Japanese diaspora#Europe

The term Nikkei, from the Japanese word {{nihongo|nikkei|日系||lit. "of Japanese lineage"}}, is often used to refer to Japanese people who emigrated from Japan and their descendants.{{cite web | title = nikkei | author = Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1) | publisher = Random House, Inc. | access-date = 2007-02-02 | year = 2007 | url = http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/nikkei}} These groups were historically differentiated by the terms issei (first-generation Nikkei), nisei (second-generation Nikkei), sansei (third-generation Nikkei) and yonsei (fourth-generation Nikkei). In this context emigration refers to permanent settlers, excluding transient Japanese abroad, although the term may not strictly relate to citizenship status. The Japanese government defines Nikkei people as foreign citizens with the ability to provide proof of Japanese lineage within three generations. On the other hand, in the United States and some other places where Nikkei people have developed their own communities and identities, first-generation Japanese immigrants with Japanese citizenship tend to be included if they are involved in the local community.{{cite journal|last1=Manzenreiter|first1=Wolfram|title=Squared diaspora: Representations of the Japanese diaspora across time and space|journal=Contemporary Japan|date=27 July 2017|volume=29|issue=2|pages=106–116|doi=10.1080/18692729.2017.1351021|doi-access=free}}

The Japanese American National Museum, based upon a collaborative project that involved more than 100 scholars from 10 countries, has defined Nikkei as follows: {{blockquote|We are talking about Nikkei people - Japanese emigrants and their descendants who have created communities throughout the world. The term Nikkei has multiple and diverse meanings depending on situations, places, and environments. Nikkei also include people of mixed racial descent who identify themselves as Nikkei. Native Japanese also use the term Nikkei for the emigrants and their descendants who return to Japan. Many of these Nikkei live in close communities and retain identities separate from the native Japanese.{{cite web | title = What is Nikkei? | author = Discover Nikkei | publisher = Japanese American National Museum | access-date = 2023-09-07 | url = https://discovernikkei.org/en/about/what-is-nikkei}}}}

Japanese emigration to the rest of Asia was noted as early as the 15th century to the Philippines;[http://asiapacificuniverse.com/pkm/tech.htm Philippines History, Culture, Civilization and Technology, Filipino]. Asiapacificuniverse.com. Retrieved on 2013-08-24. early Japanese settlements included those in Lingayen Gulf, Manila, the coasts of Ilocos and in the Visayas when the Philippines was under the influence of Srivijaya and Majapahit Empire. In 2009, Japanese and Filipino archaeologists, from the Sumitomo Foundation-funded Boljoon Archaeological Project conducted by the University of San Carlos with the National Museum of the Philippines, discovered ancient Japanese pottery that is believed to have been in existence since the early 1700s. The ancient Japanese pottery that was discovered there has proven that there was trading activity between Japan and Cebu Island Philippines going back to the 16th century.{{cite web |url=https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/10434/ancient-japanese-pottery-in-boljoon-town |access-date=15 January 2022 |title=Ancient Japanese pottery in Boljoon town |website=inquirer.net | date=May 30, 2011 | author=Candeze R. Mongaya }} In the 16th century the Japanese settlement was established in Ayutthaya, Thailand{{cite web|url=http://www.thailandsworld.com/en/ayutthaya/ayutthaya-museums/japanese-village-ayutthaya/index.cfmJapanese |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141221150608/http://www.thailandsworld.com/en/ayutthaya/ayutthaya-museums/japanese-village-ayutthaya/index.cfmJapanese |url-status=dead |archive-date=2014-12-21 |title=Village Ayutthaya |work=thailandsworld.com }} and in early 17th century Japanese settlers was first recorded to stay in Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia). A larger wave came in the 17th century, when red seal ships traded in Southeast Asia and Japanese Catholics fled from the religious persecution imposed by the shōguns and settled in the Philippines, among other destinations. Many of them also intermarried with the local Filipina women (including those of pure or mixed Chinese and Spanish descent), thus forming the new Japanese-Mestizo community.{{cite web|title=Paco|website=Page Nation|url=http://ph.pagenation.com/mnl/Paco_120.9997_14.5808.map|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100507124349/http://ph.pagenation.com/mnl/Paco_120.9997_14.5808.map|archive-date=7 May 2010}} In the 16th and 17th centuries, thousands of traders from Japan also migrated to the Philippines and assimilated into the local population.{{cite book|last1=Leupp|first1=Gary P.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-I6owJcCOdwC&q=Racial+intimacy+in+Japan&pg=PA126|title=Interracial Intimacy in Japan|date=2003-01-01|isbn=9780826460745|pages=52–53|publisher=A&C Black }} In the 15th century AD, shimamono tea-jars were bought by the shōguns to Uji in Kyoto from the Philippines by merchants such as Luzon Sukezaemon which was used in the Japanese tea ceremony.{{cite web|url=http://sambali.blogspot.com/2006/09/luzon-jars-glossary.html|title=Quests of the Dragon and Bird Clan: Luzon Jars (Glossary)|first=Paul Kekai|last=Manansala|date=5 September 2006}} In the latter half of the 16th century the Portuguese Empire purchased and sold on Japanese slaves.{{cite news|last=HOFFMAN|first=MICHAEL|date=26 May 2013|title=The rarely, if ever, told story of Japanese sold as slaves by Portuguese traders|url=http://www.japantimes.co.jp/culture/2013/05/26/books/the-rarely-if-ever-told-story-of-japanese-sold-as-slaves-by-portuguese-traders/|newspaper=The Japan Times|access-date=2014-03-02|archive-date=5 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190505094146/https://www.japantimes.co.jp/culture/2013/05/26/books/the-rarely-if-ever-told-story-of-japanese-sold-as-slaves-by-portuguese-traders/|url-status=dead}}{{cite news|date=10 May 2007|title=Europeans had Japanese slaves, in case you didn't know ...|url=http://www.japanprobe.com/2007/05/10/europeans-had-japanese-slaves-in-case-you-didnt-know/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100613232128/http://www.japanprobe.com/2007/05/10/europeans-had-japanese-slaves-in-case-you-didnt-know/|url-status=dead|archive-date=13 June 2010|newspaper=Japan Probe|access-date=2014-03-02}}

File:Justo Takayama monument and historical marker at Plaza Dilao.jpg monument and historical marker at Plaza Dilao in Manila|200x200px]]

From the 15th through the early 17th century, Japanese seafarers traveled to China and Southeast Asia countries, in some cases establishing early Japantowns.{{cite web|url=http://www.janm.org/projects/inrp/english/sc_befu.htm|title=JANM/INRP - Harumi Befu|work=janm.org|access-date=12 September 2011|archive-date=17 January 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130117124012/http://www.janm.org/projects/inrp/english/sc_befu.htm|url-status=dead}} This activity ended in the 1640s, when the Tokugawa shogunate imposed maritime restrictions which forbade Japanese from leaving the country and from returning if they were already abroad. This policy would not be lifted for over two hundred years. Travel restrictions were eased once Japan opened diplomatic relations with Western nations. In 1867, the bakufu began issuing travel documents for overseas travel and emigration.{{cite web|url=http://www.mofa.go.jp/mofaj/annai/honsho/shiryo/qa/sonota_01.html#06|title=外務省: 外交史料 Q&A その他|website=Mofa.go.jp|access-date=16 January 2018}}

File:Passengers arriving in Vancouver.jpg

Before 1885, few Japanese people emigrated from Japan, in part because the Meiji government was reluctant to allow emigration, both because it lacked the political power to adequately protect Japanese emigrants and because it believed that the presence of Japanese as unskilled laborers in foreign countries would hamper its ability to revise the unequal treaties. A notable exception to this trend was a group of 153 contract laborers who immigrated—without official passports—to Hawaii and Guam in 1868.Known as the Gannen-mono (元年者), or "first year people" because they left Japan in the first year of the Meiji Era. Jonathan Dresner, "Instructions to Emigrant Laborers, 1885–1894: 'Return in Triumph' or 'Wander on the Verge of Starvation,'" In Japanese Diasporas: Unsung Pasts, Conflicting Presents, and Uncertain Futures, ed. Nobuko Adachi (London: Routledge, 2006), 53. A portion of this group stayed on after the expiration of the initial labor contract, forming the nucleus of the Nikkei community in Hawaii. In 1885, the Meiji government began to turn to officially sponsored emigration programs to alleviate pressure from overpopulation and the effects of the Matsukata deflation in rural areas. For the next decade, the government was closely involved in the selection and pre-departure instruction of emigrants. The Japanese government was keen on keeping Japanese emigrants well-mannered while abroad in order to show the West that Japan was a dignified society, worthy of respect. By the mid-1890s, immigration companies (imin-kaisha, 移民会社), not sponsored by the government, began to dominate the process of recruiting emigrants, but government-sanctioned ideology continued to influence emigration patterns.Dresner, 52-68.

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In 1898, the Dutch East Indies colonial government statistics showed 614 Japanese in the Dutch East Indies (166 men, 448 women).{{harvnb|Shiraishi|Shiraishi|1993|p=8}} During the American colonial era in the Philippines, the Japanese population of Davao, most of whom first started out as laborers working in abaca plantations in Davao, were recorded in statistics as only numbering 30 in 1903, then 5,533 by 1920, then 12,469 by 1930, then later increased to 20,000 by 1941.{{Cite book|last=Kamohara|first=Kōji|title=Dabao hōjin kaitakushi [History of Japanese development of Davao]|publisher=Nippi Shimbunsha|year=1938|location=Davao|pages=appendix}}{{Cite book|last=Furukawa|first=Yoshizō|title=Dabao kaitakuki [A record of the development of Davao]|publisher=Furukawa Takushoku|year=1956|pages=366}} The number of Japanese laborers working in plantations rose so high that in the early 20th century, Davao City soon became dubbed as Davaokuo (in Philippine and American media) or (in {{langx|ja|小日本國「こにっぽ​んこく」|lit=Little Japan|translit=Ko Nippon Koku}}) with a Japanese school, a Shinto shrine, and a diplomatic mission from Japan. The place that used to be "Little Tokyo" in Davao was Mintal.{{Cite news|last=Villalon|first=Augusto F.|date=February 13, 2017|title='Little Tokyo' in Davao|newspaper=Philippine Daily Inquirer|url=https://lifestyle.inquirer.net/254364/little-tokyo-davao/|access-date=February 7, 2021}} There is even a popular restaurant called "The Japanese Tunnel", which includes a tunnel made by the Japanese in time of the war.{{cite web|publisher=Pacific Citizen|location=Philippines|title=A Little Tokyo Rooted in the Philippines|date=April 2007|url=http://www.pacificcitizen.org/content/2007/national/apr20-lin-davaokuo.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080222185058/http://www.pacificcitizen.org/content/2007/national/apr20-lin-davaokuo.htm|archive-date=22 February 2008}}

In the Philippines, Halo-halo is believed to be an indigenized version of the Japanese kakigori class of desserts, originating from pre-war Japanese migrants into the islands.{{cite news |last1=Ocampo |first1=Ambeth R. |title=Japanese origins of the Philippine 'halo-halo' |url=https://opinion.inquirer.net/35790/japanese-origins-of-the-philippine-halo-halo |newspaper=Philippine Daily Inquirer |date=30 August 2012 |access-date=23 April 2019}}{{cite web|title=Halo-Halo Graham Float Recipe|url=https://www.pinoyrecipe.net/halo-halo-graham-float-recipe/|website=Pinoy Recipe at Iba Pa|date=24 July 2019|access-date=24 July 2019}} Odong or {{langx|ceb|udong|label=none}} of Davao Region and Visayas is inspired by Japanese udon.{{Cite web|url=https://issuu.com/edgedavao/docs/edge9_issue142/9|title=US, Japan linguistic legacies|date=2016-09-11|access-date=2021-07-12|website=Issuu|last=Figueroa|first=Antonio V.|publisher=Edge Davao|page=9|language=en}}{{Cite web|url=http://archives.pia.gov.ph/?m=12&fi=p060411.htm&no=6|title=Manila craves for Davao cuisine|date=2006-04-11|access-date=2021-07-12|website=PIA Press Release|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210712091722/http://archives.pia.gov.ph/?m=12&fi=p060411.htm&no=6|archive-date=2021-07-12|url-status=live|publisher=Philippine Information Agency|language=en}} During the early 1900s, there was a large community of Japanese laborers in Davao,{{Cite book|title=Davao: A Case Study in Japanese-Philippine Relations|last=Goodman|first=Grant K.|publisher=University of Kansas, Center for East Asian Studies|year=1967|pages=31|url=https://kuscholarworks.ku.edu/handle/1808/1195|language=en|chapter=Japanese Percentage of Participation in Davao Province Industries|quote=60% of Odong manufacturing|hdl-access=free|hdl=1808/1195}} half of them Okinawans,{{Cite journal|title=Rethinking Okinawan Diasporas in 'Davaokuo' with Special Reference to Their Relations with Mainland Japanese and Filipino Residents of Davao, the Philippines|journal=Immigration Studies (移民研究)|url=http://ir.lib.u-ryukyu.ac.jp/handle/20.500.12000/6447|last=Ohno|first=Shun|date=2006-03-01|volume=2|publisher=Center for migration studies, University of the Ryukyus (琉球大学移民研究センター)|location=Okinawa|at=abstract (pp21–22)|language=en|script-title=ja:｢ダバオ国｣の沖縄人社会再考 －本土日本人、フィリピン人との関係を中心に－|issn=1881-0829|hdl=20.500.12000/6447|hdl-access=free}} and in this period, the Japanese manufactured odong.

There was also a significant level of emigration to the overseas territories of the Empire of Japan during the Japanese colonial period, including Korea,{{cite web|url=http://www.columbia.edu/~hds2/BIB95/00korea_cohen.htm|title=Japanese Periodicals in Colonial Korea|work=columbia.edu}} Taiwan, Manchuria and Karafuto.[http://www.discovernikkei.org/wiki/index.php/Japanese_Immigration_Statistics Japanese Immigration Statistics] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081015231826/http://www.discovernikkei.org/wiki/index.php/Japanese_Immigration_Statistics|date=15 October 2008}}, DiscoverNikkei.org Unlike emigrants to the Americas, Japanese going to the colonies occupied a higher rather than lower social niche upon their arrival.{{cite news|url=http://times.hankooki.com/lpage/opinion/200603/kt2006032318091354130.htm|last=Lankov|first=Andrei|author-link=Andrei Lankov|access-date=2006-12-18|date=2006-03-23|title=The Dawn of Modern Korea (360): Settling Down|newspaper=The Korea Times|archive-date=19 June 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060619173835/http://times.hankooki.com/lpage/opinion/200603/kt2006032318091354130.htm|url-status=dead}}

In 1938 about 309,000 Japanese lived in Taiwan.{{cite journal|jstor=2752241|title=Formosa (Taiwan) Under Japanese Rule|first=A. J.|last=Grajdanzev|date=22 August 2017|journal=Pacific Affairs|volume=15|issue=3|pages=311–324|doi=10.2307/2752241}} By the end of World War II, there were over 850,000 Japanese in Korea{{cite web|url=http://www.usc.edu/dept/LAS/CMTS/MonoPaper3-13.html|title=Monograph Paper 3. Section 13|work=usc.edu|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/19991013000846/http://www.usc.edu/dept/LAS/CMTS/MonoPaper3-13.html|archive-date=13 October 1999|df=dmy}} and more than 2 million in China,[http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2006-06/26/content_625490.htm Killing of Chinese in Japan concerned], China Daily most of them farmers in Manchukuo (the Japanese had a plan to bring in 5 million Japanese settlers into Manchukuo).[http://www.japanfocus.org/products/details/1715 Prasenjit Duara: The New Imperialism and the Post-Colonial Developmental State: Manchukuo in comparative perspective] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081223062821/http://www.japanfocus.org/products/details/1715 |date=23 December 2008 }}

Over 400,000 people lived on Karafuto (Southern Sakhalin) when the Soviet offensive began in early August 1945. Most were of Japanese or Korean descent. When Japan lost the Kuril Islands, 17,000 Japanese were expelled, most from the southern islands.{{cite web |url=http://www.american.edu/TED/ice/kurile.htm|title=The Kurile Islands Dispute| access-date=22 August 2017}}

Japanese Christian in Jakarta circa 1656 by Andries Beeckman.jpg|Japanese Christian in Jakarta, c. 1656

Japanese and Korean children, Korea, (s.d.) (Taylor box21num35).jpg|Japanese and Korean children, 1908–1922

Japanese sunday school class, Korea, (s.d.) (Taylor box21num48).jpg|Japanese Sunday school class in Korea, 1908–1922

Osaka Boeki Wholesale Workers, Manila, Philippines (1930s).jpg|Japanese office workers in Manila, 1930s

Class at Saipan elementary school in 1932.png|Japanese elementary school class on Saipan, 1932

Tinian elementary school in 1932.png|Japanese school on Tinian, 1932

Japanese-Buddhist-Temple-Iturup-Etorofu.png|Japanese Buddhist temple on Etorofu, 1933

Establishment of Toyohara City.JPG|Japanese parade in Toyohara, 1937

Store and Japanese people in downtown Taihoku 1939.jpg|Japanese shoppers in Taihoku, 1939

Japanese settlers in Manchuria(9).JPG|Japanese family in Manchukuo, 1940s

File:Kodomo mikoshi, Ennichisai, Blok M, Jakarta.jpg Parade (Mikoshi Kids), Ennichisai, Japanese community cultural festival in Blok M, Jakarta (2013)]]

During and after World War II, most of these overseas Japanese repatriated to Japan. The Allied powers repatriated over 6 million Japanese nationals from colonies and battlefields throughout Asia.[http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog/WATWHC.html When Empire Comes Home : Repatriation and Reintegration in Postwar Japan by Lori Watt], Harvard University Press Only a few remained overseas, often involuntarily, as in the case of orphans in China or prisoners of war captured by the Red Army and forced to work in Siberia.{{cite news|url=http://www.mosnews.com/news/2005/04/01/japanesedied.shtml|archive-url=https://archive.today/20061113081334/http://www.mosnews.com/news/2005/04/01/japanesedied.shtml|url-status=usurped|archive-date=2006-11-13|date=2005-04-01|access-date=2007-02-23|title=Russia Acknowledges Sending Japanese Prisoners of War to North Korea|publisher=Mosnews.com}} During the 1950s and 1960s, an estimated 6,000 Japanese accompanied Zainichi Korean spouses repatriating to North Korea, while another 27,000 prisoners-of-war are estimated to have been sent there by the Soviet Union; see Japanese people in North Korea.{{cite journal|publisher=Nautilus Institute|author=Morris-Suzuki, Tessa|title=The Forgotten Victims of the North Korean Crisis|url=http://www.nautilus.org/fora/security/07022MorrisSuzuki.html|journal=Policy Forum Online|date=2007-03-13|access-date=2007-03-15|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070927012134/http://www.nautilus.org/fora/security/07022MorrisSuzuki.html |archive-date = 2007-09-27}}

There is a community of Japanese people in Hong Kong largely made up of expatriate businessmen. Additionally, there are 19,612 Japanese expatriates in Indonesia based mostly in the cities of Jakarta and Bali.{{citation|script-chapter=ja:インドネシア共和国基礎データ|script-title=ja:各国・地域情勢 |publisher=Ministry of Foreign Affairs | date=May 2009 |access-date=2009-10-19|url=http://www.mofa.go.jp/mofaj/area/indonesia/data.html|ref=CITEREFMOFA2009}}

{{more citations needed section|date=October 2022}}

The Japanese diaspora has been unique in the absence of new emigration flows in the second half of the 20th century.Maidment, Richard et al. (1998). [https://books.google.com/books?id=dK3WrSqLvgwC&pg=PA80 Culture and Society in the Asia-Pacific, p. 80.] However, research reports that during the post-war many Japanese migrated individually to join existing communities abroad.{{cite web|url=https://www.academia.edu/6328160|title=The Colombian Nikkei and the Narration of Selves|author=A. Diaz Collazos|work=academia.edu}}{{Dead link|date=November 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}

People from Japan began migrating to the U.S. and Canada in significant numbers following the political, cultural and social changes stemming from the 1868 Meiji Restoration. (see Japanese Americans and Japanese Canadians)

File:Farm hammond.jpeg

{{See also|Japanese Canadians}}

In Canada, small multi-generational communities of Japanese immigrants developed and adapted to life outside Japan.{{cite journal | last=Ikawa | first=Fumiko | title=Reviews: Umi o Watatta Nippon no Mura by Masao Gamo and "Steveston Monogatari: Sekai no Naka no Nipponjin" by Kazuko Tsurumi | journal=American Anthropologist | volume=New Series, Vol. 65 | issue=1 | date=February 1963 | pages=152–156| jstor=667278 |doi=10.1525/aa.1963.65.1.02a00240| doi-access=free }}

There was a small amount of Japanese settlement in the Dominican Republic between 1956 and 1961, in a program initiated by Dominican Republic leader Rafael Trujillo. Protests over the extreme hardships and broken government promises faced by the initial group of migrants set the stage for the end of state-supported labor emigration in Japan.{{Cite journal|title=The Odyssey of Japanese Colonists in the Dominican Republic|first1=Oscar H.|last1=Horst|first2=Katsuhiro|last2=Asagiri|journal=Geographical Review|volume=90|date=July 2000|pages=335–358|doi=10.2307/3250857|issue=3|jstor=3250857|bibcode=2000GeoRv..90..335H }}{{Cite book|last=Azuma|first=Eiichiro|chapter=Historical Overview of Japanese Emigration, 1868–2000|pages=32–48|editor-last=Kikumura-Yano|editor-first=Akemi|title=Encyclopedia of Japanese Descendants in the Americas: An Illustrated History of the Nikkei|publisher=Rowman Altamira|year=2002|isbn=978-0-7591-0149-4}}

====Mexico====

{{See also|Japanese Mexicans}}

Mexico received Japanese immigrants in 1897,{{cite web | author=Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan | title=Japan-Mexico foreign relations | year=2012| url=http://www.mofa.go.jp/region/latin/mexico/data.html | publisher=MOFA | access-date=28 October 2014}}{{cite journal|last1=Manzenreiter|first1=Wolfram|title=Living under more than one sun: The Nikkei Diaspora in the Americas|journal=Contemporary Japan|date=17 July 2017|volume=29|issue=2|pages=193–213|doi=10.1080/18692729.2017.1351045|doi-access=free}} when the first thirty five arrived in Chiapas to work on coffee farms. Immigration into Mexico died down in the following years, but was eventually spurred again in 1903 due to the acceptance of mutually recognized contracts on immigration by both countries. Immigrants coming in the first four years of these contracts worked primarily on sugar plantations, coal mines, and railroads.{{Cite journal|last=Tigner|first=James L.|date=1981|title=Japanese Immigration into Latin America: A Survey|journal=Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs|volume=23|issue=4|pages=457–482|doi=10.2307/165454|issn=0022-1937|jstor=165454}} Japanese immigrants (particularly from the Okinawa Prefecture, including Okinawans) arrived in small numbers during the early 20th century.

====United States====

{{See also|Japanese Americans}}

In the United States, particularly after the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882, Japanese immigrants were sought by industrialists to replace Chinese immigrants. In the early 20th century, anxiety about the rapid growth of cheap Japanese labor in California came to a head in 1906, when the School Board of San Francisco passed a resolution barring children of Japanese heritage from attending regular public schools. President Roosevelt intervened to rescind the resolution, but only on the understanding that steps would be taken to put a stop to further Japanese immigration.{{cite book|last1=Chaurasia|first1=Radhey|title=History of Japan|date=2003|publisher=Atlantic|location=New Delhi|isbn=978-81-269-0228-6|page=136}} In 1907, in the face of Japanese government protests, the so-called "Gentlemen's Agreement" between the governments of Japan and the United States ended immigration of Japanese workers (i.e., men), but permitted the immigration of spouses of Japanese immigrants already in the US. The Immigration Act of 1924 banned the immigration of all but a token few Japanese, and until the Immigration Act of 1965, there was very little further Japanese immigration. But afterward, the Japanese American community increased heavily.

The state with the highest percentage of Japanese people is Hawaii, where today a third of the people are of Japanese descent. The majority of Japanese Americans live on the West Coast, with other significant communities in the Southwest, Northeast and Midwest.

File:Lista de Passageiros do Kasato Maru.jpg bringing the first Japanese immigrants to Brazil, 1908]]

{{see also|Japanese Argentines}}

Argentina is home to about 80,000 people of Japanese descent. Most of them live in Buenos Aires, where neighborhoods like Balvanera and Monserrat have many Japanese restaurants, shops and izakayas. Buenos Aires also has the largest Japanese garden outside Japan, called Jardín Japonés, located in Palermo neighborhood.{{cite web|url=https://therealargentina.com/en/tokyo-in-buenos-aires/|title=Tokyo in Buenos Aires|date=22 September 2016 |access-date=5 January 2024}}

{{see also|Japanese Brazilians}}

File:Street in Liberdade, São Paulo.jpg community of the city of São Paulo, Brazil, traditionally lived in the Liberdade neighbourhood.]]

Japanese Brazilians are the largest ethnic Japanese community outside Japan (numbering about 2 million, compared to about 1.5 million in the United States) and São Paulo contains the largest concentration of Japanese outside Japan. Paraná and Mato Grosso do Sul also have a large Japanese community. The first Japanese immigrants (791 people, mostly farmers) came to Brazil in 1908 on the Kasato Maru from the Japanese port of Kobe, moving to Brazil in search of better living conditions. Many of them ended up as laborers on coffee farms (for testimony of Kasato Maru{{'s}} travelers that continued to Argentina see :es:Café El Japonés, see also Shindo Renmei). Immigration of Japanese workers in Brazil was actually subsidized by São Paulo up until 1921, with around 40,000 Japanese emigrating to Brazil between the years of 1908 and 1925, and 150,000 pouring in during the following 16 years. The most immigrants to come in one year peaked in 1933 at 24,000, but restrictions due to ever growing anti-Japanese sentiment caused it to die down and then eventually halt at the start of World War II. Japanese immigration into Brazil actually saw continued traffic after it resumed in 1951. Around 60,000 entered the country during 1951 and 1981, with a sharp decline happening in the 1960s due to a resurgence of Japan's domestic economy.

{{See also|Japanese Colombians}}File:Japoneses en Colombia.jpg, Cauca (Colombia)]]

The Japanese Colombian colony migrated between 1929 and 1935 in three waves. Their community is unique in terms of their resistance against the internal conflict occurring in Colombia during the decade of the 1950s, a period known as La Violencia.{{cite web|url=http://www.discovernikkei.org/en/journal/2012/6/8/colombian-nikkei-1/|title=The Colombian Nikkei and the Narration of Selves - Part 1 of 4|date=8 June 2012 |access-date=22 August 2017}}

{{See also|Japanese Peruvians}}

Japanese Peruvians form another notable ethnic Japanese community with an estimated 6,000 Issei and 100,000 Japanese descendants (Nisei, Sansei, Yonsei), and including a former Peruvian president, Alberto Fujimori. Japanese food known as Nikkei cuisine is a rich part of Peruvian-Japanese culture, which includes the use of seaweed broth and sushi-inspired versions of ceviche.{{cite journal|last1=Takenaka|first1=Ayumi|title=Immigrant integration through food: Nikkei cuisine in Peru|journal=Contemporary Japan|date=2017|volume=29|doi=10.1080/18692729.2017.1351022|issue=2|pages=117–131|s2cid=134330815}}"Salmon with Chenin Blanc" Wine Spectator (March 31, 2020), p. 100 As a result of Peru's gastronomic revolution and global gastrodiplomacy campaign, Nikkei is now recognized among international culinary networks as a cuisine that is uniquely a fusion of Japanese and Peruvian influences. This change has created revenues for Japanese-Peruvian communities in Lima and enabled Nikkei chefs to open up restaurants in other metropolitan cities around the world.{{Cite journal|last=Takenaka|first=Ayumi|date=2019-06-06|title="Nikkei Food" for Whom? Gastro-Politics and Culinary Representation in Peru|url=http://journals.openedition.org/aof/10065|journal=Anthropology of Food|language=fr|issue=14|doi=10.4000/aof.10065|issn=1609-9168|doi-access=free}}

{{Expand section|date=June 2008}}

In recent years, many young Japanese have been migrating from Japan to Britain to engage in cultural production and to become successful artists in London.{{cite book|last=Fujita|first=Yuiko|year=2009|title=Cultural Migrants from Japan: Youth, Media, and Migration in New York and London|publisher=Lexington Books|location=MD, United States|isbn=978-0-7391-2891-6}}

There are also small numbers of Japanese people in Russia some whose heritage date back to the times when both countries shared the territories of Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands; some Japanese communists settled in the Soviet Union, including Mutsuo Hakamada, the brother of former Japanese Communist Party chairman Satomi Hakamada, whose daughter Irina Hakamada is a notable Russian political figure.{{cite book|last=Mitrokhin|first=Vasili|author2=Christopher, Andrew|year=2005|title=The World Was Going Our Way: The KGB and the Battle for the Third World|publisher=Basic Books|location=Tennessee, United States|isbn=978-0-465-00311-2}} The 2002 Russian census showed 835 people claiming Japanese ethnicity (nationality).{{cite web|url=http://www.perepis2002.ru/ct/doc/TOM_04_06.xls |script-title=ru:Владение языками (кроме русского) населением отдельных национальностей по республикам, автономной области и автономным округам Российской Федерации |format=Microsoft Excel |access-date=2006-12-01 |publisher=Федеральная служба государственной статистики |language=ru |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061104083616/http://www.perepis2002.ru/ct/doc/TOM_04_06.xls |archive-date= 4 November 2006 }}

There is a sizable Japanese community in Düsseldorf, Germany{{Cite web |title=Little Tokyo in Düsseldorf - Japanische Kultur erleben |url=https://www.duesseldorf-tourismus.de/erleben/essen-und-ausgehen/little-tokyo |access-date=2022-10-21 |website=www.duesseldorf-tourismus.de |language=de}} of nearly 8,400 ({{As of|2018|lc=y}}) Japanese nationals (not ethnics).{{Cite web |url=https://www.mofa.go.jp/mofaj/files/100293778.xlsx |script-title=ja:海外在留邦人数調査統計 集計結果 令和4年（2022年）版（令和3年10月1日現在）（Excel） |trans-title=Annual report of statistics on Japanese nationals overseas 2022 (as of 1 October 2021) |date=2022-08-04 |access-date=2022-10-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230223202643/https://www.mofa.go.jp/mofaj/files/100293778.xlsx |archive-date=23 February 2023 |url-status=live |publisher=Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Japan) |at=tab "都市別邦人数上位50位" |language=ja |format=xlsx }}

• tab "統計の目的等": (excerpts) 3. Scope of this survey: Japanese nationals who are or will be residing overseas for a long term (over 3 months). Emigrants or descendants (Nikkeijin) who do not have Japanese citizenship are not counted.
• tab "都市別邦人数上位50位"
• 2018 CE; cell L39:M39 "27 デュッセルドルフ 8,451"="Dusseldorf 8,451"
• 2021 CE; cell C43:D43 "31 デュッセルドルフ 7,144"="Dusseldorf 7,144" Many of them are expatriates who stay there only for a few years.{{Cite web |url=https://www.duesseldorf.de/internationales/partnerschaften/chiba/aktuelles/aktuelles-detailseite/newsdetail/wie-kam-so-viel-japan-nach-duesseldorf.html |title=Wie kam so viel Japan nach Düsseldorf? |date=2020-06-17 |access-date=2022-10-23 |website=Government of Düsseldorf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211122035534/https://www.duesseldorf.de/internationales/partnerschaften/chiba/aktuelles/aktuelles-detailseite/newsdetail/wie-kam-so-viel-japan-nach-duesseldorf.html |archive-date=2021-11-22 |url-status=live |language=de}}

{{Main|Japanese Australians}}

Early Japanese immigrants were particularly prominent in Broome, Western Australia, where until the Second World War they were the largest ethnic group, who were attracted to the opportunities in pearling. Several streets of Broome have Japanese names, and the town has one of the largest Japanese cemeteries outside Japan. Other immigrants were involved in the sugar cane industry in Queensland. During the Second World War, the Japanese population was detained and later expelled at the cessation of hostilities. The Japanese population in Australia was later replenished in the 1950s by the arrival of 500 Japanese war brides, who had married AIF soldiers stationed in occupied Japan. In recent years, Japanese migration to Australia, largely consisting of younger age females, has been on the rise.{{cite web|title=Recent Trends in Japanese Migration to Australia and the Characteristics of Recent Japanese Immigrants Settling in Australia|author=Deborah McNamara and James E. Coughlan|year=1992|access-date=2006-12-21|url=http://www.faess.jcu.edu.au/saas/downloads/JimCoughlan/31-92jap.htm|publisher=Faculty of Arts, Education, and Social Sciences, James Cook University|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061001223621/http://www.faess.jcu.edu.au/saas/downloads/JimCoughlan/31-92jap.htm|archive-date=1 October 2006|df=dmy}}

There is also a small but growing Japanese community in New Zealand, primarily in Auckland and Wellington.

In the census of December 1939, the total population of the South Seas Mandate was 129,104, of which 77,257 were Japanese. By December 1941, Saipan had a population of more than 30,000 people, including 25,000 Japanese.[http://home.att.net/~sallyann2/saipan-battle.html A Go: Another Battle for Sapian] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081223080627/http://home.att.net/~sallyann2/saipan-battle.html |date=23 December 2008 }} There are Japanese people in Palau, Guam and Northern Mariana Islands.

{{Main|Dekasegi}}

In the 1980s, with Japan's growing economy facing a shortage of workers willing to do so-called three K jobs ({{lang|ja|きつい}}, kitsui [difficult], {{lang|ja|汚い}}, kitanai [dirty] and {{lang|ja|危険}}, kiken [dangerous]), Japan's Ministry of Labor began to grant visas to ethnic Japanese from South America to come to Japan and work in factories. The vast majority—estimated at 300,000—were from Brazil, but there is also a large population from Peru and smaller populations from other South American countries.

As a response to the Great Recession, the Japanese government offered ¥300,000 ($3,300) for unemployed Japanese descendants from South America to return to their country of origin with the stated goal of alleviating the country's worsening labor shortage. Another ¥200,000 ($2,200) is offered for each additional family member to leave.Perry, Joellen. [https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB124087660297361511 "The Czech Republic Pays for Immigrants to Go Home Unemployed Guest Workers and Their Kids Receive Cash and a One-Way Ticket as the Country Fights Joblessness,"] Wall Street Journal. 28 April 2009. Emigrants who took this offer were not allowed to return to Japan with the same privileged visa with which they had entered the country. Arudou Debito, columnist for English-language newspaper The Japan Times, denounced the policy as "racist" as it only offered Japanese-blooded foreigners who possessed the special "person of Japanese ancestry" visa the option to receive money in return for repatriation to their home countries.{{Cite news| url=http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/fl20090407ad.html| newspaper= The Japan Times| date= 7 April 2009| title= Golden parachutes' mark failure of race-based policy| last= Arudou| first= Debito| access-date= 4 December 2009}} Some commentators also accused it of being exploitative since most nikkei had been offered incentives to immigrate to Japan in 1990, were regularly reported to work 60+ hours per week, and were finally asked to return home when the Japanese became unemployed in large numbers.{{Cite news| title=Japan to Immigrants: Thanks, But You Can Go Home Now| url=http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1892469,00.html| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090421001637/http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1892469,00.html| url-status=dead| archive-date=21 April 2009| newspaper=Time| date=20 April 2009| access-date=4 December 2009| last=Coco Masters/Tokyo}} At the same time, return migration to Japan, along with repatriation to their home countries, has also created complex relationships with both their homeland and hostland, a condition which has been called a "'squared diaspora' in which the juxtaposition of homeland and hostland itself becomes questionable, instable and fluctuating."{{cite journal|last1=Manzenreiter|first1=Wolfram|title=Living under more than one sun: The Nikkei Diaspora in the Americas|journal=Contemporary Japan|date=2017|doi=10.1080/18692729.2017.1351045|volume=29|issue=2|pages=193–213|doi-access=free}}{{Clarify|reason=What does this mean? Flowery wording that could be replaced with more direct language|date=May 2024}} This has also taken on new forms of circular migration as first and second generation nikkei travel back and forth between Japan and their home countries.{{cite journal|last1=Sueyoshi|first1=Ana|title=Intergenerational circular migration and differences in identity building of Nikkei Peruvians|journal=Contemporary Japan|date=2017|doi=10.1080/18692729.2017.1351047|volume=29|issue=2|pages=230–245|s2cid=158944843}}

• Los Angeles, United States: 68,595
• Bangkok, Thailand: 57,486
• Shanghai, China: 41,756
• New York City, United States: 40,496
• Singapore: 36,797
• Sydney, Australia: 34,679
• Greater London, United Kingdom: 34,125
• Vancouver, Canada: 27,962
• Hong Kong, 24,205
• Honolulu, United States: 21,329
• Melbourne, Australia: 20,175
• San Francisco, United States: 19,997
• San Jose, United States: 16,008
• Seoul, South Korea: 14,920
• Toronto, Canada: 14,160
• Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: 13,502
• Paris, France: 13,152
• Taipei, Taiwan: 12,581
• Chicago, United States: 12,147
• Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam: 11,927
• Seattle, United States: 11,355
• São Paulo, Brazil: 11,295
• Gold Coast, Australia: 10,901
• Brisbane, Australia: 10,803
• Auckland, New Zealand: 10,598

Note: The above data shows the number of Japanese nationals living overseas as of October 13, 2020, according to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan.{{cite web |url=https://www.mofa.go.jp/mofaj/toko/tokei/hojin/index.html |title=(海外在留邦人数調査統計 |access-date=2021-05-04 |df=dmy-all }}

• Issei, Nisei, Sansei, Yonsei & Gosei
• Buddhist Churches of America
• Honpa Hongwanji Mission of Hawaii & Hawaii Shingon Mission
• Gedatsu Church of America
• Jodo Shinshu Buddhist Temples of Canada
• South America Hongwanji Mission
• List of Shinto shrines in the United States
• Saipan Katori Shrine
• Dom Justo Takayama

{{Reflist}}

{{refbegin}}

• {{citation|title=Legacies of slavery: comparative perspectives|first=Maria Suzette Fernandes|last=Dias|year=2007|publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing|isbn=978-1-84718-111-4|page=238}}
• Maidment, Richard A. and Colin Mackerras. (1998). Culture and Society in the Asia-Pacific. London: Routledge. {{ISBN|978-0-415-17278-3}}
• Sakai, Junko. (2000). Japanese Bankers in the City of London: Language, Culture and Identity in the Japanese Diaspora. London: Routledge. {{ISBN|978-0-415-19601-7}}
• Fujita, Yuiko (2009) Cultural Migrants from Japan: Youth, Media, and Migration in New York and London. MD: Lexington Books, Rowman & Littlefield, {{ISBN|978-0-7391-2891-6}}
• Masterson, Daniel M. and Sayaka Funada-Classen. (2004), The Japanese in Latin America: The Asian American Experience. Urbana, Illinois: University of Illinois Press. {{ISBN|978-0-252-07144-7}}; {{OCLC|253466232}}
• {{cite journal | last1 = Manzenreiter | first1 = Wolfram | year = 2017 | title = Squared diaspora: Representations of the Japanese diaspora across time and space | journal = Contemporary Japan | volume = 29 | issue = 2| pages = 106–116| doi = 10.1080/18692729.2017.1351021 | doi-access = free }}
• Niiya, Brian, ed. Encyclopedia of Japanese American History: An A-to-Z Reference from 1868 to the Present. (2001). [https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofja0000unse online free to borrow]
• {{cite book |editor-last1=Shiraishi |editor-first1=Saya |editor-last2=Shiraishi |editor-first2=Takashi |title=The Japanese in Colonial Southeast Asia |date=1993 |publisher=SEAP Publications |isbn=978-0-87727-402-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6mfCzrbOn80C |language=en}}
• {{cite journal | last1 = Sueyoshi | first1 = Ana | year = 2017 | title = Intergenerational circular migration and differences in identity building of Nikkei Peruvians | journal = Contemporary Japan | volume = 29 | issue = 2| pages = 230–245| doi = 10.1080/18692729.2017.1351047 | s2cid = 158944843 }}

{{refend}}

{{Commons category|Japanese diaspora}}

• [http://www.discovernikkei.org/en/ Discover Nikkei], A site co-ordinated with the Japanese American National Museum and affiliated with academic, community programs, and scholars.
• Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MOFA): [http://www.mofa.go.jp/policy/emigration/ Future Policy Regarding Cooperation with Overseas Communities of Nikkei]
• [http://www.apj.org.pe/ APJ], A non-profit organization representing Japanese Citizens living in Peru and their descendants.
• [http://www.nikkeicity.com/ NikkeiCity], Information of the nikkei in Peru.
• [http://www.nikkeiyouth.com/ Nikkei Youth Network] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130518095029/http://nikkeiyouth.com/ |date=18 May 2013 }}, A network of nikkei leaders around the world.
• [http://digitalcollections.library.ubc.ca/cdm/landingpage/collection/jphotos Japanese Canadians Photograph Collection] – A photo album from the UBC Library Digital Collections depicting the life of Japanese Canadians in British Columbia during World War II
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20120407233750/http://www.nhk.or.jp/drama/harutonatsu/ ハルとナツ], a TV drama based on historical events aired by NHK in October 2005.
• [https://hojishinbun.hoover.org/ Hoji Shinbun Digital Collection], Hoover Institution Library & Archives Japanese Diaspora Initiative.

{{Overseas Asians}}

{{Japanese diaspora}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Japanese Diaspora}}