Jinn

Image:Blessing genie Dur Sharrukin.jpg in the bucket and cone motif, depicting a demi-divine entity,

{{cite book

|last1=Fee |first1=C.R. |author1-link=Christopher R. Fee

|last2=Webb |first2=Jeffrey B.

|date=29 August 2016

|title=American Myths, Legends, and Tall Tales: An encyclopedia of American folklore

|publisher=ABC-CLIO

|isbn=978-1-610-69568-8

|page=527

}}

probably a forerunner of the pre-Islamic tutelary deities, who became the jinn in Islam. Relief from the north wall of the Palace of king Sargon II at Dur Sharrukin, 713–716 BCE.]]

Jinn is an Arabic collective noun deriving from the Semitic root {{sc|jnn}} ({{langx|ar|جَنّ / جُنّ}}, jann), whose primary meaning is 'to hide' or 'to adapt'. Some authors interpret the word to mean, literally, 'beings that are concealed from the senses'.

{{cite web

|last=Lane |first=Edward William

|year=1863

|title=An Arabic-English Lexicon

|place=London, UK

|publisher=Willams & Norgate

|page=462

|url=http://www.tyndalearchive.com/tabs/lane/

|via=tyndalearchive.com |url-status=dead

|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150408021742/http://www.tyndalearchive.com/tabs/lane/

|archive-date=8 April 2015

}}

Cognates include the Arabic {{transliteration|ar|ALA|majnūn}} ({{lang|ar|مَجْنُون}}, 'possessed' or, generally, 'insane'), {{transliteration|ar|ALA|jannah}} ({{lang|ar|جَنَّة}}, 'garden', 'eden' or 'heaven'), and {{transliteration|ar|ALA|janīn}} ({{lang|ar|جَنِين}}, 'embryo').

{{cite book

|last=Wehr |first=Hans |author-link=Hans Wehr

|year=1994

|title=Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic |edition=4

|title-link=Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic

|publisher=Spoken Language Services

|place=Urbana, IL

|isbn=978-0-87950-003-0

|page=164

}}

Jinn is properly treated as a plural (however in Classical Arabic, may also appear as jānn, {{langx|ar|جَانّ|label=none}}), with the singular being jinnī ({{langx|ar|جِنِّيّ|label=none}}),{{Efn|sometimes Arabs use Jānn ({{langx|ar|جان}}) term for singular, jānn also referred to jinn world – another plural, snakes / serpents and another type of jinn}} which the English word "genie" is derived from.

The origin of the word jinn remains uncertain.{{rp|style=ama|p=22}} Some scholars relate the Arabic term jinn to the Latin genius – a guardian spirit of people and places in Roman religion – as a result of syncretism during the reign of the Roman empire under Tiberius and Augustus;{{Sfn|El-Zein|2009|p=38}} however, this derivation is also disputed.{{rp|style=ama|p=25}} Supporters argue that both Roman genii as well as Arabian jinn are considered to be lesser deities inhabiting local sanctuaries, trees or springs, and persons or families.

{{cite book

|last=Abu-Hamdiyyah |first=Muhammad

|year=2020

|title=The Qur'an: An introduction

|publisher=Routledge

}}

Aramaic ginnaya ({{langx|syc|ܓܢܝܐ}}) with the meaning of 'tutelary deity'{{rp|style=ama|p=24}} or 'guardian' are attributed to similar functions and are another possible origin of the term jinn.

Another suggestion holds that the word is of Persian origin and appeared in the form of the Avestic Jaini, a wicked (female) spirit. Jaini were among various creatures in the possibly even pre-Zoroastrian mythology of peoples of Iran.

{{cite book

|first=W.S.C. |last=Tisdall |author-link=W. St. Clair Tisdall

|year=1905

|title=The Original Sources of the Qur'an

|publisher=Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge

|place=London, UK

}}

{{cite book

|first=W.S.C. |last=Tisdall |author-link=W. St. Clair Tisdall

|year=1895

|title=The Religion of the Crescent or Islam: Its strength, its weakness, its origin, its influence

}}

Wensick advocates a purely Arabic origin of the term, asserting that according to the common Semitic view psychic and bodily affections are caused by spirits. An object reacting upon such an affect would be an incarnation of said spirit. Since these spirits are covered from the sight of humans, they would have been called jinn.{{rp|style=ama|p=45}}

The anglicized form genie is a borrowing of the French {{lang|fr|génie}}, also from the Latin genius.

{{cite dictionary

|title=genie, n.

|year=2014

|dictionary=Oxford English Dictionary |edition=3rd

|publisher=Oxford University Press

|place=Oxford, UK

|url=https://www.oed.com/dictionary/genie_n?tl=true

}}

It first appeared in 18th century translations of the Thousand and One Nights from the 1706 French edition,

{{cite book

|title=Arabian Nights' Entertainments

|year=1706

|volume=I |page=14

}}

where it had been used owing to its rough similarity in sound and sense and further applies to benevolent intermediary spirits, in contrast to the malevolent spirits called 'demon' and mostly-benevolent 'heavenly angels', in literature.

{{cite book

|editor-first=John L. |editor-last=Mckenzie

|year=1995

|title=Dictionary of the Bible

|place=New York

|publisher=Simon and Schuster

|isbn=978-0-684-81913-6

|page=192

}}

In Assyrian art, the modern term used for creatures ontologically between humans and divinities is also genie.

{{cite book

|first=Mehmet-Ali |last=Ataç

|year=2010

|title=Mythology of Kingship in Neo-Assyrian Art

|publisher=Cambridge University Press

|isbn=978-0-521-51790-4

|page=36

}}

Though not a precise fit, descriptive analogies that have been used for these beings in Western thought include demon, spirit, "sprite", and fairy, depending on source.

{{cite encyclopedia

|title=jinn – definition of jinn in English

|dictionary=Oxford Dictionaries

|url=https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/jinn

|url-status=dead |access-date=27 August 2017

|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190403193038/https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/jinn

|archive-date=3 April 2019

}}

{{cite book

|last=Nünlist |first=Tobias

|year=2015

|title=Dämonenglaube im Islam

|trans-title=Demonic Belief in Islam

|publisher=Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG

|isbn=978-3-110-33168-4

|language=de

}}

{{rp|style=ama|p=22}}

In turn, the Arabic translation for the Greek nymph ('arūsa) is also used for jinn by Middle Eastern sources.{{rp|style=ama|p=43}}

Although the term spirit is frequently used, it has been criticised for not capturing the corporeal nature of the jinn, and that the term genie should be used instead.

{{cite book

|last=Haring |first=Lee

|year=1995

|title=Africa and the Disciplines: The contributions of research in Africa to the social sciences and humanities

|pages=122–124

}}

The exact origins of belief in jinn are not entirely clear.

{{cite book

|last=Lebling |first=Robert

|date=2010

|title=Legends of the Fire Spirits: Jinn and genies from Arabia to Zanzibar

|publisher=I.B. Tauris

|place=New York, NY & London, UK

|isbn=978-0-85773-063-3

|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qKL3AgAAQBAJ&q=ancient+Mesopotamian+genii+and+Islamic+jinn

}}

{{rp|style=ama|pages= 1–10}} Belief in jinn in pre-Islamic Arab religion is testified not only by the Quran, but also by pre-Islamic Arabic poetry.{{cite book |last= Zeitlin |first= Irving M.|author-link= |date= 2007|title= The Historical Muhammad |publisher=Polity |page= |isbn=978-0-745-63998-7}}{{rp|style=ama|p=54}} Some scholars of the Middle East hold that they originated as malevolent spirits residing in deserts and unclean places, who often took the forms of animals;{{rp|style=ama|p= 1–10}} others hold that they were originally pagan nature deities who gradually became marginalized as other deities took greater importance.{{rp|style=ama|pages= 1–10}}

Jinn were already worshipped by many Arabs in pre-Islamic Arabia.{{Sfn|El-Zein|2009|p=34}}{{rp|style=ama|p=54}} Julius Wellhausen observed that jinn were often thought to "inhabit or haunt desolate, dark and dingy places in the desert".

{{cite book

|first=Irving M. |last=Zeitlin

|date=2007

|title=The Historical Muhammad

|publisher=Polity

|isbn=978-0-7456-3999-4

|pages=59–60

|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v_seJ21M0UoC&pg=PT59

}}

For that reason, they were held responsible for various diseases and mental illnesses.{{Sfn|El-Zein|2009|p=122}}{{rp|style=ama|pages= 1–10}} Emilie Savage-Smith asserts that malicious jinn and good gods were distinct in pre-Islamic Arabia, but admits that such distinction is not absolute.Magic and Divination in Early Islam. (2021). Vereinigtes Königreich: Taylor & Francis.{{rp|style=ama|p=39}} In the regions north to the Hejaz, Palmyra and Baalbek, the terms jinni and ilah (deity) were often used interchangeably.ʻAẓmah, ʻ. (2014). The Emergence of Islam in Late Antiquity: Allah and His People. Vereinigtes Königreich: Cambridge University Press. p. 293 Julius Wellhausen likewise agrees that in pre-Islamic Arabia it was assumed there are at least some friendly and helpful beings among the jinn. He distinguishes between a god and a jinni, not on the basis of morality, but on the basis of worship; the jinn are worshipped in private while the gods are worshipped in public.{{rp|style=ama|p=39}}

Al-Jahiz credits the pre-Islamic Arabs with believing that the society of jinn constitutes several tribes and groups, analogous to pre-Islamic Arabian culture. Jinn could also protect, marry, kidnap, possess, and kill people.

{{cite web

|title=cin

|website=TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi

|url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/cin

}}

{{rp|style=ama|page= 424}} Despite being invisible, jinn are considered to have bodies (ajsām), as described by Zakariya al-Qazwini, they are among animals, along with humans, burdened beasts (like horses), cattle, wildebeests, birds, and reptiles.Nasr, S. H. (2013). Islamic Life and Thought. Vereinigtes Königreich: Taylor & Francis.{{rp|style=ama|p=135}} Jinn are further known as shapeshifters, often assuming the form of an animal, favoring the form of a snake.{{cite book |author=Amira el-Zein |title=The Evolution of the Concept of Jinn from Pre-Islam to Islam |page=260}}{{full citation needed|date=May 2024}} Other chthonic animals regarded as forms of jinn include scorpions and lizards. Both scorpions and serpents have been venerated in the ancient Near East.

When they shift into a human form however, they are said to stay partly animal and are not fully human.{{rp|style=ama|p=164}}{{Sfn|El-Zein|2009|p=164}} Although the power of jinn usually exceed those of humans, it is conceivable a man could kill a jinni in single combat, but they are feared for attacking without being seen.

{{cite book

|last=Abd-Allah |first=Umar F.

|year=2002

|contribution=The Perceptible and the unseen: The Qur'anic conception of man's relationship to God and realities beyond human perception

|editor-last=Palmer |editor-first=Spencer J.

|title=Mormons and Muslims: Spiritual foundations and modern manifestations

|pages=209–264

|place=Provo, UT

|publisher=Brigham Young University

|department=Religious Studies Center

}}

Some sources even speak of killed jinn leaving behind a carcass similar to either a serpent or a scorpion.{{Sfn|El-Zein|2009|p=91–93}}

Despite that they were often feared or inspired awe, the jinn were also pictured to befriend humans or have romantic feelings for them. According to common Arabian belief, pre-Islamic soothsayers, philosophers, and poets were inspired by the jinn.{{Sfn|El-Zein|2009|p=34}}{{rp|style=ama|pages= 1–10}}

The Arabian poet al-A'sha (d. after 3/625) is said to have gotten his inspiration for his poetry by a friend named Misḥal ("daʿawtu khalīlī Misḥalan") and further calls him his jinni-brother ("akhī ʾl-jinnī").{{Cite journal |last=Yosefi |first=Maxim |date=2019 |title=The origins of the traditional approach towards the jinn of poetic inspiration in tribal Arab culture |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/27014158 |journal=Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies |volume=49 |pages=293–302 |jstor=27014158 |issn=0308-8421}} Similarly, the poet Thābit (d. 54/674) who later converted to Islam and became known as "the poet of the prophet", referred to his jinni-friend as his "sharp-sighted brother from the jinn" ("wa-akhī min al-jinn al-baṣīr"). The relationship between jinn and humans can also be romantic in nature. According to one famous Arabian story, the jinni Manzur fell in love with a human woman called Habbah. He is supposed to have taught her the arts of healing.{{cite book |author=Amira el-Zein |title=The Evolution of the Concept of Jinn from Pre-Islam to Islam |pages=108–109}}{{full citation needed|date=May 2024}}

The mutual relationship between jinn and humans is different than that of a jinni and a soothsayer (kāhin). The soothsayer is presented as someone who is totally controlled by the jinni entering. The soothsayer was consulted to reveal hidden information or settle disputes, as it was believed, the jinn speaking through them revealed hidden knowledge.Ruiz, Manuel. "The conception of authority in pre-Islamic Arabia: its legitimacy and origin." (1971). p. 20

Jinn have been called an integral part of the Muslim tradition{{cite book|author=Mark A. Caudill|title=Twilight in the Kingdom: Understanding the Saudis|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZbjOEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA92|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing USA|publication-date=2006|isbn=9780313084850|page=92|quote=Jinn are an integral part of both traditional and Gnostic Islamic belief.}} or faith,{{cite book|author=William E. Burns|title=They Believed That?: A Cultural Encyclopedia of Superstitions and the Supernatural around the World|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hEvEEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA137|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing USA|publication-date=2022|isbn=9781440878480|page=137|quote=Jinn are considered by some authorities to be an integral part of the Islamic faith due to their inclusion in the Quran.}} completely accepted in official Islam;

prominently featured in folklore.{{cite book |last1=Olomi |first1=Ali A. |title=The Routledge Companion to the Qur'an |date=2021 |page=149|publisher=Routledge |location=N.Y. |access-date=24 July 2024 |chapter=14. Jinn in the Quran |isbn=978-1-134-63548-1 |quote=The jinn feature prominently in Islamic folklore as ambivalent and mischievous supernatural forces. |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-GtHEAAAQBAJ&dq=jinn+prominently+featured+in+muslim+folklore&pg=PT225}} Medieval and modern scholars have studied the consequences implied by their existence,{{cite book|editor1=Coeli Fitzpatrick|editor2=Adam Hani Walker|title=Muhammad in History, Thought, and Culture: An Encyclopedia of the Prophet of God |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DOTNEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA321|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing USA|publication-date=2014|isbn=9781610691789|page=321 |quote=Although they feature prominently in folklore, jinn are also taken quite seriously by Muslim scholars, both medieval and modern.}} legal status, the possible relations between them and mankind, especially in questions of marriage and property.{{cite encyclopedia |chapter=Djinn |title=Encyclopaedia of Islam New Edition Online (EI-2 English) |doi=10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0191 |editor1= D.B. MacDonald |editor2=H. Massé |editor3=P.N. Boratav |editor4=K.A. Nizami |editor5=P. Voorhoeve |url= https://referenceworks.brill.com/display/entries/EIEO/COM-0191.xml |access-date=27 July 2024 |quote=II. In official Islam the existence of the d̲j̲inn was completely accepted, as it is to This day, and the full consequences implied by their existence were worked out. Their legal status in all respects was discussed and fixed, and the possible relations between them and mankind, especially in questions of marriage and property, were examined.|url-access=subscription }}

Medieval sources often describe the jinn inhabiting the earth before the creation of mankind.El-Zein, Amira (2009). Islam, Arabs, and the intelligent world of the Jinn. Contemporary Issues in the Middle East. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press. ISBN 978-0-8156-3200-9. p. 39 They serve as a pattern for later human disobedience: at first, they were created by God, then rebel against God's messengers, shed blood and exploit the environment, and are eventually punished by God's angels.El-Zein, Amira (2009). Islam, Arabs, and the intelligent world of the Jinn. Contemporary Issues in the Middle East. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press. ISBN 978-0-8156-3200-9. p. 41 Muslims raised the question, if some jinn may have survived from primordial times. Some Quran exegetes, such as ibn Kathir hold this to be the case.El-Zein, Amira (2009). Islam, Arabs, and the intelligent world of the Jinn. Contemporary Issues in the Middle East. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press. ISBN 978-0-8156-3200-9. p. 41 Especially in folklore, the belief that some jinn still hide in desolate places and wastelands are widespread.El-Zein, Amira (2009). Islam, Arabs, and the intelligent world of the Jinn. Contemporary Issues in the Middle East. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press. ISBN 978-0-8156-3200-9. p. 41

{{see also|Islamic mythology}}

Image:Naskh script - Qur'anic verses.jpg entitled Al-Jinn (The Jinn), as well as the heading and introductory bismillah of the next chapter entitled al-Muzzammil (The Enshrouded One)|alt=]]

Jinn are mentioned approximately 29 times in the Quran,{{rp|style=ama|p=21}} exclusively in Meccan surahs.{{Sfn|Sinai|2023|p=180}} The Quran assumes that the audience is familiar with the subject without elaborating on the jinn much further.Rothenberg, Celia E. Spirits of Palestine: Gender, society, and stories of the jinn. Rowman & Littlefield, 2004. p.245 According to the {{qref|51|56-57|b=y}}, Muhammad was sent as a prophet to both human and jinn communities, and prophets and messengers were sent to both communities.{{qref|51|56-56|b=y}}Muḥammad ibn Ayyūb al-Ṭabarī, Tuḥfat al-gharā’ib, I, p. 68Abū al-Futūḥ Rāzī, Tafsīr-e rawḥ al-jenān va rūḥ al-janān, pp. 193, 341

Throughout the Quran, humans and jinn (al-ins wa-l-jinn) appear frequently as a pair, designating their equal status in regards of their creation and rejecting that jinn share divinity with the Creator.Sinai, Nicolai. "Key terms of the Qur'an: a critical dictionary." (2023): 1-840.{{rp|style=ama|p=181}} The term ins derives from anisa, which means "to be familiar with", and refers to recognisable familiar human beings. In contrast, the term jinn refers to foreign, invisible, or unknown anthropomorphic beings, which are nonetheless subject to the same considerations as the former.{{rp|style=ama|p=101}} They were both created to worship God ({{qref|51|56}}).{{rp|style=ama|p=182}} Because they are supposed to worship God from free will, they are both able for good and evil deeds ({{qref|7|179}}, {{qref|55|56}}).{{rp|style=ama|p=182}} They are, like humans, rational beings formed of nations ({{qref|7|38}}).{{rp|style=ama|p=182}}

Surah al-jinn is about the revelation to jinn.{{Sfn|El-Zein|2009|p=64}} The same Surah mentions righteous jinn on one hand, and malicious jinn on the other.{{rp|style=ama|p=181}} The jinn can neither harm nor benefit humans, for they are occupied with looking after themselves and their own place in the cosmos.{{rp|style=ama|p=185}} This is in notable contrast to demons and devils in the Judeo-Christian tradition.{{rp|style=ama|p=181, 185}} The Quran does not condemn the jinn as a source of harm, but by mistaking them for beings deserving cultic veneration ({{qref|72|6}}).{{cite book |last= Meri|first= Josef|author-link= |date= 2016|title= Routledge Revivals: Medieval Islamic Civilization (2006) An Encyclopedia - Volume I|url= |location= United Kingdom|publisher= Taylor & Francis.|page= |isbn=978-1-351-66822-4}}{{rp|style=ama|p=41}}{{rp|style=ama|p=185}} Jinn and humans are blamed for ascribing divine attributes to another creature (i.e. jinn); jinn to themselves and humans to the jinn.{{rp|style=ama|p=41}}{{rp|style=ama|p=102}}

In the Quranic account, despite their similarities, there are important differences between the two species. Whereas humans are made from "clay" or "dirt", jinn were created from "smokeless fire" ({{qref|15|27|b=y}}, {{qref|55|15|b=y}}),{{rp|style=ama|p=182}} which is possibly the reason why they are credited with some extraordinary abilities, such as invisibility, transformation, and ascending into the air like devils ({{qref|72|8|b=y}}).{{rp|style=ama|p=182}} Despite some superhuman powers, the jinn occupy no fundamentally different position in the Quran than humans. Like humans, the jinn have no knowledge of the future.{{rp|style=ama|p=182}} Like humanity, jinn face epistemic limitations regarding "the hidden/occult", have to rely on God's messengers, and face eschatological judgement.{{rp|style=ama|p=182}}Teuma, Edmund. "The Solomon legend in Muslim tradition." (1987).

[[File:Royal figure enthroned and surrounded by Jinn of the Earth.png|thumb|Kashan, Iran, late 12th–13th century mina’i-fritware bowl. The scene in this bowl can be understood as depicting the enthroned (Second) Sulaymān with messengers to either side, crowned human headed winged jinn.On the Exercise of Coastal Control through

Observation and Long Distance Communication Systems in Seljuk Territory in the XIIIth

Century]]

File:The Singer Ibrahim and the jinn (cropped).jpg

The term jinn is polysemic and can refer to (genuine) jinn, angels, and devils.Demircigil, Bayram. "Kur’an’da el-Cin Kavramının Medlulü Hakkındaki İhtilaflar." Cumhuriyet İlahiyat Dergisi 26.1 (2022): 433-449.DÜZGÜN, Şaban Ali. "DİNSEL ve MİTOLOJİK YÖNLERİYLE CİN ve ŞAYTAAN ALGIMIZ."{{rp|style=ama|p=12}}

In Quranic interpretation, the term jinn is thus used for any object hidden from sight, such as angels, devils, and the (spiritual) interior of human beings (psyche),Noegel, Scott B. & Wheeler, Brannon M. (2010) The A to Z of Prophets in Islam and Judaism. Scarecrow Press {{ISBN|978-1-461-71895-6}} page 170{{efn|This is, for example, evident from A'sha's saying in mention of Sulayman ibn Dawud; and He subjected from the jinn among the angels (min jinni al-mala'iki)"translator: Gibril Fouad Haddad, author: ʿAbd Allah ibn ʿUmar al-Baydawi, 2016, The Lights Of Revelation And The Secrets Of Interpretation, {{isbn|978-0-992-63357-8}}{{rp|style=ama|p=546}} Al-Jahiz defines jinn as various spirits defined by their behaviour; a malicious and wicked jinn is called a s̲h̲ayṭān, a jinn lifting a heavy weight and listening at the doors of Heaven is a mārid, a jinn of great intelligence is called an ʿabḳarī, a jinn entirely good and pure is an angel.Fahd, T. and Rippin, A., “S̲h̲ayṭān”, in: Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition, Edited by: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs. Consulted online on 17 August 2023 {{doi|10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_1054}}

First published online: 2012

First print edition: {{ISBN|9789004161214}}, 1960-2007}} as well as a to a specific being, separate from both angels and devils. The latter are believed to be the offspring of abu Jann, created out of "fire and air" ({{langx|ar|مَارِجٍ مِن نَّار}}, mārijin min nār), and considered to be, along with humans, thaqalān (accountable for their deeds).Teuma, E. (1984). More on Qur'anic jinn. Melita Theologica, 35(1-2), 37-45.Lange, Christian & Knysh, Alexander D. (eds.) (2022). Sufi cosmology. Boston: Brill.

Belief in jinn is not included among the six articles of Islamic faith, as belief in angels is. Nonetheless, many Muslim scholars, including the Hanbalī scholar ibn Taymiyya and the Ẓāhirī scholar ibn Hazm, believe they are essential to the Islamic faith since they are mentioned in the Quran.{{rp|style=ama|p=33}} It is generally accepted by the majority of Muslim scholars that jinn can possess individuals. This is considered to be part of the doctrines (aqidah) of the "people of the Sunnah" (ahl as-sunnah wal-jammah'a) in the tradition of Ash'ari.Islam, Migration and Jinn: Spiritual Medicine in Muslim Health Management. (2021). Deutschland: Springer International Publishing.{{rp|style=ama|p= 68}} The Atharī scholars ibn Taimiyya and ibn Qayyim agree on this matter. From among the Sunni schools of theology, only the Māturīdīs seem to doubt possession. Al-Rustughfanī deemed jinn-possession impossible.Harvey, Ramon. Transcendent God, Rational World: A Maturidi Theology. Edinburgh University Press, 2021.

Al-Māturīdī focuses on the dynamics between jinn and humans based on {{qref|72|6|b=y}}. He states that seeking refuge among the jinn increases fear and anxiety, however, not because of the jinn, but due to the psychological dependence of the individual towards external powers. By that, he refers to seeking refuge among the jinn as a form of širk, due to the reliance on a created thing instead of God.{{rp|style=ama|p=23}}

Although jinn frequently appear in hagiographic Sufi literature and their existence is never doubted, they do not play any major role in Sufi cosmology. Because of their similarities to humans, they function neither as a model to follow (like angels) nor tempters of the lower self (like Satan) and mostly feature in poetic anecdotes.Yazaki, Saeko. "Classes of Beings in Sufism." Sufi Cosmology. Brill, 2022. 68-88.

The jinn are obligated to follow the divine law (sharīʿa), as derived from the Quran by Muslim jurists (faqīh). Thus, the jinn are considered, along with humans, to be mukallāf. Believers among the jinn are called "Muslim jinn" (muslimū l-jinn).Lange, Christian (2016). Paradise and Hell in Islamic Traditions. Cambridge United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-50637-3. p- 140

Since both creations must perform the required prayers (salah), Muslim jurists debated if one is allowed to perform the prayer behind a jinni. Shibli cites two Hanbalite scholars who regard this as permissible without hesitation. Since Muhammad was sent to jinn and humans, both are mukallāf and subject to the command to pray.{{efn|From T. Nünlist (2015) Dämonenglaube im Islam{{rp|style=ama|p=89}}

{{sc|Translation:}} {{in lang|en}}

"Islamic jurists have also repeatedly addressed the question of whether the jinn have a religion. Shibli notes that in this context they had a controversial discussion about whether it was permissible under Sharia law to perform the Muslim ritual prayer (salat) behind a genie. Two Hanbali sources led by Shibli affirm this permissibility without hesitation and justify their point of view by saying that not only the humans (ins) but also the jinn are "mukallaf".{{rp|style=ama|p=2}}

{{sc|Original:}} {{in lang|de}}

"Auch die islamischen Rechtsgelehrten haben sich wiederholt mit der Frage beschäftigt, ob die Dschinn eine Religion haben. Shchibli hält fest, dass sie in diesem Zusammenhang kontrovers diskutiert hätten, ob es schariarehtlich zulässig sei, das muslimische Ritualgebet (salat) hinter einem Dschinni zu verrichten. Zwei von Schibli angeführte hanbalitische Gewährsleute bejahen diese Zulässigkeit ohne Zögern und begründen ihren Standpunkt damit, dass nicht nur die Menschen (ins), sondern auch die Dschinn mukallaf seien."{{rp|style=ama|p=89}}

}}

Because humans and jinn are capable of procreation, Muslim jurists dealt with the issue of permissibility of intercourse between these two types of creatures. Some Ḥadīths, though considered fabricated (mawḍūʻ) by some muhaddith (hadith scholars), pushed the necessity for an explanation:{{cite book |last1=Hanegraaff |first1=Wouter J. |last2=Kripal |first2=Jeffrey |title=Hidden intercourse : eros and sexuality in the history of Western esotericism |date=2008 |publisher=Brill |location=Leiden |isbn=978-90-474-4358-2 |pages=53–56, 58 |url=https://www.pdfdrive.com/download.pdf?id=156631497&h=01723481c66b5fb7d9f36753045fe0f5&u=cache&ext=pdf |access-date=1 December 2020 |language=en}}{{blockquote|"The Hour will come when the children of jinn will become many among you."|Suyuti, Laqt al-marjân, 38.}}

{{blockquote|"Among you are those who are expatriated (mugharrabûn);" and

this, he explained, meant "crossed with jinn."|Suyuti, Laqt al-marjân, 28.}}

Although there are recorded cases of purported human-jinn relationships{{efn|In a study of exorcism culture in the Hadhramaut of Yemen, love was one of the most frequent cited causes of relationships between humans and jinn. Love seems to be the most frequent occasion of contact between men and jinn. A jinni meets a woman and falls in love with her, or vice versa... This possession is manifest notably when the jinni has sexual intercourse with the person he/she possesses. In that case, the individual behaves with gestures and words as if they were having sexual intercourse, although he/she is apparently alone in the room. Besides, this person seems to suddenly lose all interest for his/her environment."}} most Muslim jurists agree that such a relationship is not permissible.Köse S. Ci̇nlerle Evli̇li̇k Konusunda Hanefî Faki̇hi̇ Hâmi̇d El-İmâdî’ni̇n (1103-1171/1692-1758) Teka’ku’u’ş-Şenn Fî Ni̇kâhi̇’l-Ci̇nn Adli Ri̇salesi̇. Journal of Islamic Law Studies. 2010;(15):453-464. Accessed January 25, 2022. Even those scholars who allowed such relationships, still considered them undesirable (makruh). Offspring of human-jinn relationships are nonetheless, usually considered to be gifted and talented people with special abilities.{{cite journal |last=Aloiane |first=Z.A. |year=1996 |title=Anthropomorphic representation of evil in Islam and some other traditions – a cross-cultural approach |journal=Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae |volume=49 |issue=3 |publisher=Akadémiai Kiadó |pages=423–434 |jstor=43391301}}

File:Jinn of the Air in Seljuk arts.png

The jinn (also known as: {{langx|sq|Xhindi}}, {{langx|bs|Džin}}, {{langx|tr|Cin}}) were adopted by later Islamic culture, since the Quran affirms their existence.{{Cite book |last=Olomi |first=Ali A. |title=The Routledge Companion to the Qur'an |date=2021 |publisher=Routledge |editor-last=Archer |editor-first=George |pages=145 |chapter=Jinn in the Quran |editor-last2=Dakake |editor-first2=Maria M. |editor-last3=Madigan |editor-first3=Daniel A.}} Although depictions are categorized into little tradition (folklore) and greater tradition (official Islam) for research purposes, both depictions are largely the same.{{efn|From T. Nünlist (2015) Dämonenglaube im Islam {{sc|Translation:}} {{in lang|en}}
"The distinction made between popular and scriptural Islam or between little and great traditions proves to be problematic and only serves as a makeshift here. This comparison implicitly suggests that the representations of daemonology in written sources differ from the findings documented in ethnographic, anthropological and sociologically oriented field studies. Such a view must be rejected. The treatment of the belief in daemons in the written sources primarily consulted in the context of these studies does not differ fundamentally from the views observed in popular Islam. Popular Islam and scriptural Islam do not design separate daemonologies. This situation is explained not least by the fact that the Quran and Sunna, the two most important sources in the area of Islam for the great tradition, clearly affirm the existence of jinn."{{rp|style=ama|p=4}}}}

The Quran does not consider foreign mythological beings to be devils, but entities erroneously ascribed divine power to. Therefore, jinn were considered a third class of invisible beings, often neutral or morally ambiguous, not consequently equated with devils.{{Sfn|El-Zein|2009|p=52}} Islam allowed to integrate local beliefs about spirits and deities from Iran, Africa, Turkey and India, into a monotheistic framework without demonizing them.Juan Eduardo Campo (2009) Encyclopedia of Islam. Infobase Publishing {{ISBN|978-1-438-12696-8}} page 402 Besides local deities, the existence of purely malevolent spirits is also acknowledged. Thus, jinn exist alongside other mythological entities, such as demons (Dēw) and fairies (parī).Heuer, B., Boykova, E. V., Kellner-Heinkele, B. (2020). Man and Nature in the Altaic World.: Proceedings of the 49th Permanent International Altaistic Conference, Berlin, July 30 – August 4, 2006. Deutschland: De Gruyter. p. 300-301

The moral attitude of the jinn is usually associated with their religion. Good jinn are usually considered Muslim jinn or jinn Islam, whereas unbelieving jinn were tempted by the devils (shayatin) and are called kāfir jinn or jinn kāfir.{{cite book |first=A.G. |last=Muhaimin |title=The Islamic Traditions of Cirebon: Ibadat and Adat among Javanese Muslims |publisher=ANU E Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-920942-31-1 |page=38}} Besides Islam, they could also practise Christianity and Judaism.Gregg, G. S. (2005). The Middle East: A Cultural Psychology. Vereinigtes Königreich: Oxford University Press, USA. p. 127 Good jinn might teach people moral lessons and might be benevolent,Celia E. Rothenberg Spirits of Palestine: Gender, Society, and Stories of the Jinn Rowman & Littlefield, 5 Nov 2004 {{isbn|9781461741237}} pp. 29-33 or aid spiritual persons, such as shamans (kam) in Central Asia, or spiritual healers in Senegal.Bullard, A. (2022). Spiritual and Mental Health Crisis in Globalizing Senegal: A History of Transcultural Psychiatry. USA: Taylor & Francis.Sidky, M. Homayun. "" Malang", Sufis, and Mystics: An Ethnographic and Historical Study of Shamanism in Afghanistan." Asian Folklore Studies (1990): 275-301. Mediha Esenel's studies in 1940 Anatolia mentions the belief that spiritually gifted people can act as intermediaries between humans and jinn.Zarcone, Thierry. "Shamanism in Turkey: Bards, Masters of the Jinns, and Healers." Shamanism and Islam: Sufism, Healing Rituals and Spirits in the Muslim World (2013): 169-202.

Most of the time, jinn are believed not to interfere with humans and live mostly in desolate or abandoned places.{{cite book |last=Hughes |first=Thomas Patrick |year=1885 |title=Dictionary of Islam: Being a Cyclopædia of the Doctrines, Rites, Ceremonies |publisher=W.H. Allen |location=London, UK |pages=134–136 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rDtbAAAAQAAJ&q=jinn+named+tir+who+causes+calamities&pg=PA135 |access-date=4 October 2019 |chapter=Genii}}Türk Söylence Sözlüğü, Deniz Karakurt, Türkiye, 2011 This is, for example, evident from the Turkish phrase İn Cin top oynuyor.{{Cite web|url=https://www.mynet.com/in-cin-ne-demek-in-cin-tdk-sozluk-anlami-nedir-170100023318|title=İn cin ne demek? İn cin TDK sözlük anlamı nedir?|website=Mynet Eğitim|date=24 May 2022 }} It is only when they are angered or disturbed, for example, if their children are trodden upon or hot water is thrown on them,Robert Elsie A Dictionary of Albanian Religion, Mythology and Folk Culture C. Hurst & Co. Publishers 2001 {{ISBN|978-1-85065-570-1}} p. 134 that they take revenge on humans. For this reason, Muslims utter "destur" (permission), before doing something which might accidentally hurt jinn, such as sprinkling hot water on public grounds or into bushes, so present jinn are advised to leave the place.MacDonald, D.B., Massé, H., Boratav, P.N., Nizami, K.A. and Voorhoeve, P., "Ḏj̲inn", in: Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition, Edited by: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs. Consulted online on 15 November 2019 {{doi|10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0191}} First published online: 2012 First print edition: {{ISBN|978-90-04-16121-4}}, 1960–2007.{{rp|style=ama|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=qKL3AgAAQBAJ&q=ancient+Mesopotamian+genii+and+Islamic+jinn 149]}}

Angered or straightforwardly evil mannered jinn, could hurt people by inflicting physical damage, causing illness, or taking control over a human's body. A human can be controlled by jinn under certain circumstances. The individual needs to be in a state of dha'iyfah (Arabic: ضَعِيفَة, "(mental) weakness"). Feelings of insecurity, mental instability, unhappy love and depression (being "tired from the soul") are forms of dha'iyfah.{{cite journal |last=Gingrich |first=Andre |year=1995 |title=Spirits of the border: Some remarks on the connotation of jinn in north-western Yemen |journal=Quaderni di Studi Arabi |volume=13 |pages=199–212 |jstor=25802775 |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/25802775 |access-date=10 May 2020}} In that case, it is believed that an exorcism is required to save the person from the assaulting jinni.Joseph P. Laycock Spirit Possession around the World: Possession, Communion, and Demon Expulsion across Cultures: Possession, Communion, and Demon Expulsion across Cultures ABC-CLIO 2015 {{ISBN|978-1-610-69590-9}} page 243 To protect oneself from jinn, many Muslims wear amulets with the name of God graved on. Jinn are also said to be scared of iron{{rp|style=ama|pages= 128, 250}} and wolves.{{cite book |last=ibn Ibraaheem Ameen |first=Abuʼl-Mundhir Khaleel |date=2015 |title=The Jinn and Human Sickness: Remedies in the Light of the Qurʼaan and Sunnah

|publisher=Darussalam |place=Riyadh, Saudi Arabia |isbn=9789960732442 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1XgwAAAAYAAJ}}{{rp|style=ama|page= 34}}{{rp|style=ama|page= 95}}

{{main|Genies in popular culture}}

File:Majlis al Jinn - Descending into cave.jpg, believed to be a gathering place of the jinn in Omani lore]]

Jinn feature in the magical realism genre, introduced into Turkish literature by Latife Tekin (1983),{{cite book |first=L. |last=Tekin |author-link=Latife Tekin |year=1983 |title=Sevgili Arsiz Ölüm |trans-title=Dear shameless Death}} who uses magical elements known from pre-Islamic and Islamic Anatolian lore. Since the 1980s, this genre has become prominent in Turkish literature. The story by Tekin deals with folkloric and religious belief in a rationalized society.{{cite thesis |first=Aslı |last=Değirmenci |date=9 August 2013 |title=Mapping Geographies in Transition: Magical realism in the fiction of Salman Rushdie, Latife Tekin, and Ben Okri |degree=Ph.D. |department=Department of English |publisher=State University of New York |place=Buffalo, NY}}

Contrary to the neutral to positive depiction of jinn in Tekin's novels, since 2004 jinn have become a common trope in Middle Eastern horror movies.{{cite book |first=Bilgehan Ece |last=Şakrak |article=Religious evils in Turkish horror films |title=This Thing of Darkness: Shedding light on evil |date=4 January 2019 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-1-84888-366-6}} The presentation of jinn usually combines Quranic with oral and cultural beliefs about jinn. Out of 89 films, 59 have direct references to jinn as the antagonist, 12 use other sorts of demons, while other types of horror, such as the impending apocalypse, hauntings, or ghosts, constitute only 14 films.{{cite book |first=Zeynep |last=Koçer |date=13 March 2019 |orig-year=2007 |article=The monstrous-feminine and masculinityas abjection in Turkish horror cinema: An analysis of Haunted [Musallat] [by] Alper Mestçi |editor1=Holland, Samantha |editor2=Shail, Robert |editor3=Gerrard, Steven |title=Gender and Contemporary Horror in Film |pages=151–165 |place=Bingley, UK |publisher=Emerald |series=Emerald Studies in Popular Culture and Gender |doi=10.1108/9781787698970 |isbn=978-1-78769-898-7|s2cid=214474411 |url=http://research.uca.ac.uk/5021/2/AAM%20without%20image%20-%20McMurdo%20and%20Clayton%20-%20Captivity.docx }} The popularity of jinn as a choice of monster can best be explained by their affirmation in the Quran.Sengul, Ali. "Cinema, Horror and the Wrath of God: Turkish Islam's Claims in the Kurdish East." Nübihar Akademi 4.14: 11-28. They are still a popular trope today. A study from 2020 shows that jinn are still the favorite horror element among teenagers.Gjinali, V., & Tunca, E. A. (2020). A General Look on the Impact of Turkish Horror Movies: An Exploratory Study on the Opinions of Youth on Horror Movies. SAGE Open, 10(4). {{doi|10.1177/2158244020979701}} Jinn further feature in Iranian horror movies.Khosroshahi, Zahra. "Vampires, Jinn and the Magical in Iranian Horror Films." Frames 16 (2019): 2.

File:West Gate Of Firoz Shah's Cotillah, Delhi - British Library .X768-2(11)jpg.jpg

Though discouraged by some teachings of modern Islam, cultural beliefs about jinn remain popular among Muslim societies and their understanding of cosmology and anthropology.{{cite journal |first=Pedram |last=Partovi |date=2009-12-03 |title=Girls' dormitory: Women's Islam and Iranian horror |journal=Visual Anthropology Review |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=186–207 |doi=10.1111/j.1548-7458.2009.01041.x |issn=1548-7458}} Affirmation on the existence of jinn as sapient creatures living along with humans is still widespread in the Middle Eastern world (including Egypt),{{cite book |last1=Michael |first1=Cook |title=The Koran, A Very Short Introduction |date=2000 |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=47 |isbn=978-0-19-157827-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rUEe1twiimUC&dq=the+genies+are+also+strongly+entrenched+in+Egyptian+folk+beliefs&pg=PT78 |quote=In addition to this presence in the Koran, the genies are also strongly entrenched in Egyptian folk beliefs; in this sense they correspond not just to Biblical spirits but to the elves and fairies of European folklore.}} and West Africa,{{Cite book |last=Olupona |first=Jacob K. |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/839396781 |title=African Religions: A Very Short Introduction |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-19-979058-6 |location=Oxford |pages=36 |oclc=839396781}}{{cite book |first=G. Hussein |last=Rassool |date=2015-07-16 |title=Islamic Counselling: An Introduction to theory and practice |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-31744-125-0 |page=58}} mental illnesses are still often attributed to jinn possession.

Since modern times, jinn were often portrayed in a more negative light. After the failure of the rebellion against the East India Company, the Muslim elite regarded jinn-veneration in India as a superstitional belief and hinders the common people to instigate military power.Taneja, Anand Vivek. "Jinnealogy: Everyday life and Islamic theology in post-Partition Delhi." HAU: Journal of Ethnographic Theory 3.3 (2013): 151-152. Similarly, the Deobandi movement, although not denying the reality of jinn, mostly depicts jinn as malevolent beings who need to be avoided or exorcised.{{Cite journal |last=Tayob |first=Shaheed |date=2020 |title=Review of Jinnealogy: Time, Islam, and Ecological Thought in the Medieval Ruins of Delhi |journal=ReOrient |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=108–110 |doi=10.13169/reorient.6.1.0108 |issn=2055-5601|doi-access=free |jstor=10.13169/reorient.6.1.0108 }}Taneja, Anand Vivek. "Jinnealogy: Everyday life and Islamic theology in post-Partition Delhi." HAU: Journal of Ethnographic Theory 3.3 (2013): 152. In modern Iran, (evil) jinn are often substituted by devils.Friedl, E. (2020). Religion and Daily Life in the Mountains of Iran: Theology, Saints, People. Vereinigtes Königreich: Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 86 Similarly, in many modern tales, the term jinn is used for div (demon), causing a shift in meaning.Huart, Cl. and Massé, H., “Dīw”, in: Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition, Edited by: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs. Consulted online on 31 January 2024 {{doi|10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_1879}}

First published online: 2012

First print edition: {{ISBN|9789004161214}}, 1960-2007 Nonetheless, traditional belief in jinn remains popular in Islamic culture.{{cite web |last=Omidsalar |first=Mahmoud {{lang|ur|محمود امیدسالار}} |date=15 December 2000 |title=Genie |publisher={{lang|ur|دانشنامه ایرانیکا}} |website=Iranica Online (iranicaonline.org) |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/genie- |access-date=15 April 2012 |url-status=live |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429185114/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/genie- |archive-date=29 April 2011}} The negative evaluations of jinn are not static, but rather entangled with traditional and also positive depictions of jinn.{{Cite journal |last=Tayob |first=Shaheed |date=2020 |title=Review of Jinnealogy: Time, Islam, and Ecological Thought in the Medieval Ruins of Delhi |journal=ReOrient |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=108–110 |doi=10.13169/reorient.6.1.0108 |issn=2055-5601|doi-access=free |jstor=10.13169/reorient.6.1.0108 }}

According to a survey undertaken by the Pew Research Center in 2012:{{cite book |first=G. Hussein |last=Rassool |date=16 August 2018 |title=Evil Eye, Jinn Possession, and Mental Health Issues: An Islamic perspective |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-22698-7}}

The amount of Muslims believing in jinn from Bosnia and Herzegovina is higher than the general European average (30%), although only 21% believe in sorcery and 13% would wear talisman for protection against jinn; 12% support offerings and appeal given to the jinn.Větrovec, Lukáš. "Curse, Possession and Other Worlds: Magic and Witchcraft among the Bosniaks." p. 74

Sleep paralysis is understood as a "jinn attack" by many sleep paralysis sufferers in Egypt, as discovered by a Cambridge neuroscience study Jalal, Simons-Rudolph, Jalal, & Hinton (2013).{{cite journal |last1=Jalal |first1=Baland |last2=Simons-Rudolph |first2=Joseph |last3=Jalal |first3=Bamo |last4=Hinton |first4=Devon E. |date=1 October 2013 |title=Explanations of sleep paralysis among Egyptian college students and the general population in Egypt and Denmark |journal=Transcultural Psychiatry |volume=51 |issue=2 |pages=158–175 |doi=10.1177/1363461513503378 |pmid=24084761 |s2cid=22226921}} The study found that as many as 48% of those who experience sleep paralysis in Egypt believe it to be an assault by the jinn. Almost all of these sleep paralysis sufferers (95%) would recite verses from the Quran during sleep paralysis to prevent future "jinn attacks". In addition, some (9%) would increase their daily Islamic prayer (ṣalāh) to get rid of these assaults by jinn. Sleep paralysis is generally associated with great fear in Egypt, especially if believed to be supernatural in origin.{{cite journal |last1=Jalal |first1=Baland |last2=Hinton |first2=Devon E. |date=1 September 2013 |title=Rates and Characteristics of Sleep Paralysis in the General Population of Denmark and Egypt |journal=Culture, Medicine, and Psychiatry |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=534–548 |doi=10.1007/s11013-013-9327-x |pmid=23884906 |s2cid=28563727 |issn=0165-005X}}

Similarly, European patients with a Muslim background often attribute mental illnesses to jinn.

Lim A, Hoek HW, Blom JD. The attribution of psychotic symptoms to jinn in Islamic patients. Transcultural Psychiatry. 2015;52(1):18-32. doi:10.1177/1363461514543146 Most common attributions to jinn are symptoms of hallucination and psychotic symptoms, but can also include mood disorders, obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), Capgras syndrome, and epilepsy.

It has been noted that not all Muslims who believe in jinn, believe they can possess people. Furthermore, belief in possession is not limited to Muslims.Guthrie E, Abraham S, Nawaz S. Process of determining the value of belief about jinn possession and whether or not they are a result of mental illness. BMJ Case Rep. 2016 Feb 2;2016:bcr2015214005. doi: 10.1136/bcr-2015-214005. PMID 26838303; PMCID: PMC4746541.

Contrary to the assumption that higher education is proportional to disenchantment, belief in jinn-possession may remain intact even after medical graduation.Uvais, N. A.. Jinn and Psychiatry: Beliefs among (Muslim) doctors. Indian Journal of Social Psychiatry 33(1):47-49, Jan–Mar 2017. {{doi|10.4103/0971-9962.200095}}

In the process of objectification of Islam occurring especially among Muslims in the diaspora, folkloric depictions of jinn become less common and increasingly viewed as "local beliefs" or "un-Islamic". Stories and beliefs regarding jinn, are often downplayed in favor of a normative approach to religion.Rothenberg, C. E. (2011). Islam on the Internet: the jinn and the objectification of Islam. The Journal of Religion and Popular Culture, 23(3), 358-371.

File:Porte_citadelle_alep (arch).jpg

Although there are very few visual representations of jinn in Islamic art, when they do appear, it is usually related to a specific event or individual jinn.

Visual representations of jinn appear in manuscripts, and their existence is often implied in works of architecture by the presence of apotropaic devices like serpents, which were intended to ward off evil spirits. Lastly, King Solomon is illustrated very often with jinn as the commander of an army that included them.

File:Jinn Carrying Solomon's Throne.png

In addition to these representations of jinn in vicinity to kingship, there were also architectural references to jinn throughout the Islamic world. In the Citadel of Aleppo, the entrance gate Bab al-Hayyat made reference to jinn in the stone relief carvings of serpents; likewise, the water gate at Ayyubid Harran housed two copper sculptures of jinn, serving as talismans to ward off both snakes and evil jinn in the form of snakes.{{rp|style=ama|p=408}}

Alongside these depictions of the jinn found at the Aleppo Citadel, depictions of the jinn can be found in the Rūm Seljuk palace. There are a phenomenal range of creatures that can be found on the eight-pointed tiles of the Seal of Sulaymān device.{{rp|style=ama|p=390}} Among these were the jinn, that belonged among Solomon's army and as Solomon claimed to have control over the jinn, so did the Rūm Seljuk sultan that claimed to be the Sulaymān of his time.{{rp|style=ama|p=393}} In fact, one of the most common representations of jinn are alongside or in association with King Solomon. It was thought that King Solomon had very close ties to the jinn, and even had control over many of them.

{{cite journal

|last=Duggan |first=Terrance

|year=2018

|title=The just ruler of the age

|journal=PHASELIS Journal of Interdisciplinary Mediterranean Studies

|volume=4 |pages=389–421

|issue=4| doi=10.18367/Pha.18024 |doi-access=free

}}

{{rp|style=ama|p=399}} The idea that a great and just ruler commands jinn was also extended to other emperors, such as Alexander the Great.{{rp|style=ama|p=399}}

Given this association, jinn were often seen with Solomon in a princely or kingly context, such as the small, animal-like jinn sitting beside King Solomon on his throne illustrated in an illuminated manuscript of Aja'ib al-Makhluqat by Zakariya al-Qazwini, written in the 13th century.{{Cite book|last=Berlekamp|first=Persis|title=Wonder, Image, & Cosmos in Medieval Islam|publisher=Yale University Press|year=2011|location=New Haven|pages=71}}

File:Tawiz.jpg), supposed to ward off jinn, evil eye, sorcery, and demons.]]

The jinn had an indirect impact on Islamic art through the creation of talismans that were alleged to guard the bearer from the jinn and were enclosed in leather and included Qur'anic verses.{{Sfn|El-Zein|2009|p=80}} It was not unusual for those talismans to be inscribed with separated Arabic letters, because the separation of those letters was thought to positively affect the potency of the talisman overall.{{Sfn|El-Zein|2009|p=82}} An object that was inscribed with the word of Allah was thought to have the power to ward off evil from the person who obtained the object, though many of these objects also had astrological signs, depictions of prophets, or religious narratives.{{Cite web |last=Al-Saleh |first=Yasmine |date=2010 |title=Amulets and Talismans from the Islamic World |url=https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/tali/hd_tali.htm |website=The Metropolitan Museum of Art}}

File:Red Jinn-King of Tuesday.png.]]

In the Book of Wonders compiled in the 14th century by Abd al-Hasan al-Isfahani, there are illustrations of various supernatural beings (demons, ʿafārīt,de Lafayette, Maximillien (2017). Early & contemporary spirit artists, psychic artists, and medium painters from 5000 BC to the present day economy. p. 95. ISBN 978-1-365-97802-9. jinn, the evil eye, devils, lilith, celestial spirits, etc.).Taheri, Alireza. "Comparative Study of «The Book of Felicity» Paintings and Book of «Al-Bulhan» of Abu Ma'shar al-Balkhi." Honar-Ha-Ye-Ziba: Honar-Ha-Ye-Tajassomi 22.1 (2017): 15-29.{{cite journal |last=Carboni |first=Stefano |date=2013 |title=The Book of Surprises (Kitab al-Buhlan) of the Bodleian Library |journal=The La Trobe Journal |volume=91 |pages=27–28}}{{rp|style=ama|p=27}}

Each celestial spirit is referred to as a "King of the Jinn", represented alongside his spiritual helpers and alongside the corresponding talismanic symbols.{{rp|style=ama|p=27}} For instance, the 'Red King of Tuesday' was depicted in the Book of Wonders as a sinister form astride a lion. In the same illustration, he holds a severed head and a sword, because the 'Red King of Tuesday' was aligned with Mars, the god of war.{{rp|style=ama|p=27}} Alongside that, there were illustrations of the 'Gold King' and the 'White King'.{{rp|style=ama|p=27}}

Aside from the seven 'Kings of the Jinn', the Book of Wonders included an illustration of Huma (Arabic: حمى), or the 'Fever'. Huma was depicted as three-headed and as embracing the room around him, in order to capture someone and bring on a fever in them.{{rp|style=ama|p=28}}

{{Anchor|Jinn in form of storms and shadows}}

Jinn might be invoked, along with demons and devils, for means of sorcery, incantation, protection, or divination.Gerda Sengers Women and Demons: Cultic Healing in Islamic Egypt BRILL 2003 {{ISBN|978-9-004-12771-5}} page 31Ian Richard Netton Encyclopaedia of Islam Routledge 2013 {{ISBN|978-1-135-17960-1}} page 376 Soothsayers (kāhin) are credited with the ability to ask jinn about things of the past, since their lives are believed to last longer than that of humans.Morrow, John Andrew (27 November 2013) Islamic Images and Ideas: Essays on sacred symbolism, McFarland, ISBN 978-1-476-61288-1{{rp|style=ama|p=73}}

Common beliefs regarding sorcery and commanding jinn are attested in ibn al-Nadim's Kitāb al-Fihrist.Travis Zadeh Commanding Demons and Jinn: The Sorcerer in Early Islamic Thought Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, 2014{{rp|style=ama|p=141}} Since he locates such practises not as a branch of science or philosophy, but rather in a chapter about stories and fables, the author might not have believed in the efficiency of sorcery himself.{{rp|style=ama|p=141}} He reports that the art of commanding jinn and demons is traced back to Solomon and Jamshid. The first who would have practised a lawful method of incantation is supposed to be Abū Naṣr Aḥmad b. Hilāl during the Umayyad period.{{rp|style=ama|p=142}} Ibn Nadim explains lawful and unlawful subjugating of jinn and demons as distinct: While the former controls the jinn by the power of God's divine names, the latter pleases demons and devils by prohibited offerings and sinful acts.{{rp|style=ama|p=141–142}} According to al-Jāḥiẓ, ibn Hilāl is said to have the power to summon demons and jinn{{rp|style=ama|p=142}} and further claimed to have married a daughter of Satan and begotten a child.{{rp|style=ama|p=143}}

There is evidence that subjugation of spirits, jinn, and demons, was also cultivated by various Islamic authorities. Al-Ṭabasī, who was considered a reliable muḥadīth (scholar of ḥadīth) and pious ascetic, wrote an extensive treatise (al-Shāmil fī al-baḥr al-kāmil) on subjugating demons and jinn.{{rp|style=ama|p=145}} According to Zakariya al-Qazwini, it was well known that jinn obeyed al-Ṭabasī. He gives an example, that al-Ṭabasī demonstrated the jinn to the famous scholar Ghazālī, who saw them as shadows on the wall.{{rp|style=ama|p=145}} He professes that jinn only obey when the individual turns away from the temptations of creation and devoting oneself towards God.{{rp|style=ama|p=146}} The al-Shāmil gives detailed instructions for preparations of various incantations. Unlike, for example in the writings of al-Razi, the al-Shāmil has no direct link to Hellenistic or Hermetic magic or philosophy.{{rp|style=ama|p=148}} Magic was also used in the Ottoman Empire as evident from the Talismanic shirts of Murad III.Felek, Özgen. "Fears, Hopes, and Dreams: The Talismanic Shirts of Murād III." Arabica 64.3-4 (2017): 647-672.

Related to the occult traditions in Islamic culture is the belief in the "Seven kings of the Week", also known as rūḥāiya ulia (higher spirits; angels) and rūḥāiya sufula (lower spirits; demons). These beings are, for example, invoked for the preparation of Magic squares.{{Cite journal |last=Mommersteeg |first=Geert |date=1988 |title="He Has Smitten Her to the Heart with Love" The Fabrication of an Islamic Love-Amulet in West Africa |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/40463380 |journal=Anthropos |volume=83 |issue=4/6 |pages=501–510 |jstor=40463380 |issn=0257-9774}}{{rp|style=ama|p=87}} This belief is attested by the Book of Wonders. It contains artistic depictions of several supernatural beings (demons, jinn, the evil eye, fever (Huma, Arabic: حمى), devils, lilith, etc.). Some of these beings indicate that the work connects Hebrew, Christian, and Islamic magical traditions. The original work is attributed to al-Bakhi, who founded a system of astrological magic based on Neo-Platonic thought. Although many pages are damaged, it is possible to reconstruct their meanings from Ottoman copies. Each king is depicted with helpers and associated talismanic symbols.

{{further|Comparative mythology#Jinn}}

File:Compendium rarissimum totius Artis Magicae. Wellcome L0027769.jpg) in bird-like form, with typical rooster feet, as depicted in Compendium rarissimum totius Artis Magicae, 1775]]

In comparative mythology and historical context studies, Quranic studies scholars discuss the relationship between Islamic notions of jinn and earlier Jewish and Christian ideas of supernatural beings or preternatural creatures, especially those of angels, spirits, and demons. It is widely agreed that the belief in jinn was a common element of the culture out of which the Quran came.

One question has concerned the degree to Quranic jinn might be compared to fallen angels in Christian traditions, although issues with this view are that jinn are not identified as "angels" and that descriptions of angels do not involve their flying up the sky to eavesdrop on heavenly secrets (unlike jinn who do so in Surah 72).

{{cite book |last=Crone |first=Patricia |title=The Qur'an Seminar Commentary / Le Qur'an Seminar: A Collaborative Study of 50 Qur'anic Passages / Commentaire collaboratif de 50 passages coraniques |collaboration= |date=2016 |publisher=De Gruyter |isbn=9783110444797 |editor1-last=Azaiez |editor1-first=Mehdi |edition=bilingual |pages=307–310 |language=fr, en |trans-title= |chapter=QS 32 Q 37:6–11: Crone |editor2-last=Reynolds |editor2-first=Gabriel Said |editor3-last=Tesei |editor3-first=Tommaso |editor4-last=Zafer |editor4-first=Hamza M.}} {{ISBN|3110444798}}

Patricia Crone notes that, like jinn, the demons of the Testament of Solomon ascend to the firmament and eavesdrop on heavenly secrets; as did demons of Zoroastrian cosmology, who in addition encounter a heavenly defense systems (as did Islamic jinn). Similar statements are also found in the Talmud (Berakhot 18b) and the 8th-century Scolion of Theodore bar Konai.{{Sfn|Decharneux|2023|p=227–228}} Pierre Lory states that jinn are "in no way comparable to angels", and must be understood as distinct from the Quranic motif of fallen angels.Hidden Intercourse: Eros and Sexuality in the History of Western Esotericism. (2008). Niederlande: Brill. p. 53

Counterparts to Quranic jinn have been identified in the Book of Jubilees, where spirits created by God, associated with fire, having an identified leader (Mastema), may either aid or harm humans, and suffer a similar fate as the jinn.{{Cite journal |last=Falconer |first=Joshua |date=2019 |title=Familiar spirits in the Qurʾān: retracing the origins of the jinn |url=https://www.academia.edu/42941535 |journal=Henoch |language=English |volume=41 |issue=2 |pages= |issn=0393-6805}}

The Shedim of the Tanakh are said to resemble jinn.YALÇINKAYA, Mustafa. "İLÂHİ DİNLERİN CİN KAVRAMI ALGISI: GENEL BİR YAKLAŞIM." PEARSON JOURNAL 5.7 (2020): 170-183.{{rp|style=ama|p=120}} Like jinn, among a class of beings of Jewish mythology/belief (jnun, shedim, etc.), there is a tradition of ritual exorcism and negotiations that differs from that of traditional Jewish cure of spirit possession associated with ghosts (Dybbuk).{{Cite journal |last=Bilu |first=Yoram |date=1980 |title=The Moroccan Demon in Israel: The Case of "Evil Spirit Disease" |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/640134 |journal=Ethos |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=24–39 |doi=10.1525/eth.1980.8.1.02a00030 |jstor=640134 |issn=0091-2131|url-access=subscription }}

Jinn have also been compared to preternatural beings called gny' in inscriptions from Palmyra{{Cite journal |last=Grasso |first=Valentina A. |date=2023 |title=Historicizing Ontologies: Qur'ānic Preternatural Creatures between Ancient Topoi and Emerging Traditions |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/pub/1/article/885036 |journal=Journal of Late Antiquity |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=162–163 |doi=10.1353/jla.2023.0007 |issn=1942-1273|url-access=subscription }} as well as broader late antique demonologies.{{Sfn|Sinai|2023|p=183–186}}

{{div col begin |colwidth=25em}}

• Genies in popular culture
• The Case of the Animals versus Man
• Demon (disambiguation)
• {{section link|Human–animal hybrid#Theriocephaly studies|}}
• Ifrit
• Marid
• Nāga
• Nasnas
• Preta
• Qareen
• Shadow person
• Superstitions in Muslim societies
• Three Thousand Years of Longing, a 2022 film starring Idris Elba as a djinn.
• Throne Verse
• Uthra
• Will-o'-the-wisp
• Yōkai

{{div col end}}

{{notelist}}

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{{refend}}

{{sister project links|d=Q3465|c=category:Genies|wikt=genie|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|q=y|species=no|s=The New International Encyclopædia/Jinn}}

• [http://www.balashon.com/2007/02/genie.html Etymology of genie]

{{Qur'anic people}}

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Category:Arabian legendary creatures

Category:Egyptian folklore

Category:Iranian folklore

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Category:Malaysian mythology

Category:Indian folklore

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Category:Supernatural legends

Category:Shapeshifters

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Category:Albanian mythology

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