Gulai

File:Gulai-Indonesian curry-01.jpg, a large vessel akin to a wok.]]

The origins of gulai are closely associated with the historical spread of Indian culinary influence across Maritime Southeast Asia, particularly during the height of the spice trade. South Indian traders introduced curry-making techniques, spice blends and cooking methods to key port cities in the region. Archaeological evidence suggests that curry-like preparations had already reached parts of Southeast Asia by this time, as indicated by the discovery of ancient stone tools at Óc Eo, an important port city of the Funan kingdom in southern Vietnam. The tools, including a large sandstone grinding slab, bore microscopic traces of eight different spices such as turmeric, ginger, clove, cinnamon and nutmeg.{{Cite web|title=Curry may have landed in Southeast Asia 2000 years ago|url=https://www.science.org/content/article/curry-may-have-landed-southeast-asia-2000-years-ago|access-date=15 June 2025}}

These culinary elements were gradually incorporated into local food traditions across both mainland and island Southeast Asia. In the Indianised state of Funan, Indian influence played a key role in shaping early Cambodian culture through the introduction of religion, writing systems and artistic forms. According to archaeologist Dr. Ea Darith, these cultural elements were adopted selectively rather than imposed. Indian spices and cooking methods contributed to the development of kroeung, a characteristic Khmer spice paste composed of galangal, turmeric, lemongrass and other local aromatics. When combined with prahok (fermented fish paste), kroeung forms the flavour base for many Cambodian dishes, such as Somlar M’Chu Kroeung Sach Ko.{{Cite web|title=The History and Impact of Cambodian Cuisine|url=https://www.usaseanypa.org/post/the-history-and-impact-of-cambodian-cuisine|access-date=15 June 2025}}

In neighbouring Siam (modern-day Thailand), Indian traders and Buddhist missionaries introduced key aromatics such as tamarind, cumin and lemongrass. These ingredients formed the basis of nam prik, a type of thick spice paste that included components like lemongrass, fish sauce and peppercorns. Nam prik became a foundational element in numerous Thai dishes, including early forms of Thai curry known as gaeng. Later contributions from foreign traders, such as the introduction of shrimp paste and chilli peppers, further developed the complexity and spiciness that characterise Thai curries today.{{Cite web|title=The Story of Thai Curry, According to a Chef and a Lifelong Fan|url=https://www.foodandwine.com/cooking-techniques/the-story-of-thai-curry-according-to-a-chef-and-a-lifelong-fan|access-date=15 June 2025}}

A similar process of adaptation occurred across Indonesia and the Malay Archipelago, where Indian spice traditions were localised through the use of regional ingredients such as coconut milk, lemongrass, galangal, turmeric, candlenut and chilli. This culinary synthesis gave rise to gulai, a rich, spiced stew that developed into numerous regional variations throughout the region. Like Thai curry, gulai reflects centuries of cultural exchange, trade and local innovation that continue to shape Southeast Asian cuisines.{{Cite web|title=Fascinating Gulai|url=https://esfmedia.wixsite.com/website/post/fascinating-gulai|access-date=15 June 2025}} This process of adaptation gave rise to gulai, a dish that evolved into multiple regional variations throughout the Malay Archipelago.{{Cite web|title=Senarai|language=Malay|url=https://pemetaanbudaya.jkkn.gov.my/senibudaya/senarai|access-date=15 June 2025}}

One such expression took shape within Minangkabau cuisine in West Sumatra, where the introduction of gulai is closely tied to the maritime trade networks that connected South and Southeast Asia. As part of the maritime Silk Road, South Indian traders, particularly those from the Tamil region, frequented ports along the west Sumatran coast, facilitating the exchange of not only goods and beliefs but also culinary practices. Among these were spice combinations and preparation methods associated with Indian curries, including the use of turmeric, coriander and cumin.{{Cite web|title=Sejarah dan Jenis-jenis Gulai yang Khas di Indonesia|language=Indonesian|url=https://kumparan.com/kumparanfood/sejarah-dan-jenis-jenis-gulai-yang-khas-di-indonesia-1547526143548998279|access-date=15 June 2025}}

The Minangkabau, known for their richly spiced and aromatic cooking, gradually adapted these foreign elements to suit local tastes and ingredients. Over time, they developed a regional version of curry-based stew that became known as gulai, marked by the use of coconut milk, chilli and regional herbs such as lemongrass and galangal. Gulai eventually became a defining feature of Minangkabau cuisine, appearing in a wide variety of dishes made with meat, fish, offal and vegetables, and often prepared for ceremonial, communal and festive occasions.

File:Hkyt merong mahawgsa.jpg, a Malay literary work in which gulai is mentioned as a dish favoured by the king]]

The Malay Peninsula and eastern Sumatra also played a prominent role in the historical development of gulai.{{Cite web|title=Scoping study on the gastronomic tourism sector: an inventory of Malaysia’s key culinary traditions|url=https://www.wipo.int/export/sites/www/ip-development/en/docs/scoping-study-malaysia.pdf|access-date=15 June 2025}}{{Cite web|title=Past and Present Practices of the Malay Food Heritage and Culture in Malaysia|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320897695_Past_and_Present_Practices_of_the_Malay_Food_Heritage_and_Culture_in_Malaysia|access-date=15 June 2025}} Located on both sides of the Straits of Malacca, a key maritime corridor in the spice trade and cross-cultural exchange, these regions were historically linked through commerce, migration and shared linguistic and cultural ties. This longstanding interconnectedness fostered their emergence as important hubs for the transmission, adaptation and localisation of curry-based culinary traditions.{{Cite web|title=Warisan kita: Sedapnya Gulai Umbut Pisang|language=Malay|url=https://jendeladbp.my/tv/warisan-kita-sedapnya-gulai-umbut-pisang/|access-date=15 June 2025}}{{Cite web|title=The Transmission Modes of Malay Traditional Food Knowledge within Generations|url=https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Mn-Norazmir/publication/257716060_The_Transmission_Modes_of_Malay_Traditional_Food_Knowledge_within_Generations/links/546eab840cf2bc99c2155aed/The-Transmission-Modes-of-Malay-Traditional-Food-Knowledge-within-Generations.pdf|access-date=15 June 2025}}{{Cite web|title=Makanan Tradisional Malaysia: Rasa & Sejarah|language=Malay|url=https://library.utem.edu.my/phocadownload/Exhibition/Okt%202024%20-%20Makanan%20Tradisional%20Malaysia%20Rasa%20%20Sejarah.pdf|access-date=15 June 2025}}

The establishment of the Sultanate of Malacca in the early 15th century marked a significant turning point in the region’s culinary landscape. As Malacca grew into a key entrepôt in the Indian Ocean trade network, it attracted merchants from across Asia, including South Asia, the Middle East and China. This convergence of cultures facilitated the further dissemination of spices, cooking techniques and food traditions.{{Cite web|title=When the World Came to Southeast Asia: Malacca and the Global Economy|url=https://www.asianstudies.org/publications/eaa/archives/when-the-world-came-to-southeast-asia-malacca-and-the-global-economy/|access-date=15 June 2025}}{{Cite web|title=Spice Migrations: For the love of cloves|url=https://www.aramcolife.com/en/publications/the-arabian-sun/articles/2021/week-52-articles/spice-migrations-for-the-love-of-cloves|access-date=15 June 2025}} Indian culinary practices, in particular, were gradually adapted to suit local palates and ingredients, resulting in a distinctly Malay style of gulai. This regional variant was typically characterised by the use of coconut milk, chilli and indigenous herbs such as lemongrass, galangal and turmeric.{{Cite web|title=Pengaruh Alam dan Budaya dalam Pembentukan Makanan Tradisional di Lembah Lenggong, Perak|language=Malay|url=https://www.merdeka.com/sumut/sejarah-gulai-belacan-sajian-kuliner-kaya-cita-rasa-dan-menggugah-selera-dari-riau-33517-mvk.html?page=3|access-date=15 June 2025}}{{Cite web|title=Sejarah Gulai Belacan, Sajian Kuliner Kaya Cita Rasa dan Menggugah Selera dari Riau|language=Malay|url=https://pemetaanbudaya.jkkn.gov.my/en/senibudaya/detail/957|access-date=15 June 2025}} Similar to its role in Minangkabau cuisine, gulai became an essential component of the Malay gastronomic repertoire.

By the 16th century, the dish was already well-established in the Malay culinary tradition, particularly within the courts of Malacca. Early references to gulai are found in classical Malay literature, including Hikayat Amir Hamzah, which mentions the dish in the context of elite dining.Ahmad, A. Samad (3 April 1987). [https://books.google.com.my/books?redir%20esc=y&id=johkAAAAMAAJ&focus=searchwithinvolume&q=gulai Hikayat Amir Hamzah]. Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Kementerian Pelajaran, Malaysia – via Google Books Further references appear in Malay epics such as the Hikayat Hang Tuah{{Cite web|title=Hikayat Hang Tuah II|language=Malay|url=https://repositori.kemdikbud.go.id/1879/1/Hikayat%20Hang%20Tuah%20II%20%282010%29.pdf|access-date=15 June 2025}} and the Hikayat Merong Mahawangsa indicate its prominence in regional courtly and cultural settings.{{Cite web|title=Makan dan Makanan dalam Kesusasteraan Melayu|language=Malay|url=https://journalarticle.ukm.my/9460/1/11476-31158-2-PB.pdf|access-date=15 June 2025}}

Additional testimony comes from Stamford Raffles, who in his 1817 account of early 19th-century Java described a type of soupy dish known as Gulai Melayu. According to Raffles, the dish was named after its place of origin, Melayu (Malay), reflecting its association with the Malay region and culinary identity.{{Cite web|title=Shaping Southeast Asian Taste: Curry as Historical Evidences of Muslim Trade Networks in the Indian Ocean|url=https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/8542/a11a409be8ca8fdf02efc5fec5712f6bbce4.pdf|access-date=15 June 2025}}

By the 16th century, dishes resembling gulai were already being prepared in various parts of Sumatra, Java and the Malay Peninsula. European travellers of the period, including Antonio Pigafetta, documented the prevalence of richly spiced foods in maritime Southeast Asia, reflecting the long-standing integration of curry-like preparations into local diets.{{Cite web|title=Long before 1521: Philippine food when Magellan arrived|url=https://verafiles.org/articles/long-1521-philippine-food-when-magellan-arrived|access-date=15 June 2025}} In 1811, the British orientalist William Marsden recorded a dish called gulei in the Malay language, describing it as being prepared in a manner similar to what Europeans had come to know as “curry”.{{Cite web|title=The History of Sumatra|url=https://www.gutenberg.org/files/16768/16768-h/16768-h.htm|access-date=15 June 2025}}

During the colonial era, curry-based dishes such as gulai became increasingly integrated into the daily culinary practices of local communities. The 19th-century Dutch East Indies cookbook Koki Bitja listed kari (curry) as one of the most commonly prepared recipes, reflecting the enduring popularity of spice-laden stews across the region. This period also witnessed the formalisation and codification of regional variations of gulai, further entrenching its role as a staple of local cuisines.{{Cite web|title=Kokki Bitja|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=jBZCAQAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&hl=id&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false|access-date=15 June 2025}}

File:Nasi Kapau Selera Minang.jpg food stall in Agam Regency, West Sumatra, Indonesia.]]

Gulai is typically prepared using a rich blend of spices and coconut milk, resulting in a thick, aromatic sauce that is yellowish in colour due to the presence of ground turmeric. Common spices include coriander, black pepper, galangal, ginger, chilli pepper, shallots, garlic, fennel, lemongrass, cinnamon and caraway. These ingredients are ground into a paste and simmered in coconut milk along with the main component of the dish, which may include meat, fish, vegetables or offal.{{cite web |title=Resep Gulai Ayam |url=http://resepmasakanindonesia.info/resep-gulai-ayam/ |publisher=Resep Masakan Indonesia |language=id |access-date=31 May 2014 |archive-date=21 June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160621055345/http://resepmasakanindonesia.info/resep-gulai-ayam |url-status=usurped }} The dish is usually cooked slowly, allowing the flavours of the spices and coconut milk to fully develop.{{cite news|title=By the way ... I just can't live without Padang food |author=Donny Syofyan |newspaper=The Jakarta Post | date= 24 November 2013 |url=http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2013/11/24/by-way-i-just-can-t-live-without-padang-food.html}}

Gulai is widely consumed throughout Indonesia and the Malay Archipelago, particularly in Sumatra, the Malay Peninsula, Java and Borneo. While its foundational preparation involves coconut milk and a blend of spices, regional variations exhibit distinct differences in ingredients, flavour profiles and presentation. In Java, gulai typically has a lighter yellow colour, whereas in Sumatra it often appears deeper and more reddish due to the greater use of chilli and spices. The consistency of the dish also varies: in Minangkabau, Acehnese and Malay cuisines, the sauce is generally thick and rich, while in Java it is typically thinner and soup-like, often served with mutton, beef or offal. Across the region, gulai is commonly eaten with steamed rice.

In West Sumatra, gulai is a central element of Minangkabau cuisine. The thick, yellowish sauce is commonly used to flavour meat, fish and vegetables, and is noted for its rich, spicy and aromatic qualities. It integrates a complex blend of spices into a harmonious flavour profile, often making the identification of individual ingredients difficult. Within Minangkabau communities, ruku-ruku (holy basil, Ocimum tenuiflorum) is considered an essential herb in the preparation of gulai. In Padang, the ability to prepare gulai is regarded as a marker of culinary skill. Dishes such as rendang (beef simmered in coconut milk and spices), asam padeh (a sour and spicy stew) and kalio (a thinner, lighter-coloured curry) are often regarded as regional variations or extensions of Padang-style gulai.{{cite news|title=By the way ... I just can't live without Padang food |author=Donny Syofyan |newspaper=The Jakarta Post | date= 24 November 2013 |url=http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2013/11/24/by-way-i-just-can-t-live-without-padang-food.html}}{{Cite news|url=https://www.saveur.com/article/travels/spice-world#page-2|title=Spice World|first = Christopher|last= Tan | date = 24 February 2014|work=SAVEUR|access-date=23 July 2018}}

"Biar rumah condong, asalkan makan gulai lemak dan gulai asam pedas"
(Let the house lean and sway, so long as there's rich gulai lemak and tangy gulai asam pedas on the table.)

— Malay proveb

Among Malay communities, gulai holds significant cultural importance and is regularly featured in both everyday meals and ceremonial occasions. Its role in the culinary tradition is reflected in a Malay proverb, "Biar rumah condong, asalkan makan gulai lemak dan gulai asam pedas",{{Cite web|title=Meniti Zaman Masyarakat Melayu Antara Tradisi dan Moden|language=Malay|url=http://lib.perdana.org.my/PLF/Digital_Content/NLM/Batch1/NL_PDF_CD011/M305.8959MEN-MenitiZaman_MasyarakatMelayuAntaraTradisi&Moden%5BNorazitSelat%5D1997.pdf|access-date=15 June 2025}} reflects the high regard for such dishes, using food as a metaphor for contentment and the idea that simple pleasures can outweigh material hardship. In various regional preparations, kerisik (toasted grated coconut paste) is commonly added to enhance the flavour and thicken the sauce. Notable local variants include gulai tempoyak, made with fermented durian, which is especially popular in the states of Perak and Pahang and served in both daily contexts and festive celebrations such as Hari Raya and weddings. Negeri Sembilan is particularly known for its spicy cuisine, especially masak lemak cili api, a type of gulai prepared with coconut milk, turmeric and bird’s eye chilli that is widely regarded as a hallmark of the region’s culinary identity. In some areas, asam pedas, a sour and spicy fish dish, is also referred to as gulai tumis. Additionally, gulai is sometimes served with roti canai, offering an alternative to the more commonly served curry.https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/82136975.pdf {{Bare URL PDF|date=March 2022}}

File:Sate-gule-kambing al maarif.jpg Javanese gule, It is served with goat satay]]

In Palembang, South Sumatra, gulai is typically prepared with ingredients such as garlic, shallots, turmeric, turmeric leaf and pineapple, which contribute to its distinctive tangy and aromatic flavour. In contrast, Javanese variants of gulai, often referred to as gule, emphasise the use of coriander and commonly incorporate tamarind, resulting in a slightly more sour flavour profile compared to other regional styles.{{Cite web|last=Pertiwi|first=Ni Luh Made|title=Apa Bedanya Gulai Jawa dengan Gulai Sumatera|url=https://travel.kompas.com/read/2017/05/17/160200827/apa.bedanya.gulai.jawa.dengan.gulai.sumatera.|access-date=2020-10-12|website=KOMPAS.com|date=17 May 2017 |language=id}}

The versatility of gulai is reflected in the wide range of ingredients used across different regions. Beyond common preparations with chicken, beef or fish, gulai is also made using offal, vegetables and even insects, depending on local preferences and cultural traditions. This adaptability has led to an extensive variety of gulai dishes throughout the Indonesian and Malay culinary landscapes, particularly in areas such as West Sumatra{{Cite web|title=Mengapa Makanan Khas Minangkabau Banyak Menggunakan Santan?|url=https://kumparan.com/kumparanfood/mengapa-makanan-khas-minangkabau-banyak-menggunakan-santan-1rt87qE86oD|access-date=2020-10-12|website=kumparan|language=id-ID}} and the Malay Peninsula.{{Cite web|title=20 resipi gulai|url=https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/20-resipi-gulai-14670857/14670857|language=Malay|access-date=15 June 2025}} The following are examples of notable gulai variations found across the region:

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Poultry

• Gulai ayam (chicken gulai)
• Gulai itik (duck gulai)
• Gulai telur (hard boiled chicken egg gulai)
• Gulai telur itik (duck egg gulai),{{cite web| title=Resepi Gulai Telur Itik| url=http://www.myresipi.com/top/detail/4203| publisher=MyResipi| language=ms| access-date=31 May 2014| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140531125313/http://www.myresipi.com/top/detail/4203| archive-date=31 May 2014| url-status=dead}} a specialty of Negeri Sembilan

Meat

• Gulai kambing (mutton gulai){{cite web| title=Gulai Kambing | date=17 August 2008 | url=http://nasional.kompas.com/read/2008/08/17/12135818/gulai.kambing | publisher=Kompas.com |language=id |access-date=31 May 2014}}
• Gulai sapi (beef gulai)

Insect

• Gulai belalang padi (grasshopper gulai), a specialty of Negeri Sembilan.{{Cite web|title=Authentic Dishes Of Negeri Sembilan|url=https://docs.google.com/viewerng/viewer?url=http://malaycivilization.com.my/omeka/files/original/4e675c45b3587aabf71415dcb28d9f16.pdf|access-date=15 June 2025}}

Offal

• Gulai hati (cattle liver gulai)
• Gulai limpa (cattle spleen gulai)
• Gulai gajeboh (cattle hump fat gulai){{Cite news|url=https://travel.kompas.com/read/2016/05/24/085227727/gulai.gajebo.makanan.surga.dari.ranah.minang|title=Gulai Gajebo, "Makanan Surga" dari Ranah Minang |author=Kompas Cyber Media|date=24 May 2016|work=KOMPAS.com|access-date=23 July 2018|language=id}}
• Gulai iso or gulai usus (cattle intestine gulai)
• Gulai babat (tripe gulai){{Cite news|url=https://cookingwithoutborders.wordpress.com/2011/09/23/gourmet-or-garbage/|title=Gourmet or Garbage?|date=22 September 2011|work=My Cooking Without Borders|access-date=23 July 2018}}
• Gulai tembusu or tambunsu (intestine gulai filled with egg)
• Gulai tunjang or kikil (cattle foot tendon, skin and cartilage)
• Gulai otak (cattle brain gulai){{Cite web|url = https://www.saribundo.biz/gulai-banak-perpaduan-otak-yang-gurih-dan-lembut-dengan-kuah-kental-berbumbu.html|title = Gulai Banak, Perpaduan Otak Sapi yang Gurih dan Lembut Dengan Kuah Kental Berbumbu|date = 8 November 2017|access-date = 11 April 2021|archive-date = 2 July 2020|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200702050129/https://www.saribundo.biz/gulai-banak-perpaduan-otak-yang-gurih-dan-lembut-dengan-kuah-kental-berbumbu.html|url-status = dead}}
• Gulai sumsum (cattle marrow gulai)
• Gulai hati ampela (chicken gizzard, liver and intestine gulai)

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Fish and sea food

• Gulai ikan mas (carp gulai)
• Gulai ikan patin (pangasius gulai)
• Gulai ikan kakap (red snapper gulai)
• Gulai kepala ikan kakap (red snapper's head gulai){{Cite news|url=https://travel.kompas.com/read/2009/10/19/08174983/gulai.kepala.ikan|title=Gulai Kepala Ikan |author=Kompas Cyber Media |date=19 October 2009|work=KOMPAS.com|access-date=23 July 2018|language=id}}
• Gulai telur ikan (roe gulai)
• Gulai ketam, gulai kepiting or gulai rajungan (crab)
• Gulai cumi or gulai sotong (cuttle fish/squid)
• Gulai udang (shrimp)
• Gulai tulang ikan{{cite web| url = https://www.malaymail.com/news/life/2020/08/26/kedahan-home-cook-azah-johari-starts-youtube-channel-to-revive-traditional/1897249| title = Kedahan home cook Azah Johari starts YouTube channel to revive traditional Malay recipes (VIDEO) {{!}} Life {{!}} Malay Mail| date = 26 August 2020}}
• Gulai tumis{{Cite web|url=https://rasamalaysia.com/gulai-tumis-tamarind-fish-curry/|title=Gulai Tumis (Tamarind Fish Curry)|date=26 April 2010}}

Vegetable

• Gulai batang pisang (Banana stem gulai), a specialty of Kedah{{cite web| url = https://www.nst.com.my/lifestyle/jom/2019/08/516665/jom-go-taste-kampung-life| title = #JOM GO: A taste of kampung life {{!}} New Straits Times| date = 28 August 2019}}
• Gulai cubadak or gulai nangka muda (unripe jackfruit gulai){{Cite web|url=http://www.pimentious.com/2015/04/gulai-nangka-indonesian-unripe.html|title=Gulai Nangka (Indonesian Unripe Jackfruit Curry)|website=pimentious.com|access-date=23 July 2018}}
• Gulai daun pakis (fern leaf gulai)
• Gulai daun singkong (cassava leaf gulai){{Cite news|url=https://food.detik.com/resep/d-4037671/resep-sahur--gulai-daun-singkong-tumbuk|title=Resep Sahur : Gulai Daun Singkong Tumbuk|last=Setiawati|first=Odilia Winneke|work=detikfood|access-date=23 July 2018|language=id}}
• Gulai kacang panjang (common beans gulai)
• Gulai jariang or gulai jengkol (Archidendron pauciflorum gulai)
• Gulai pisang muda (Young banana gulai), a specialty of Negeri Sembilan
• Gulai rebung (bamboo shoot gulai)
• Gulai sukun (breadfruit gulai)
• Gulai tahu (tofu gulai)
• Gulai tempe (tempeh gulai)

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File:Gulai asam baung.jpg|Gulai Asam Baung, a tamarind-based gulai from Tanjung Balai, North Sumatra

File:Gulai kepala ikan khas aceh.jpg|Gulai kepala ikan, fish head gulai, an Aceh version

File:Glai Smh.jpg|Gulai ikan semah, a traditional specialty from Jambi

File:Lontong Gulai Ayam.jpg|Lontong gulai ayam, an Indonesian dish featuring lontong (compressed rice cakes) served with chicken gulai

File:Daging Salai Masak Gulai Rebung Putih.jpg|Daging salai masak gulai rebung putih, a smoked beef gulai cooked with white bamboo shoots, commonly found in Malay cuisine

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• [http://chefindo.com/resep-dan-cara-membuat-gulai-kepala-ikan-kakap-merah/ Red snapper's head gulai recipe] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140530154739/http://chefindo.com/resep-dan-cara-membuat-gulai-kepala-ikan-kakap-merah/ |date=30 May 2014 }} {{in lang|id}}
• [http://chefindo.com/resep-dan-cara-membuat-gulai-kambing/ Goat meat gulai recipe] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140321164434/http://chefindo.com/resep-dan-cara-membuat-gulai-kambing/ |date=21 March 2014 }} {{in lang|id}}

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