jews of Albania during the Zogist and Second World War Periods [https://web.archive.org/web/20070927231247/http://www.heimat.de/home/illyria/i.php3?s=e&p=2004_01_09_fisher_jews_in_albania] and see also Norman H. Gershman's book Besa: Muslims Who Saved Jews in World War II – for reviews etc [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0815609345] (all consulted 24 June 2010) Additionally, Japan, as an Axis member, had its own unique response to German policies regarding Jews; see Shanghai Ghetto.

In addition to those who died in extermination camps, another 800,000 to one million Jews were murdered by the {{lang|de|Einsatzgruppen}} in the occupied Soviet territories (an approximate figure, since the {{lang|de|Einsatzgruppen}} murders were frequently undocumented).{{sfn|Rhodes|2002|p=}}{{pn|date=April 2025}} Many more died through execution or of disease and malnutrition in the ghettos of Poland before they could be deported.

File:Holocaustdeathtoll%.png death toll as a percentage of the total pre-war Jewish population in Europe]]

In the 1990s, the opening of government archives in Eastern Europe resulted in the adjustment of the death tolls which were published in the pioneering works by Hilberg, Dawidowicz and Gilbert (e.g. compare Gilbert's estimation of two million deaths in Auschwitz-Birkenau with the updated figure of one million in the Extermination Camp data box). As pointed out above, Wolfgang Benz has been carrying out work on the more recent data. He concluded in 1999:

{{blockquote|The goal of annihilating all of the Jews of Europe, as it was proclaimed at the conference in the villa Am Grossen Wannsee in January 1942, was not reached. Yet the six million murder victims make the holocaust a unique crime in the history of mankind. The number of victims—and with certainty the following represent the minimum number in each case—cannot express that adequately. Numbers are just too abstract. However they must be stated in order to make clear the dimension of the genocide: 165,000 Jews from Germany, 65,000 from Austria, 32,000 from France and Belgium, more than 100,000 from the Netherlands, 60,000 from Greece, the same number from Yugoslavia, more than 140,000 from Czechoslovakia, half a million from Hungary, 2.2 million from the Soviet Union, and 2.7 million from Poland. To these numbers must be added all those killed in the pogroms and massacres in Romania and Transitrien (over 200,000) and the deported and murdered Jews from Albania and Norway, Denmark and Italy, from Luxembourg and Bulgaria.|Benz, Wolfgang The Holocaust: A German Historian Examines the Genocide{{sfn|Benz|1999|pp=152–153}}}}

{{Clear}}

Some scholars broaden the definition of the Holocaust by including other German killing policies which were carried out during the war, including the mistreatment of Soviet POWs, crimes against ethnic Poles, the mass murder of mentally and physically disabled Germans (which the Nazi authorities framed as "euthanasia"),{{cite book |last=Friedlander |first=Henry |title=The Origins of Nazi Genocide: From Euthanasia to the Final Solution |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gqLDEKVk2nMC&pg=PR11 |year=1997 |publisher=University of North Carolina Press |isbn=978-0-8078-4675-9 |page=xi}} persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses, the genocide of Romani, and other crimes which the Nazis committed against ethnic, sexual, and political minorities.{{sfn|Niewyk|Nicosia|2000|p=45–52}} Using this definition, the total number of Holocaust victims is 11 million people. Donald Niewyk suggests that the broadest definition, including Soviet deaths due to war-related famine and disease, would produce a death toll of 17 million. Overall, about 5.7 million (78 percent) of the 7.3 million Jews in occupied Europe perished.{{cite book |first=Martin |last=Gilbert |title=Atlas of the holocaust |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p8p-AAAAMAAJ |year=1988 |publisher=Pergamon Press |isbn=978-0-08-036761-3 |pages=242–244}} This was in contrast to the five to 11 million (1.4 percent to 3.0 percent) of the 360 million non-Jews in German-dominated Europe.{{cite book |first1=Melvin |last1=Small |first2=Joel David |last2=Singer |title=Resort to arms: international and civil wars, 1816–1980 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rvASAQAAMAAJ |date=1982 |publisher=SAGE Publications |isbn=978-0-8039-1776-7}}{{cite book |first=Michael |last=Berenbaum |author-link=Michael Berenbaum |title=A Mosaic of Victims: Non-Jews Persecuted and Murdered by the Nazis |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-d-AGQAACAAJ |year=1990 |publisher=New York University Press |isbn=978-0-8147-1175-0}} The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum has the number of people murdered during the Holocaust era at over 12 million.{{cite web |title=How Many People Did the Nazis Murder? |url=https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/documenting-numbers-of-victims-of-the-holocaust-and-nazi-persecution |website=United States Holocaust Memorial Museum |access-date=3 October 2024 |archive-url= |archive-date=}}

{{main|Romani Holocaust}}

File:Persecution of Roma.gif

The treatment of the Romani people was not consistent in the different areas that Nazi Germany conquered. In some areas (e.g. Luxembourg and the Baltic countries), the Nazis murdered virtually the entire Romani population. In other areas (e.g. Denmark and Greece), there is no record of Romanis being subjected to mass murder.{{sfn|Edelheit|Edelheit|Edelheit|1995|p=458}}

Donald Niewyk and Frances Nicosia write that the death toll was at least 130,000 out of the nearly one million Romani who resided in Nazi-controlled Europe.{{sfn|Niewyk|Nicosia|2000|p=47}} Michael Berenbaum writes that serious scholarly estimates lie between 90,000 and 220,000.{{sfn|Berenbaum|Kramer|United States Holocaust Memorial Museum|2005|p=126}} A study by Sybil Milton, senior historian at the U.S. Holocaust Memorial Museum, calculated at least 220,000 and possibly closer to 500,000 victims, but this study explicitly excluded the Roma who were murdered in Romania and Yugoslavia (Serbia, Croatia, Bosnia) where the genocide of Romanies was intense.{{cite web |url=http://www.nyed.uscourts.gov/pub/rulings/cv/1996/685455.pdf |title=Re. Holocaust Victim Assets Litigation (Swiss Banks) Special Master's Proposals |work=U.S. District Court – Eastern New York |date=11 September 2000 |access-date=29 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120516101356/http://www.nyed.uscourts.gov/pub/rulings/cv/1996/685455.pdf |archive-date=16 May 2012}} Martin Gilbert estimated a total of more than 220,000 deaths out of the 700,000 Romani who lived in Europe.{{harvnb|Gilbert|2002|pp=141, 232}} (ref Map 182 p. 141 with Romani deaths by country & Map 301 p. 232) Note: formerly The Dent Atlas of the Holocaust; 1982, 1993. Ian Hancock, Director of the Program of Romani Studies and the Romani Archives and Documentation Center at the University of Texas at Austin, has argued in favor of a much higher figure of between 500,000 and 1,500,000 deaths, claiming that the Romani death toll proportionally equaled or exceeded that of Jewish victims.{{sfn|Hancock|2019|p=80}}

{{Main|Eastern Front (World War II)|Soviet Union in World War II|German atrocities committed against Soviet prisoners of war|The Holocaust in Russia|The Holocaust in the Soviet Union|World War II casualties of the Soviet Union}}

File:Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-031-2436-05A, Russland, Hinrichtung von Partisanen.jpg

File:Дистрофия алиментарная.jpg in 1941]]

The Nazi German government implemented Generalplan Ost which was part of its plan for the colonisation of Central and Eastern Europe.{{cite web |url=https://www.dfg.de/pub/generalplan/planung_1.html |title=Der Generalplan Ost |trans-title=The Generalplan Ost |language=de |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210726053612/https://www.dfg.de/pub/generalplan/planung_1.html |archive-date=26 July 2021 |website=Eine Ausstellung der Deutschen Forschungsgemeinschaft |date=2006}} Implementation of the plan necessitated genocide{{sfn|Eichholtz|2004|p=801}} and ethnic cleansing which was to be undertaken on a vast scale in the territories which were occupied by Germany during World War II.{{sfn|Eichholtz|2004|p=801}} The plan entailed the enslavement, expulsion, and the partial extermination of most Slavic peoples in Europe, peoples whom the Nazis considered racially inferior and non-Aryan.{{sfn|Eichholtz|2004|pp=803–804}}Hitler's Home Front: Wurttemberg Under the Nazis Jill Stephenson page 113 " Other non-'Aryans' included Slavs, Blacks and Roma and Sinti (Romanies)" The programme operational guidelines, which were prepared in the years 1939–1942, were based on the policy of {{lang|de|Lebensraum}} which was designed by Adolf Hitler and the Nazi movement, as well as being a fulfillment of the {{lang|de|Drang nach Osten}} ({{langx|en|Drive towards the East}}) ideology of German expansion to the east. As such, it was intended to be a part of the New Order in Europe.{{sfn|Eichholtz|2004|p=}}{{pn|date=March 2025}}

The civilian death toll in the regions which were occupied by Germany was estimated to be 13.7 million. Philimoshin cited sources from the Soviet era to support his figures, he used the terms "genocide" and "premeditated extermination" when he referred to the deaths of 7.4 million civilians in the occupied USSR which were caused by the direct, intentional actions of violence. Civilians killed in reprisals during the Soviet partisan war account for a major part of the huge toll. The report of Philimoshin lists the deaths of civilian forced laborers in Germany as totaling 2,164,313. G. I. Krivosheev in the report on military casualties gives a total of 1,103,300 dead POWs. The total of these two figures is 3,267,613, which is close to estimates by western historians of about 3 million deaths of prisoners in German captivity. In the occupied regions Nazi Germany implemented a policy of forced confiscation of food which resulted in the famine deaths of an estimated 6% of the population, 4.1 million persons.Российская академия наук (Russian Academy of Sciences). Людские потери СССР в период второй мировой войны: сборник статей -Human Losses of the USSR in the Period of WWII: Collection of Articles. Saint-Petersburg, 1995. {{ISBN|978-5-86789-023-0}} p. 126

Nazi Germany also engaged in a policy of deliberate maltreatment of Soviet prisoners of war (POWs), in contrast to their treatment of British and American POWs. This policy, which amounted to deliberately starving and working to death Soviet POWs, was grounded in Nazi racial theory, which depicted Slavs as sub-humans.{{cite web |url=http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/article.php?lang=en&ModuleId=10007178 |title=Nazi persecution of Soviet Prisoners of War |publisher=United States Holocaust Memorial Museum |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200702054843/https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/nazi-persecution-of-soviet-prisoners-of-war |archive-date=2 July 2020}}{{harvnb|Jones|2010|p=377}}: "{{'}}Next to the Jews in Europe,' wrote Alexander Werth', 'the biggest single German crime was undoubtedly the extermination by hunger, exposure and in other ways of ... Russian war prisoners.' Yet the murder of at least 3.3 million Soviet POWs is one of the least-known of modern genocides; there is still no full-length book on the subject in English. It also stands as one of the most intensive genocides of all time: 'a holocaust that devoured millions,' as Catherine Merridale acknowledges. The large majority of POWs, some 2.8 million, were killed in just eight months of 1941–42, a rate of slaughter matched (to my knowledge) only by the 1994 Rwanda genocide."{{sfn|Earl Porter|2018|p=}}{{pn|date=March 2025}} Estimates place the number of Soviet POWs who died at 3.3 million to 3.5 million out of the 5.5 million imprisoned by Nazi Germany.{{cite book |last1=Taulbee |first1=James Larry |title=Genocide, Mass Atrocity, and War Crimes in Modern History: Blood and Conscience [2 volumes] |date=2017 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1440829857 |page=124 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EbP5DQAAQBAJ&pg=RA1-PA124 |via=Google Books}}{{cite book |last1=Calvocoressi |first1=Peter |author1-link=Peter Calvocoressi |title=Total War |last2=Wint |first2=Guy |publisher=Viking Press |year=1989 |edition=Revised |quote=The total number of prisoners taken by the German armies in the USSR was in the region of 5.5 million. Of these, the astounding number of 3.5 million or more had been lost by the middle of 1944 and the assumption must be that they were either deliberately killed or done to death by criminal negligence. Nearly two million of them died in camps and close on another million disappeared while in military custody either in the USSR or in rear areas; a further quarter of a million disappeared or died in transit between the front and destinations in the rear; another 473,000 died or were killed in military custody in Germany or Poland.}}

Some historians and the Russian government have classified the Siege of Leningrad, in which German and Finnish policies led to the deaths of more than 1 million civilians from starvation,{{cite book |last1=Bidlack |first1=Richard |last2=Lomagin |first2=Nikita |title=The Leningrad Blockade, 1941-1944: A New Documentary History from the Soviet Archives |date=2012 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-11029-6 |page=1 |language=en}} as a genocide.{{cite journal |last1=Krasman |first1=Noah |title=The Paradox of Genocide in Modern Russia: Evolving Narratives of the Siege of Leningrad During the "Great Patriotic Operation" |journal=Journal of Genocide Research |date=2 October 2023 |volume=25 |issue=3–4 |pages=403–417 |doi=10.1080/14623528.2023.2214408 |quote=As determined by scholars and the recent court decision in St. Petersburg, the siege was a "war crime, a crime against humanity, and genocide." |doi-access=free}}

{{main|History of Poland (1939–1945)|Occupation of Poland (1939–1945)|Nazi crimes against the Polish nation|Nazi war crimes in occupied Poland during World War II|The Holocaust in Poland}}

File:The Black Book of Poland (21–24).jpg, published in London in 1942 by Polish government-in-exile.]]

The {{lang|de|Intelligenzaktion}} ("anti-intelligentsia action") was a highly secretive genocidal action of Nazi Germany against Polish elites (primarily intelligentsia; teachers, doctors, priests, community leaders etc.) in the early stages of World War II. It was conducted as part of an attempt to complete the Germanisation of the western regions of occupied Poland before their planned annexation. The operation cost the lives of 100,000 Poles according to the Institute of National Remembrance.{{Cite book |first=Maria |last=Wardzyńska |year=2009 |url=http://pamiec.pl/download/49/34737/BYLROK1939.pdf |title=Był rok 1939. Operacja niemieckiej policji bezpieczeństwa w Polsce. Intelligenzaktion |trans-title=The year was 1939. Operation of German security police in Poland. Intelligenzaktion |publisher=Portal edukacyjny Instytutu Pamięci Narodowej |isbn=978-83-7629-063-8 |format=PDF file, direct download 2.56 MB |pages=1/356 |language=pl |quote=Oblicza się, że akcja "Inteligencja" pochłonęła ponad 100 tys. ofiar. |trans-quote=It is estimated that Intelligenzaktion took the lives of 100,000 Poles [p. 8, or p. 10 in PDF]. |access-date=23 January 2021 |archive-date=29 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129035451/http://pamiec.pl/download/49/34737/BYLROK1939.pdf}}

Adolf Hitler believed that the Polish elites might inspire the Poles to disobey their new German masters so he decreed that they had to be eliminated beforehand.{{cite book |title=Nazi Conspiracy and Aggression: Office of United States Chief of Counsel for Prosecution of Axis Criminality |chapter-url=http://fundamentalbass.home.mindspring.com/c9052.htm |volume=1 |year=1946 |publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office |location=Nuremberg |chapter=Chapter XIII. Germanization and Spoliation |access-date=20 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160415120534/http://fundamentalbass.home.mindspring.com/c9052.htm |archive-date=15 April 2016}} The aim was the elimination of Polish society's elite, which was very broadly defined as: Polish nobles, intelligentsia, teachers, entrepreneurs, social workers, military veterans, members of national organisations, priests, judges, political activists, and anyone who had attended secondary school.{{cite book |last=Lukas |first=Richard C. |author-link=Richard C. Lukas |title=Forgotten Holocaust |date=1997 |page=8 |publisher=Hippocrene |isbn=0-781-80528-7}} It was continued by the German AB-Aktion operation in Poland in the spring and summer of 1940, which saw the massacre of Lwów professors and the execution of about 1,700 Poles in the Palmiry forest. Several thousand civilians were executed or imprisoned. The {{lang|de|Einsatzgruppen}} were also responsible for the indiscriminate murder of Poles during the 1941 German invasion of the Soviet Union.{{sfn|Headland|1992|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Mue8a5Rwyi0C&pg=PA94 94]}}

Our strength is our quickness and our brutality.... I have given the order—and will have everyone shot who utters but one word of criticism—that the aim of this war does not consist in reaching certain geographical lines, but in the enemies' physical elimination. Thus, for the time being only in the east, I put ready my Death's Head units, with the order to kill without pity or mercy all men, women, and children of the Polish race or language... Adolf Hitler, Obersalzberg Speech, given on 22 August 1939, a week before the invasion

{{main|Massacres of Poles in Volhynia and Eastern Galicia}}

File:Lipniki massacre.jpg in 1943. Most Poles of Volhynia (now in Ukraine) had either been murdered or had fled the area]]

The massacres of Poles in Volhynia and Eastern Galicia were part of an ethnic cleansing operation carried out by the Ukrainian Insurgent Army (UPA) West in the Nazi-occupied regions of Eastern Galicia (Nazi created Distrikt Galizien in General Government), and UPA North in Volhynia (in Nazi created Reichskommissariat Ukraine), from March 1943 until the end of 1944.{{harvnb|Snyder|2010|ref=Snyder2010a}}: "Bandera aimed to make of Ukraine a one-party fascist dictatorship without national minorities.... UPA partisans murdered tens of thousands of Poles, most of them women and children. Some Jews who had taken shelter with Polish families were also killed."{{sfn|Snyder|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=xSpEynLxJ1MC&pg=PA144 174–176]}} The peak took place in July/August 1943 when a senior UPA commander, Dmytro Klyachkivsky, ordered the liquidation of the entire male Polish population between 16 and 60 years of age.{{sfn|Piotrowski|1998|p=https://books.google.com/books?id=A4FlatJCro4C&dq=piotrowski+16+and+60+years&pg=PA247 247]}}{{sfn|Filar|2008|p=}}{{pn|date=March 2025}} Despite this, most were women and children. The UPA murdered 40,000–60,000 Polish civilians in Volhynia,{{sfn|Motyka|2011|p=447}}{{sfn|Snyder|2002|p=https://books.google.com/books?id=wOsSG0K8hCYC&q=volhynia+slaughter+poles&pg=PA43 43]}} from 25,000{{sfn|Snyder|2009|p=196}} to 30,000–40,000 in Eastern Galicia.{{sfn|Motyka|2011|p=447}} The murders were directly linked with the policies of the Bandera fraction of the Organisation of Ukrainian Nationalists, whose goal, specified at the Second Conference of the OUN-B, was to remove non-Ukrainians from a future Ukrainian state.{{sfn|Gibney|Hansen|2005|p=204}}

In Poland, the massacres were recognised as a campaign of ethnic cleansing with "marks of genocide".{{cite web |title=Uchwala Sejmu Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej z dnia 15 lipca 2009 r. w sprawie tragicznego losu Polakow na Kresach Wschodnich |language=pl |trans-title=Resolution of the Sejm of the Republic of Poland of 15 July 2009 on the tragic fate of Poles in the Eastern Borderlands |url=http://isap.sejm.gov.pl/DetailsServlet?id=WMP20090470684 |publisher=Biuro Prasowe Kancelarii Sejmu |access-date=17 August 2011 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120709223421/http://isap.sejm.gov.pl/DetailsServlet?id=WMP20090470684 |archive-date=9 July 2012}} According to IPN prosecutor Piotr Zając, the crimes were "crimes of genocide".{{harvnb|Zając|2008|p=}}:{{pn|date=March 2025}} {{lang|pl|"W świetle przedstawionych wyżej ustaleń nie ulega wątpliwości, że zbrodnie, których dopuszczono się wobec ludności narodowości polskiej, noszą charakter niepodlegających przedawnieniu zbrodni ludobójstwa."}} ["In light of the above findings, there is no doubt that the crimes committed against the Polish national population are of the nature of crimes of genocide, which are not subject to a statute of limitations."] On 22 July 2016, the Parliament of Poland passed a resolution declaring 11 July a National Day of Remembrance to honor the Polish victims murdered by Ukrainian nationalists, and formally calling the massacres a "genocide".{{cite web |url=http://www.thenews.pl/1/10/Artykul/263005,Polish-MPs-adopt-resolution-calling-1940s-massacre-genocide |title=Polish MPs adopt resolution calling 1940s massacre genocide |website=Radio Poland |date=22 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240224145004/http://archiwum.thenews.pl/1/10/Artykul/263005 |archive-date=24 February 2024}}

{{Main|World War II in Yugoslavia|Ustaše|Independent State of Croatia|Genocide of Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia|The Holocaust in the Independent State of Croatia}}

After the Nazi invasion of Yugoslavia on 6 April 1941, Croatian Nazis and fascists who were known as the Ustaše established a clerical fascist regime which was known as the Nezavisna Država Hrvatska (Independent State of Croatia) or the NDH. Immediately afterwards, the Ustashe launched a genocidal campaign against Serbs, Jews and Romani people who lived inside the borders of the NDH. The Ustaše's view of national and racial identity, as well as the theory that the Serbs constituted an inferior race, was influenced by anti-Eastern Orthodox sentiment, anti-Serb sentiment and the works of Croatian nationalists and intellectuals which were written from the end of the 19th century to the beginning of the 20th century.{{sfn|Yeomans|2013|p=7}}{{sfn|Bartulin|2013|p=124}}{{cite book |last=Kenrick |first=Donald |title=The Final Chapter |date=2006 |publisher=University of Hertfordshire Press |isbn=978-1-902806-49-5 |page=92}} The Ustaše enacted a policy which called for a solution to the "Serbian problem" in Croatia. The solution, as it was promulgated by Mile Budak, was to "kill one-third of the Serbs, expel one-third, and convert one-third (to Roman Catholicism)."{{sfn|Robins|Jones|2009|p=106}} Historian Michael Phayer explained that the Nazis' decision to murder all of Europe's Jews is estimated by some to have begun in the latter half of 1941, specifically in late June, which, if correct, would mean that the genocide in Croatia began before the Final Solution.{{sfn|Phayer|2000|p=31}}

File:Gudovac massacre.jpg during the Genocide of Serbs]]

From 1941 to 1945, the Ustaše regime killed at least 200,000 to 500,000 Serbs,{{harvnb|Yeomans|2013|p=18}}; {{harvnb|Tomasevich|2001|p=719}}; {{harvnb|Ramet|2006|p=114}}; {{harvnb|Pavlowitch|2008|p=34}}{{sfn|de Diego García|1993|p=176}} It is estimated that in the infamous Jasenovac concentration camp alone, which was notorious for its high mortality rate (higher than the mortality rate at Auschwitz) and the barbaric practices which occurred in it, approximately 100,000 people were murdered.{{sfn|Levy|2009|p=}}{{pn|date=March 2025}} The Independent State of Croatia was the only Axis installed puppet state which erected children's concentration camps.{{sfn|Yeomans|2013|p=18}} Serbs who lived in the NDH suffered one of the highest casualty rates in Europe during World War II, while the NDH was one of the most lethal regimes which existed during the 20th century.{{sfn|Dulić|2006|p=}}{{pn|date=March 2025}}{{sfn|Charny|1999|pp=18–23}} Historian Stanley G. Payne claimed that the direct and indirect executions which were carried out by the NDH regime were an "extraordinary mass crime", which in proportionate terms exceeded the crimes which were committed by any other European regime besides Hitler's Third Reich, while Jonathan Steinberg stated that the crimes which were committed against Serbs who lived in the NDH were the "earliest total genocide to be attempted during World War II."{{sfn|Payne|2006|p=}}{{pn|date=March 2025}} Payne added that the crimes which were committed in the NDH were only proportionately surpassed by the crimes which were committed by the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia and the crimes which were committed by several of the extremely genocidal African regimes.{{sfn|Payne|2006|p=}}{{pn|date=March 2025}}

{{Main article|Doli Pivski massacre|Velika massacre}}

The Genocide in Piva and Velika{{cite news |url=https://www.vijesti.me/vijesti/politika/615485/skupstina-usvojila-rezoluciju-o-genocidu-u-pivi-i-velici |title=Skupština usvojila Rezoluciju o genocidu u Pivi i Velici |language=sh |trans-title=The Assembly adopted the Resolution on the genocide in Piva and Velica |work=Vijesti |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240613203130/https://www.vijesti.me/vijesti/politika/615485/skupstina-usvojila-rezoluciju-o-genocidu-u-pivi-i-velici |archive-date=13 June 2024}} was the genocide of 522 Serb civilians by the 7th SS Volunteer Mountain Division Prinz Eugen, along with Croatian Ustaše and the SS Handschar Division on 7 June 1943 in the village of Doli Plivski, Montenegro, near the border of Bosnia and Herzegovina,{{sfn|Kajosevic|2021}} and the genocide of between 428 and 550 Serb civilians by the 7th SS Volunteer Mountain Division Prinz Eugen and 21st Waffen Mountain Division of the SS Skanderbeg on 28 July 1944 in the settlement of Velika, in Plav, Montenegro during World War II.{{sfn|Antonijević|2009|pp=44–45}}{{sfn|Kajosevic|2021}}

{{Main|Chetnik war crimes in World War II}}

The mass-killings which were committed against non-Serbs by members of the Chetniks, a Yugoslav Royalist and Serbian nationalist movement and guerrilla force, in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia and Sandžak constituted a genocide, according to some historians.{{sfn|Totten|Parsons|1997|p=430}}{{sfn|Redžić|2005|p=84}} This can be seen through the mass-killings of ethnic Croats and Muslims that conformed to the Moljević plan ("On Our State and Its Borders") and the 1941 'Instructions' which were issued by the Chetnik leader, Draža Mihailović, concerning the cleansing of non-Serbs on the basis of creating a post-war Greater Serbia.{{sfn|Tomasevich|1975|p=170}}{{sfn|Lerner|1994|p=105}}{{sfn|Mulaj|2008|p=42}} The number of victims by ethnicity includes between 18,000 and 32,000 Croats and 29,000 to 33,000 Bosnian Muslims.{{sfn|Geiger|2012|pp=85–88}}

{{main|Nazi eugenics|Aktion T4|Action 14f13|Child euthanasia in Nazi Germany|Erbkrank|Law for the Prevention of Hereditarily Diseased Offspring|Life unworthy of life|Hadamar killing centre|Schloss Hartheim}}

File:Bundesarchiv Bild 152-04-28, Heilanstalt Schönbrunn, Kinder.jpg photographer Friedrich Franz Bauer)]]

{{blockquote|Our starting-point is not the individual, and we do not subscribe to the view that one should feed the hungry, give drink to the thirsty or clothe the naked—those are not our objectives. Our objectives are entirely different. They can be put most crisply in the sentence: we must have a healthy people in order to prevail in the world.|Joseph Goebbels, 1938.{{sfn|Burleigh|Wippermann|1991|p=69}}}}

Between 1939 and 1941, 80,000 to 100,000 mentally ill adults in institutions were murdered; 5,000 children in institutions; and 1,000 Jews in institutions.{{sfn|Lifton|2000|p=142}} Outside the mental health institutions, the figures are estimated to number 20,000 (according to Dr. Georg Renno, the deputy director of Schloss Hartheim, one of the killing facilities known as "euthanasia" centers) or 400,000 (according to Franz Ziereis, the commandant of Mauthausen-Gusen concentration camp).{{sfn|Lifton|2000|p=142}} Another 300,000 were forcibly sterilised.{{cite report |title=Victims of the Nazi Era, 1933–1945: Handicapped |date= |url=https://www.ushmm.org/m/pdfs/2000926-Handicapped.pdf |publisher=United States Holocaust Memorial Museum |page=4 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241108144039/https://www.ushmm.org/m/pdfs/2000926-Handicapped.pdf |archive-date=8 November 2024}} Overall it has been estimated that over 270,000 individuals with mental disorders of all kinds were murdered,{{sfn|Vogelsang|Larsen|2002}} although their mass murder has received relatively little historical attention. Along with the physically disabled, people suffering from dwarfism were persecuted as well. Many were put on display in cages and experimented on by the Nazis.{{sfn|Pednaud|2008}} Despite not being formally ordered to take part, psychiatrists and psychiatric institutions were at the center of justifying, planning and carrying out the atrocities at every stage, and "constituted the connection" to the later annihilation of Jews and other "undesirables" in the Holocaust.{{sfn|Strous|2007}} After strong protests by the German Catholic and Protestant churches on 24 August 1941 Hitler ordered the cancellation of the T4 program.{{sfn|Lifton|2000|p=95}}

File:Hadamar, Euthanasiecentrum Hadamar.jpg]]

The program was named after Tiergartenstraße 4, the address of a villa in the Berlin borough of Tiergarten, the headquarters of the General Foundation for Welfare and Institutional Care,{{sfn|Sereny|1995|pp=48–49}} led by Philipp Bouhler, head of Hitler's private chancellery ({{lang|de|Kanzlei des Führer der NSDAP}}) and Karl Brandt, Hitler's personal physician.{{sfn|Miller|2006|p=158}}{{sfn|Aly|Chroust|Pross|1994|p=76}}

Brandt was tried in December 1946 at Nuremberg, along with 22 others, in a case which is known as United States of America vs. Karl Brandt et al., it is also known as the Doctors' Trial.{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/the-doctors-trial-the-medical-case-of-the-subsequent-nuremberg-proceedings |title=The Doctors Trial: The Medical Case of the Subsequent Nuremberg Proceedings |publisher=United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, Washington, D.C. |encyclopedia=Holocaust Encyclopedia |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240907010652/https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/the-doctors-trial-the-medical-case-of-the-subsequent-nuremberg-proceedings |archive-date=7 September 2024}} He was hanged at Landsberg Prison on 2 June 1948.{{sfn|Hamilton|1984|p=138}}

{{Clear}}

{{Main|Outline of genocide studies}}

{{excerpt|Genocides in history|See also}}

{{notelist}}

{{reflist}}

{{refbegin|colwidth=30em}}

• {{cite book |last1=Ahmida |first1=Ali Abdullatif |date=2023 |chapter=Eurocentrism, Silence and Memory of Genocide in Colonial Libya, 1929–1934 |title=The Cambridge World History of Genocide |volume=III: Genocide in the Contemporary Era, 1914–2020 |editor1-first=Ben |editor1-last=Kiernan |editor1-link=Ben Kiernan |editor2-first=Wendy |editor2-last=Lower |editor2-link=Wendy Lower |editor3-first=Norman |editor3-last=Naimark |editor3-link=Norman Naimark |editor4-first=Scott |editor4-last=Straus |editor4-link=Scott Straus |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-108-48707-8 |doi=10.1017/9781108767118 |pages=118–140}}
• {{cite book |last=Akçam |first=Taner |author-link=Taner Akçam |date=21 August 2007 |title=A Shameful Act: The Armenian Genocide and the Question of Turkish Responsibility |publisher=Macmillan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E-_XTh0M4swC |isbn=978-0-8050-8665-2}}
• {{cite book |last=Akçam |first=Taner |author-link=Taner Akçam |author-mask=3 |year=2012 |title=The Young Turks' Crime Against Humanity: The Armenian Genocide and Ethnic Cleansing in the Ottoman Empire |place=Princeton |publisher=Princeton University Press |title-link=The Young Turks' Crime Against Humanity: The Armenian Genocide and Ethnic Cleansing in the Ottoman Empire}}
• {{Cite book |last=Allworth |first=Edward |year=1998 |title=The Tatars of Crimea: Return to the Homeland: Studies and Documents |publisher=Duke University Press |location=Durham |isbn=978-0-8223-1994-8 |oclc=610947243 |lccn=97019110 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/tatarsofcrimeare0000unse}}
• {{cite book |editor1-last=Aly |editor1-first=Götz |editor2-last=Chroust |editor2-first=Peter |editor3-last=Pross |editor3-first=Christian |date=1994 |title=Cleansing the Fatherland: Nazi Medicine and Racial Hygiene |location=Baltimore |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press}}
• {{cite book |last=Andreopoulos |first=George J. |title=Genocide: Conceptual and Historical Dimensions |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e5I34DePIxYC |year=1997 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |isbn=978-0-8122-1616-5}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Andriewsky |first1=Olga |date=23 January 2015 |title=Towards a Decentred History: The Study of the Holodomor and Ukrainian Historiography |journal=East/West: Journal of Ukrainian Studies |volume=2 |number=1 |doi-access=free |issn=2292-7956 |doi=10.21226/T2301N |url=https://ewjus.com/index.php/ewjus/article/view/Andriewsky |pages=18–52 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180608011442/https://ewjus.com/index.php/ewjus/article/view/Andriewsky |archive-date=8 June 2018}}
• {{cite web |last1=Antonijević |first1=Nenad |date=2009 |title=Albanski Zlocini nad Srbima na Kosovu i Metohiji u Drugom Svetskom Ratu |trans-title=Albanian Crimes against Serbs in Kosovo and Metohija in World War II |url=http://www.muzejgenocida.rs/images/izdanja/Antonijevic,%20Nenad,%20Albanski%20zlocini.pdf |publisher=Muzej žrtava genocida |language=Serbian |archive-url= |archive-date=}}
• {{cite book |last=Aprim |first=Frederick A. |date=January 2005 |title=Assyrians: the continuous saga |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V4glAQAAMAAJ |publisher=F. A. Aprim |isbn=978-1-4134-3857-4}}
• {{cite journal |author=Asociación Americana para el Avance de la Ciencia |title=Metodología intermuestra I: introducción y resumen |trans-title=Intersample methodology I: introduction and summary |journal=Instrumentes Legales y Operativos Para el Funcionamiento de la Comisión Para el Esclarecimiento Histórico |url=http://shr.aaas.org/guatemala/ceh/mds/spanish/anexo3/aaas/aaas.html |year=1999 |language=es |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130506054532/http://shr.aaas.org/guatemala/ceh/mds/spanish/anexo3/aaas/aaas.html |archive-date=6 May 2013}}
• {{cite web |last=Asenap |first=Jason |date=6 November 2023 |title=Killers of the Flower Moon and who gets to tell an Osage story |url=https://www.vox.com/2023/11/6/23945433/killers-flower-moon-osage-indigenous-scorsese-tell-story |access-date=8 November 2023 |website=Vox |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240306213233/https://www.vox.com/2023/11/6/23945433/killers-flower-moon-osage-indigenous-scorsese-tell-story |archive-date=6 March 2024}}

• {{cite book |last=Balakian |first=Peter |author-link=Peter Balakian |year=2003 |title=The Burning Tigris: The Armenian Genocide and America's Response |title-link=The Burning Tigris |place=New York |publisher=HarperCollins |isbn=978-0060558703}}
• {{cite book |last1=Bancheli |last2=Bartmann |last3=Srebrnik |first1=Tozun |first2=Barry |first3=Henry |year=2004 |title=De Facto States: The Quest for Sovereignty |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-77120-1}}
• {{cite book |last=Barker |first=A. J. |year=1971 |title=Rape of Ethiopia, 1936 |publisher=Ballantine Books |location=New York |isbn=978-0-345-02462-6}}
• {{cite book |last=Bartulin |first=Nevenko |year=2013 |title=The Racial Idea in the Independent State of Croatia: Origins and Theory |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-26282-9}}
• {{cite book |last=Bauer |first=Yehuda |author-link=Yehuda Bauer |year=2001 |title=Rethinking the Holocaust |place=New Haven |publisher=Yale University Press}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Bentrovato |first1=Denise |last2=Bentrovato |first2=Silvia |date=26 February 2024 |title=From a "Glorious Reparation" to a "Wretched Adventure": The Second Italo-Ethiopian War in Italian History Textbooks (1936-2020) |journal=Journal of Genocide Research |volume=27 |number=1 |pages=49–70 |doi=10.1080/14623528.2024.2319920|doi-access=free |hdl=2263/102204 |hdl-access=free }}
• {{cite book |last=Benz |first=Wolfgang |author-link=Wolfgang Benz |year=1999 |title=The Holocaust: A German Historian Examines the Genocide |publisher=Columbia University Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-231-11214-7}}
• {{cite book |last1=Berenbaum |first1=Michael |author1-link=Michael Berenbaum |last2=Kramer |first2=Arnold |author3=United States Holocaust Memorial Museum |year=2005 |title=The world must know: the history of the Holocaust as told in the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iqMWAQAAIAAJ |publisher=United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, Johns Hopkins University Press |isbn=978-0-8018-8358-3}}
• {{cite book |last=Besikçi |first=İsmail |year=1990 |language=tr |author-link=İsmail Beşikçi |title=Tunceli Kanunu (1935) ve Dersim Jenosidi |trans-title=Tunceli Law (1935) and Dersim Genocide |publisher=Belge Yayınları}}
• {{cite book |last=Betts |first=Paul |date=17 August 2010 |title=Years of Persecution, Years of Extermination: Saul Friedlander and the Future of Holocaust Studies |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Tqo3h5HQPO4C&pg=PA214 |access-date=17 November 2012 |publisher=Continuum |isbn=978-1-4411-2987-1}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Beverly |first1=John |date=1982 |title=El Salvador |journal=Social Text |language=en |publisher=Duke University Press |issue=5 |pages=55–72 |doi=10.2307/466334 |jstor=466334}}
• {{Cite book |last=Bix |first=Herbert P. |author-link=Herbert P. Bix |date=2000 |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/43031388 |title=Hirohito and the making of modern Japan |publisher=HarperCollins |isbn=0-06-019314-X |edition=1st |location=New York, NY |oclc=43031388}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Blackburn |first1=Kevin |date=2000 |title=The Collective Memory of the Sook Ching Massacre and the Creation of the Civilian War Memorial of Singapore |journal=Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society |volume=2 |issue=279 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41493428 |pages=71–90 |jstor=41493428}}
• {{Cite journal |last=Blank |first=Stephen |year=2015 |title=A Double Dispossession: The Crimean Tatars After Russia's Ukrainian War |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=18–32 |journal=Genocide Studies and Prevention |doi=10.5038/1911-9933.9.1.1271 |doi-access=free}}
• {{cite book |last=Bloxham |first=Donald |author-link=Donald Bloxham |year=2005 |title=The Great Game of Genocide: Imperialism, Nationalism, and the Destruction of the Ottoman Armenians |place=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0199226887}}
• {{cite book |last1=Bosch |first1=Brian J. |date=1999 |title=The Salvadoran Officer Corps and the Final Offensive of 1981 |language=en |location=Jefferson, North Carolina; London |publisher=McFarland & Company |isbn=0786406127}}
• {{Cite book |last=Bonwick |first=James |author-link=James Bonwick |year=1870 |title=The Last of the Tasmanians; or, The Black War of Van Diemen's Land |url=https://archive.org/details/lasttasmanianso00bonwgoog |location=London |publisher=Sampson Low, Son, & Marston}}
• {{cite journal |last=Bryant |first=Michael |date=7 May 2020 |title=Canaries in the Mineshaft of American Democracy: North American Settler Genocide in the Thought of Raphaël Lemkin |url=https://digitalcommons.usf.edu/gsp/vol14/iss1/5 |journal=Genocide Studies and Prevention |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=21–39 |doi=10.5038/1911-9933.14.1.1632 |issn=1911-0359 |doi-access=free}}
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• {{cite book |last1=Tanaka |first1=Yuki |date=2023 |chapter=The Nanjing Massacre |title=The Cambridge World History of Genocide |volume=III: Genocide in the Contemporary Era, 1914–2020 |editor1-first=Ben |editor1-last=Kiernan |editor1-link=Ben Kiernan |editor2-first=Wendy |editor2-last=Lower |editor2-link=Wendy Lower |editor3-first=Norman |editor3-last=Naimark |editor3-link=Norman Naimark |editor4-first=Scott |editor4-last=Straus |editor4-link=Scott Straus |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-108-48707-8 |doi=10.1017/9781108767118 |pages=379–399}}
• {{Cite book |last1=Tatz |first1=Colin |author1-link=Colin Tatz |last2=Higgins |first2=Winton |year=2016 |title=The Magnitude of Genocide |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-4408-3161-4 |lccn=2015042289 |oclc=930059149 |location=Santa Barbara, CA |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N1WaCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA28}}
• {{cite web |last=Tauger |first=Mark |date=1 July 2018 |url=https://historynewsnetwork.org/article/169438 |title=Review of Anne Applebaum's 'Red Famine: Stalin's War on Ukraine' |website=History News Network |publisher=George Washington University |access-date=22 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240628024405/https://www.historynewsnetwork.org/article/review-of-anne-applebaums-red-famine-stalins-war-o |archive-date=28 June 2024}}
• {{cite book |last=Tomasevich |first=Jozo |author-link=Jozo Tomasevich |title=War and Revolution in Yugoslavia, 1941–1945: The Chetniks |year=1975 |location=Stanford |publisher=Stanford University Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yoCaAAAAIAAJ |isbn=978-0-8047-0857-9}}
• {{cite book |last=Tomasevich |first=Jozo |author-link=Jozo Tomasevich |title=War and Revolution in Yugoslavia, 1941–1945: Occupation and Collaboration |year=2001 |location=Stanford |publisher=Stanford University Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fqUSGevFe5MC |isbn=978-0-8047-7924-1}}
• {{Cite book |last1=Totten |first1=Samuel |author1-link=Samuel Totten |last2=Parsons |first2=William S. |year=1997 |title=Century of genocide: critical essays and eyewitness accounts |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TtWycwryensC&q=chetnik+genocide&pg=PA430 |isbn=978-0-203-89043-1 |publisher=Routledge |access-date=11 January 2011}}
• {{Cite journal |last=Towner |first=Emil B. |date=2011 |title=Quantifying Genocide: What Are We Really Counting (On)? |journal=JAC |volume=31 |issue=3/4 |pages=625–638 |jstor=41709663 |issn=2162-5190}}
• {{cite book |last=Travis |first=Hannibal |date=2013 |title=Ethnonationalism, Genocide, and the United Nations |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-53125-2}}
• {{cite book |editor1-last=Tulchin |editor1-first=Joseph S. |editor2-last=Bland |editor2-first=Gary |name-list-style=amp |date=1992 |title=Is There a Transition to Democracy in El Salvador? |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=okB-QgAACAAJ |language=en |publisher=L. Rienner Publishers |isbn=9781555873103 |access-date=6 April 2022}}

• {{Cite journal |last=Uehling |first=Greta |year=2015 |title=Genocide's Aftermath: Neostalinism in Contemporary Crimea |journal=Genocide Studies and Prevention |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=3–17 |doi=10.5038/1911-9933.9.1.1273 |doi-access=free}}
• {{cite thesis |last=Üngör |first=Uğur Ümit |author-link=Uğur Ümit Üngör |date=2009 |title=Young Turk social engineering: mass violence and the nation state in eastern Turkey, 1913-1950 |url=https://pure.uva.nl/ws/files/867135/65687_13.pdf |publisher=University of Amsterdam |language=en |hdl=11245/1.319592 |s2cid=129130138}}
• {{cite book |last1=Üngör |first1=Uğur Ümit |author1-link=Uğur Ümit Üngör |author-mask=3 |date=2011 |title=The Making of Modern Turkey: Nation and State in Eastern Anatolia, 1913–1950 |title-link=The Making of Modern Turkey |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-965522-9 |language=en}}

• {{Citation |last=van Bruineßen |first=Martin |author-link=Martin van Bruinessen |url=http://www.let.uu.nl/~Martin.vanBruinessen/personal/publications/Dersim_rebellion.pdf |contribution=Genocide in Kurdistan? The suppression of the Dersim rebellion in Turkey (1937–38) and the chemical war against the Iraqi Kurds (1988) |editor-first=George J. |editor-last=Andreopoulos |title=Conceptual and historical dimensions of genocide |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |year=1994 |pages=141–170 |access-date=24 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130521155242/http://www.let.uu.nl/~Martin.vanBruinessen/personal/publications/Dersim_rebellion.pdf |archive-date=21 May 2013}}
• {{Cite book |last=Vanthemsche |first=Guy |year=2012 |title=Belgium and the Congo, 1885–1980 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ImNjdlBHzukC&q=Leopold%201908%20Congo%20atrocities&pg=PA41 |location=Cambridge; New York |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-19421-1}}
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• {{cite book |last1=Viola |first1=Lynne |author1-link=Lynne Viola |date=2014 |chapter=Collectivization in the Soviet Union: Specificities and Modalities |title=The Collectivization of Agriculture in Communist Eastern Europe: Comparison and Entanglements |publisher=Central European University Press |isbn=978-963-386-048-9 |pages=49–69}}
• {{cite book |last=Vital |first=David |date=October 1987 |title=Zionism: the crucial phase |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0198219323}}
• {{cite web |last1=Vogelsang |first1=Peter |last2=Larsen |first2=Brian B. M. |date=2002 |url=http://www.holocaust-education.dk/baggrund/eutanasi.asp |title=Euthanasia – the 'mercy killing' of disabled people in Germany |publisher=The Danish Center for Holocaust and Genocide Studies |access-date=13 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303081500/http://www.holocaust-education.dk/baggrund/eutanasi.asp |archive-date=3 March 2016}}

• {{cite book |last=Walker |first=Christopher J. |author-link=Christopher J. Walker |year=1980 |title=Armenia, the Survival of a Nation |url=https://archive.org/details/armeniasurvivalo0000walk_c0v5 |publisher=St. Martin's Press |isbn=978-0-312-04944-7}}
• {{Cite journal |last1=Weisbord |first1=Robert G. |author-link=Robert Weisbord |year=2003 |title=The King, the Cardinal and the Pope: Leopold II's genocide in the Congo and the Vatican |journal=Journal of Genocide Research |volume=5 |pages=35–45 |doi=10.1080/14623520305651 |s2cid=73371517}}
• {{cite book |last=Weissman |first=Gary |year=2004 |title=Fantasies of Witnessing: Postwar Attempts to Experience the Holocaust |publisher=Cornell University Press |isbn=978-0-8014-4253-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/fantasiesofwitne00weis/page/94}}
• {{cite journal |last=Weiss-Wendt |first=Anton |author-link=Anton Weiss-Wendt |date=December 2005 |title=Hostage of Politics: Raphael Lemkin on 'Soviet Genocide' |journal=Journal of Genocide Research |publisher=Routledge |volume=7 |issue=4 |pages=551–559 |doi=10.1080/14623520500350017 |s2cid=144612446 |issn=1462-3528}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Wheatcroft |first1=Stephen G. |author-link=Stephen G. Wheatcroft |year=2018 |title=The Turn Away from Economic Explanations for Soviet Famines |journal=Contemporary European History |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=465–469 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/326562364 |doi=10.1017/S0960777318000358 |doi-access=free |hdl=10536/DRO/DU:30116832 |hdl-access=free}}
• {{cite journal |last=Wheatcroft |first=Stephen G. |author-link=Stephen G. Wheatcroft |author-mask=3 |date=August 2020 |title=The Complexity of the Kazakh Famine: Food Problems and Faulty Perceptions |journal=Journal of Genocide Research |volume=23 |issue=4 |pages=593–597 |doi=10.1080/14623528.2020.1807143 |s2cid=225333205}}
• {{cite journal |last=Wolowyna |first=Oleh |date=October 2020 |title=A Demographic Framework for the 1932–1934 Famine in the Soviet Union |journal=Journal of Genocide Research |volume=23 |issue=4 |pages=501–526 |doi=10.1080/14623528.2020.1834741 |s2cid=226316468}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Wolowyna |first1=Oleh |date=2 October 2021 |title=A Demographic Framework for the 1932–1934 Famine in the Soviet Union |journal=Journal of Genocide Research |volume=23 |issue=4 |pages=501–526 |doi=10.1080/14623528.2020.1834741 |s2cid=226316468}}
• {{Cite book |last=Woodham-Smith |first=Cecil |year=1964 |title=The Great Hunger: Ireland 1845–1849 |location=New York |author-link=Cecil Woodham-Smith |publisher=Harper & Row}}
• {{Cite book |last=Wright |first=Ronald |author-link=Ronald Wright |year=2004 |title=A Short History of Progress |location=Toronto |publisher=House of Anansi Press |isbn=978-0-88784-706-6 |title-link=A Short History of Progress}}

• {{cite book |last=Yacoub |first=Joseph |author-link=Joseph Yacoub |year=1985 |language=fr |title=La question assyro-chaldéenne, les Puissances européennes et la SDN (1908–1938) |trans-title=The Assyro-Chaldean question: the European Powers and the League of Nations, 1908–38 |type=thèse |place=Lyon}}
• {{cite book |last=Yakovlev |first=Alexander Nikolaevich |author-link=Alexander Nikolaevich Yakovlev |date=2002 |title=A Century of Violence in Soviet Russia |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=0-300-08760-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ChRk43tVxTwC |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141119143859/https://books.google.com/books?id=ChRk43tVxTwC&pg=PA102&dq=Hundreds+of+thousands+of+Cossacks+were+killed&lr=&ei=GoN5SuenNpP4NYXshIMN |archive-date=19 November 2014}}
• {{cite journal |last=Yang |first=Daqing |year=2001 |title=Convergence or Divergence? Recent Historical Writings on the Rape of Nanjing |journal=Perennial |volume=104 |issue=3 |pages=842–865 |doi=10.2307/2650991 |jstor=2650991 |isbn=978-0060931308}}
• {{cite book |last=Yeomans |first=Rory |author-link=Rory Yeomans |title=Visions of Annihilation: The Ustasha Regime and the Cultural Politics of Fascism, 1941–1945 |year=2013 |location=Pittsburgh |publisher=University of Pittsburgh Press |isbn=978-0-8229-7793-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Yxv4-iqVe2wC}}
• {{Cite book |last1=Ye'or |first1=Bat |author1-link=Bat Ye'or |last2=Kochan |first2=Miriam |author2-link=Miriam Kochan |last3=Littman |first3=David |author3-link=David Littman (activist) |year=2002 |title=Islam and Dhimmitude: Where Civilizations Collide |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PK-TPKvmG7UC |publisher=Fairleigh Dickinson University Press |isbn=978-0-8386-3943-6 |oclc=47054791}}
• {{cite book |last=Yoshida |first=Hiroshi |date=1998 |script-title=ja:天皇の軍隊と南京事件: もうひとつの日中戦争史 |title=Ten'nō no guntai to Nankin jiken: Mō hitotsu no hi-chū sensō-shi |language=ja |trans-title=The Emperor's Army and the Nanjing Massacre: Another History of the Sino-Japanese War |page=160 |publisher=Aoki shoten |isbn=978-4250980190}}
• {{cite book |last=Yoshida |first=Takashi |date=2006 |title=The Making of the "Rape of Nanking" |location=New York |publisher=Oxford University Press}}
• {{Cite web |last1=Yuanheng |first1=Tan |last2=Xiangqiong |first2=Ao Ye |date=2019 |script-title=zh:南石头大屠杀：使用细菌的"杀人工厂" |title=Nán shítou dà túshā: Shǐyòng xìjùn de"shārén gōngchǎng" |language=zh |trans-title=Nanshitou Massacre: A "Killing Factory" Using Bacteria |url=http://www.hkwhra.org/?p=4665 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200209140314/http://www.hkwhra.org/?p=4665 |archive-date=9 February 2020 |access-date=28 May 2020 |website=Hong Kong War History Research Association |url-status=dead}}

• {{cite book |last=Zając |first=Piotr |year=2008 |chapter-url=http://ipn.gov.pl/__data/assets/pdf_file/0004/58900/1-19507.pdf |title=Zbrodnie Przeszłości: Opracowania i materiały prokuratorów IPN |trans-title=Crimes of the Past: Studies and materials of the IPN prosecutors |language=pl |institution=The Institute of National Remembrance |volume=2 |chapter=Prześladowania Ludności Narodowości Polskiej na Terenie Wołynia w Latach 1939–1945 – Ocena Karnoprawna Zdarzeń w Oparciu O Ustalenia Śledztwa OKŚZpNP w Lublinie |trans-chapter=Persecution of Polish ethnics in the area of Volyn in 1939–1945 – criminal law assessment of events based on the findings of investigations OKŚZpNP in Lublin |editor-first=Radosław |editor-last=Ignatiew |location=Warsaw |pages=34–49 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306081758/http://ipn.gov.pl/__data/assets/pdf_file/0004/58900/1-19507.pdf |archive-date=6 March 2016}}
• {{Cite journal |last=Zubaida |first=S. |title=Contested nations: Iraq and the Assyrians |journal=Nations and Nationalism |date=July 2000 |volume=6 |issue=3 |pages=363–382 |doi=10.1111/j.1354-5078.2000.00363.x |url=http://www.aina.org/articles/contestednations.pdf |access-date=23 September 2011}}

{{Refend}}

{{Main|Bibliography of genocide studies}}

• {{cite book |last=Braudel |first=Fernand |author-link=Fernand Braudel |volume=III: The Perspective of the World |title=Civilization and Capitalism |date=1984 |orig-date=1979}}
• {{cite book |last=Cronon |first=William |title=Changes in the Land: Indians, Colonists, and the Ecology of New England |date=1983 |publisher=Macmillan |isbn=0-8090-1634-6}}
• {{cite book |last=Crosby |first=Alfred W. |title=Ecological Imperialism: The Biological Expansion of Europe, 900–1900 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=1986 |isbn=0-521-45690-8}}

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