Law enforcement in Canada#Special constabularies

File:Saint-Patrick policiers Québec 2014-03-22 B.jpg officers preparing for the city's Saint Patrick's Day parade in 2014]]

Police services in Canada are responsible for the maintenance of the King's peace through emergency response to and intervention against violence; investigations into criminal offences and the enforcement of criminal law; and the enforcement of some civil law, such as traffic violations. Constitutionally, the delivery of police services is the responsibility of provinces and territories, but every province except for Newfoundland and Labrador, which maintains the Royal Newfoundland Constabulary to police some of its urban communities, delegates this responsibility to municipalities. The federal government also maintains its own police service, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, which provinces and territories can contract to provide provincial and municipal policing. Every Canadian territory and province, with the exceptions of Ontario and Quebec, relies on the RCMP to provide at least some provincial or municipal police services.{{cite web|url=https://www.rcmp-grc.gc.ca/ccaps-spcca/contract-eng.htm|title=Contract Policing|access-date=2022-07-10|website=Royal Canadian Mounted Police|date=16 May 2006 }}

The exact duties of Canadian police forces vary significantly: each province regulates the basic responsibilities of police services in their jurisdiction. In Ontario, for example, police services are obliged to provide at least five core police services — crime prevention, law enforcement, maintenance of the public peace, emergency response, and assistance to victims of crime — to fulfill the province's requirement for "adequate and effective policing,"{{cite web|url=https://www.canlii.org/en/on/laws/stat/so-2019-c-1-sch-1/latest/so-2019-c-1-sch-1.html|title=Ontario Community Safety and Policing Act, 2019|website=CanLII}} while in neighbouring Quebec, the responsibilities of a police force are dependent on the population it serves.{{cite web|url=https://www.legisquebec.gouv.qc.ca/en/document/cs/P-13.1?langCont=en#ga:l_ii-gb:l_iii-h1|title=Quebec Police Act|website=LegisQuebec}} Other jurisdictions, such as Manitoba and British Columbia, do not define adequate and effective policing, although individual regulations in both of those provinces set out basic responsibilities of police forces.{{cite web|url=https://manitoba.ca/asset_library/en/proactive/2020_2021/Independent-Review-Manitoba-Police-Services-Act-Sept2020.pdf|title=2020 Independent Review of the Manitoba Police Services Act, 2009|website=Community Safety Knowledge Alliance}} Individual police services may also take on additional duties, such as municipal by-law enforcement, or have a narrower mandate (but not fewer powers) in communities that maintain independent traffic enforcement or mental health crisis response agencies.{{cite web|url=https://vpd.ca/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/vpd-manual-regulations-procedures.pdf|title=Regulations and Procedures Manual|access-date=2022-07-10|website=Vancouver Police Department}}{{cite web|url=https://www.tps.ca/organizational-chart/specialized-operations-command/public-safety-operations/traffic-operations/parking-enforcement/|title=Parking Enforcement|access-date=2022-07-10|website=Toronto Police Service}}{{cite web|url=https://www.toronto.ca/community-people/public-safety-alerts/community-safety-programs/toronto-community-crisis-service/|title=Toronto Community Crisis Service|access-date=2024-08-03|website=City of Toronto|date=29 March 2022 }}{{cite web|url=https://www.gandercanada.com/home-property-and-roads/municipal-enforcement/|title=Municipal Enforcement|access-date=2024-08-03|website=Town of Gander}}

The federal government maintains two police forces: the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) and the Canadian Forces Military Police (CFMP).

File:RCMP searching.jpg

The RCMP's first responsibility is the enforcement of federal laws,{{cite web|url=https://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/r-10/page-2.html#docCont|title=Royal Canadian Mounted Police Act|access-date=2022-07-10|website=Government of Canada|date=12 July 2019 }} although contract policing for provinces, territories, municipalities, and First Nations is at the "heart of what the RCMP does."{{cite web|url=https://www.rcmp-grc.gc.ca/ccaps-spcca/index-eng.htm|title=Community policing|access-date=2022-07-10|website=Royal Canadian Mounted Police|date=15 April 2009 }} In addition to its contracts with three territories, eight provinces, 150 municipalities, and more than 600 Indigenous communities,{{cite web|url=https://www.rcmp-grc.gc.ca/en/indigenous-policing|title=Indigenous policing|access-date=2022-07-11|website=Royal Canadian Mounted Police|date=23 August 2021 }} the RCMP is responsible for border integrity;{{cite web|url=https://www.rcmp-grc.gc.ca/bi-if/index-eng.htm|title=Border Law Enforcement|access-date=2022-07-11|website=Royal Canadian Mounted Police|date=22 July 2008 }} overseeing Canadian peacekeeping missions involving police;{{cite web|url=https://www.rcmp-grc.gc.ca/en/peace-operations|title=Peace operations|access-date=2022-07-11|website=Royal Canadian Mounted Police|date=9 August 2018 }} managing the Canadian Firearms Program, which licenses and registers firearms and their owners;{{cite web|url=https://www.rcmp-grc.gc.ca/en/firearms|title=Firearms|access-date=2022-07-11|website=Royal Canadian Mounted Police|date=10 October 2019 }} and the Canadian Police College, which provides police training to Canadian and international police forces.{{cite web|url=https://www.cpc-ccp.gc.ca/index-eng.htm|title=Canadian Police College|date=25 June 2018 |access-date=2022-07-11}} The force has faced criticism for its uniquely broad mandate,{{cite web|url=https://www.macleans.ca/news/canada/the-rcmp-is-broken/|title=The RCMP is broken|access-date=2022-07-10|website=Maclean's|date=9 July 2020 }}{{cite news|url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/canada/british-columbia/article-investigating-money-laundering-in-bc-an-issue-for-rcmp/|title=RCMP's dismal record on investigating money laundering in B.C. is improving, Cullen Commission hears|access-date=2022-07-10|website=Globe and Mail|date=2 May 2021 |last1=Hager |first1=Mike }} and a partially-redacted 2019 memo to then-Minister of Public Safety Bill Blair "confirmed" for the Minister that "federal policing responsibilities have been and are being eroded to meet contract demands."{{cite web|url=https://www.publicsafety.gc.ca/cnt/trnsprnc/brfng-mtrls/trnstn-bndrs/20191120/013/index-en.aspx|title=Contract Policing|access-date=2022-07-10|website=Government of Canada Briefing Book for the Minister of Public Safety Canada|date=18 March 2020 }} Between 2012 and 2020, the RCMP gradually closed its money laundering and financial crimes units in British Columbia and Ontario, and in 2019, there were no RCMP officers in B.C. dedicated to investigating money laundering.{{cite web|url=https://www.thestar.com/vancouver/2019/04/08/bc-money-laundering-report-finds-no-federal-officers-dedicated-to-case.html|title=Not a single federal police officer is working to bust money launderers in B.C.|access-date=2022-07-11|website=Toronto Star|date=8 April 2019 }} In 2021, an all-party federal parliamentary committee recommended terminating the RCMP's contract policing program,{{cite web|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/rcmp-racism-report-committee-1.6068970|title=Ottawa should explore removing Mounties from communities, MPs suggest|access-date=2022-07-10|website=CBC News}} and Public Safety Minister Marco Mendicino was mandated to conduct a review of RCMP contract policing when he took office in 2022.{{cite web|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/new-brunswick/rcmp-mcadam-new-brunswick-police-1.6497599|title=McAdam's impatience with Mounties a sign N.B. should rethink reliance on RCMP, profs say|access-date=2022-07-10|website=CBC News}}

File:Canadian MP and MILCOTS.jpg members taking part in a training exercise in South Dakota alongside their US counterparts.]]

The CFMP provides police, security, and operational support services to the Canadian Armed Forces (CAF) and the Department of National Defence (DND).{{cite web|url=http://www.vcds-vcemd.forces.gc.ca/cfpm-gpfc/apm-agp/mv-eng.asp|title=CFPM - Mission and Vision|access-date=2012-04-29|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120223204854/http://www.vcds-vcemd.forces.gc.ca/cfpm-gpfc/apm-agp/mv-eng.asp|archive-date=2012-02-23 }} As a military police force, the CFMP does not have a frontline community policing role, but CFMP members are considered peace officers under the Criminal Code.[http://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/C-46/section-2.html Section 2 Criminal Code of Canada] CFMP officers have authority over any person subject to the Code of Service Discipline (CSD), regardless of their position or rank, and can charge members of the broader public when a crime is committed on or in relation to DND property or assets, or at the request of the Minister of Public Safety, the Commissioner of the Correctional Service of Canada, or the Commissioner of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police. The ability of CFMP members to enforce provincial legislation varies, however, and in several provinces, CFMP officers can enforce neither traffic legislation nor mental health legislation — even on military bases.{{cite web|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/military-police-provinces-1.4223219|title=Military cops struggle to enforce mental health laws|access-date=2022-07-10|website=CBC News}} The CFMP maintains an investigations branch, the Canadian Forces National Investigation Service, which has the ability to investigate any crime concerning DND property or employees, except for sexual assault and intimate partner violence.{{cite news|url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/opinion/article-why-are-canadian-police-chiefs-refusing-to-accept-military-sexual/|title=Why are Canadian police chiefs refusing to accept military sexual-assault cases?|access-date=2022-07-11|website=Globe and Mail|date=31 May 2022 |last1=Craig |first1=Elaine }}

File:Chevrolet Uplander CN Police.JPG used by the Canadian National Railway Police.]]

Under the Railway Safety Act, any federally-regulated railway in Canada can request that a superior court judge appoint railway employees as police officers.{{cite web|url=http://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/R-4.2/section-44.html#h-38|title=Consolidated federal laws of Canada, Railway Safety Act|first=Legislative Services|last=Branch|website=laws-lois.justice.gc.ca|date=28 August 2019 }} These officers are hired, trained, and employed by the railway for the purposes of preventing crimes against the company and the protection of goods, materials, and public rail transit being moved through the railway network, and have nationwide jurisdiction within 500 metres of a railway line or as it relates to railway operations.{{cite news|url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/globe-drive/culture/commuting/can-cn-rail-police-really-issue-speeding-tickets/article25184811/|title=Can CN Rail Police really issue speeding tickets?|access-date=2022-07-11|website=Globe and Mail|date=30 June 2015 |last1=Tchir |first1=Jason }} As of 2023, the Canadian National Railway, the Canadian Pacific Kansas City railway, and Via Rail — a Crown Corporation — each maintain their own police service.{{cite web|url=https://www.cpr.ca/en/safety/cp-police-service|title=CP Police Service}}{{cite web|url=https://www.cn.ca/en/safety/cn-police-service/|title=CN Police Service}}{{cite web|url=http://www.viarail.ca/en/travel-information/security|title=Rail Policing Security|date=8 May 2014|website=VIA Rail}}{{cite web|url=http://www.oacp.on.ca/Userfiles/Files/Careers/JobPostings/Police%20Constable_EN.pdf|title=VIA Police Job Description}}

TransLink, the transit authority for the Metro Vancouver Regional District in British Columbia, maintains a police force authorized by the province as opposed to the federal Railway Safety Act.{{cite web|url=https://transitpolice.ca/about-us/|title=About Us|access-date=2022-07-11|website=Metro Vancouver Transit Police|date=13 December 2015 }} Some smaller railways and transit authorities, such as GO Transit, also maintain provincially-regulated special constabularies to protect passengers and property.{{cite web|url=https://www.gotransit.com/en/travelling-with-us/safety-and-security/transit-safety-officers|title=Transit Safety Officers|access-date=2022-07-11|website=GO Transit}}{{cite web|url=https://calgary.ctvnews.ca/calgary-transit-doubles-peace-officer-deployment-as-first-step-in-addressing-safety-concerns-1.5348037|title=Calgary Transit doubles peace officer deployment as first step in addressing safety concerns|access-date=2022-07-11|website=CTV News|date=15 March 2021 }} These agencies are authorized by provincial governments and are not related to federally-authorized Railway Safety Act police forces.

Railway police have attracted scrutiny and criticism for their privately-funded nature and role in investigating train derailments. In 2020, a former Canadian Pacific Police Service officer alleged that he was ordered to stop investigating a fatal railway derailment to protect the railway's interests.{{cite web|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/cp-derailment-investigation-coverup-alleged-1.5436018|title=Police officer suspects internal 'coverup' by CP Rail in fatal B.C. mountain crash|access-date=2022-07-20|website=CBC Fifth Estate|date=24 January 2020}}

File:Freedom Convoy 2022, Ottawa, February 12 (5).jpg officer patrols the Ottawa convoy occupation protest in 2022.]]

There are six provincial police services in Canada, maintained by four provinces, although only three are involved in frontline policing. The Ontario Provincial Police and Sûreté du Québec provide provincial police services to Ontario and Quebec, respectively,{{cite web|url=https://www.opp.ca/index.php?id=121|title=What we do|access-date=2022-07-11|website=Ontario Provincial Police}}{{cite web|url=https://www.sq.gouv.qc.ca/en/|access-date=2022-07-11|title=Organization|website=Sûreté du Québec}} the Royal Newfoundland Constabulary provides community and provincial police services to select urban communities in Newfoundland and Labrador,{{cite web|url=https://www.rnc.gov.nl.ca/about-us/office-locations/|title=Office Locations|access-date=2022-07-04|website=Royal Newfoundland Constabulary}} and the Organized Crime Agency of British Columbia, the Unité permanente anticorruption, and the Bureau des enquêtes indépendantes provide specialized criminal law enforcement services in British Columbia and Quebec.

The Ontario Provincial Police and Sûreté du Québec are responsible for both provincial police services, such as the policing of provincial highways, investigation of major crimes, and protection of provincial leaders, and the delivery of local police services to municipalities that do not maintain their own police forces, usually under contract.{{cite web|url=https://www.opp.ca/index.php?id=115&entryid=56b7d20e8f94ac9f5828d198|title=OPP Municipal Policing|access-date=2022-07-04|website=Ontario Provincial Police}} In Ontario, the OPP provides police services to municipalities without independent police forces regardless of whether or not there is a contract in place for them to do so, but contracts enable municipalities to direct police priorities, have a role in selecting detachment commanders, and review police service performance, including complaints, on a regular basis.{{cite web|url=https://www.opp.ca/tms/entrydata.php?fnc=3&_id=5c6189cc241f6e24de194cd3|title=Police Services Act (1990) s.10 vs. s.5.1. comparison|access-date=2022-07-04|website=Ontario Provincial Police}} In Quebec, contract police services are available to any municipality — outside of those in urban agglomerations — with fewer than 50,000 residents.{{cite web|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/montreal/mont-tremblant-police-sq-1.5898213|title=Mont-Tremblant authorized to abolish police force, bring in the SQ|access-date=2022-07-04|website=CBC News}} In 2021, a provincial committee recommended that the population threshold for contract police services be raised to 130,000 residents and that police forces serving populations under this threshold be folded into the Sûreté du Québec.{{cite web|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/montreal/report-on-modernizing-quebec-policing-1.6039665|title=Quebec should consolidate most of its small police forces, expert committee recommends|access-date=2022-07-04|website=CBC News}}

File:Chevrolet Impala Police Car.jpg officer speaks with a colleague in her patrol car.]]

The Royal Newfoundland Constabulary is a provincial police force, but does not provide provincial police services across the entire province. Instead, the responsibility for provincial police services is split between the RCMP, which provides local and provincial police services to Newfoundland and Labrador's largely rural interior, and the Constabulary, which provides local and provincial police services to the northeast Avalon Peninsula (metropolitan St. John's); the Bay of Islands and the Humber Valley (metropolitan Corner Brook); and western Labrador (Churchill Falls, Labrador City, and Wabush).[http://www.assembly.nl.ca/legislation/sr/statutes/r17.htmRoyal Newfoundland Constabulary Act]{{cite web|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/newfoundland-labrador/rnc-expand-west-coast-1.6932771|title=RNC expanding on Newfoundland's west coast, citing Mountie shortage|website=CBC News}}

The Organized Crime Agency of British Columbia (OCABC) is legally defined as a designated policing unit, and is the "core agency" of the Combined Forces Special Enforcement Unit – British Columbia (CFSEU-BC). Although the OCABC still technically exists as of 2022, its officers are limited to conducting operations and investigations within the CFSEU-BC, where it has been it largely superseded by RCMP and municipal police officers seconded to the unit.{{cite web|url=https://missingwomen.library.uvic.ca/wp-content/uploads/2010/10/Municipal-Policing-in-the-Lower-Mainland-District-of-British-Columbia-002639271.pdf|title=Municipal Policing in the Lower Mainland District of British Columbia|author=Steve Sweeney|website=Missing Women Commission of Inquiry}} Despite its status as the core agency of the combined unit, the CFSEU-BC is governed by RCMP policies and procedures rather than the policies and procedures of the OCABC. Although the Metro Vancouver Transit Police and Stlʼatlʼimx Tribal Police Service fall into the same designated policing unit category as the OCABC, they have neither the province-wide mandate nor the direct provincial funding the OCABC does.{{cite web|url=https://www.translink.ca/about-us/about-translink/operating-companies/transit-police|title=Operating Companies: Transit Police|website=TransLink}}{{cite web|url=https://www.stlatlimxpolice.ca/stp-board.html|title=STP Board|website=Stl'atl'imx Tribal Police Service}}

The Unité permanente anticorruption was created in 2011 and tasked with investigations into corrupt government procurement practices,{{cite web|website=rimq.qc.ca|title=Mesures additionnelles de lutte contre la corruption - Création de l'Unité permanente anticorruption|date=February 21, 2011 |access-date=June 12, 2020|url=https://rimq.qc.ca/news.php?ID=149299}} but relied on secondments from other police services until 2018, when it became its own police force. The Quebec Police Act also defines the Bureau des enquêtes indépendantes as a provincial police force, but its role is strictly limited to police oversight and its members are appointed as peace officers only for the purposes of investigating police shootings, allegations of sexual assault made against police officers, and other investigations against police officers and special constables as directed by the Minister of Public Security.{{cite web|url=https://www.bei.gouv.qc.ca/home/organization/mandate-and-powers.html|title=Mandate and Powers|access-date=2024-05-22|website=Bureau des enquêtes indépendantes}}

File:Police car Charlottetown Prince Edward Island Canada 01.JPG municipal police force.]]

Municipal police forces make up the bulk of Canadian police services, and are generally responsible for all criminal matters within their jurisdiction. There are municipal police services in nine provinces, with 12 in British Columbia,{{cite web|url=https://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/justice/criminal-justice/policing-in-bc/bc-police-forces|title=B.C. police forces|access-date=2022-07-04|website=Government of British Columbia}} seven in Alberta,{{cite web|url=https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/85-225-x/2012000/t018-eng.htm|title=Police personnel in municipal police services — Alberta, 2012|access-date=2022-07-04|website=Statistics Canada}} 12 in Saskatchewan,{{cite web|url=https://esask.uregina.ca/entry/saskatchewan_police_commission.jsp|title=Saskatchewan Police Commission|access-date=2022-07-04|website=The Encyclopedia of Saskatchewan}} 10 in Manitoba,{{cite web|url=http://www.mbpolicecom.ca/links.html|title=Links|access-date=2022-07-04|website=Manitoba Police Commission}} 44 in Ontario,{{cite web|url=https://www.ontario.ca/page/policing-ontario|title=Policing in Ontario|access-date=2022-07-04|website=Government of Ontario}} 31 in Quebec, nine in New Brunswick,{{cite web|url=https://www2.gnb.ca/content/gnb/en/departments/public-safety/law-enforcement-and-inspections/content/policing.html|title=Municipal and Regional Police Forces|access-date=2022-07-04|website=Government of New Brunswick|date=November 2010 }} 10 in Nova Scotia,{{cite web|url=https://novascotia.ca/just/Policing_Services/agencies.asp|title=Directory of Police Agencies in Nova Scotia|access-date=2022-07-04|website=Government of Nova Scotia}} and three in Prince Edward Island.{{cite web|url=https://www.princeedwardisland.ca/en/information/justice-and-public-safety/policing-services|title=Policing Services|access-date=2022-07-04|website=Government of Prince Edward Island|date=16 March 2016 }} Almost every major city in Canada maintains a municipal police service, and the majority of municipal police forces serve urban areas exclusively. Many rural communities also operate police services, however, and several have only a handful of police officers. The police services in the Town of Luseland, Saskatchewan,{{cite web|url=https://www.townofluseland.com/services.html|title=Police Department|access-date=2022-07-04|website=Town of Luseland}} and the Rural Municipality of Cornwallis, Manitoba both have one officer each. As the delivery of police services is a provincial responsibility, each province has its own set of standards that police services must meet. In several provinces, such as Ontario, police services must be able to provide 24/7 coverage, investigate all criminal matters, and provide for specialized units such as police dogs,{{cite web|url=https://www.thestar.com/news/canada/2012/11/30/smalltown_police_forces_in_ontario_are_giving_way_to_the_opp.html|title=Small-town police forces in Ontario are giving way to the OPP|access-date=2022-07-04|website=Toronto Star|date=30 November 2012 }} while other provinces allow small police forces to rely on outside resources to routinely supplement their patrols and investigations. Some provinces, such as Manitoba, do not define a minimum standard of "adequate and effective" policing, while others, such as Quebec, authorize several tiers of police forces based on the size of the municipality, with the lowest tiers providing only basic patrol and law enforcement functions and the highest tiers responsible for all law enforcement, investigations, and policing in their jurisdiction.{{cite web|url=https://manitoba.ca/asset_library/en/proactive/2020_2021/Independent-Review-Manitoba-Police-Services-Act-Sept2020.pdf|title=Independent Review of the Manitoba Police Services Act, 2009|website=Community Safety Knowledge Alliance|date=September 2020}}

File:HaltonRegionalPoliceServiceCar.jpg scout car.]]

Beginning in the 1970s, and continuing into the 1990s, several municipal police forces were amalgamated (alongside, in many cases, the municipalities they served) into new, regional organizations in the interest of creating efficiencies and reducing costs. As of 2022, there are regional police forces in British Columbia,{{cite web|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/capital-regional-district-amalgamation-1.6397017|title=B.C. supports possible merger of cities, police forces on Vancouver Island|access-date=2022-07-04|website=CBC News}} Alberta,{{cite web|url=https://www.lakeshoreregionalpolice.com/|title=Lakeshore Regional Police Service|access-date=2024-05-22|website=Lakeshore Regional Police Service}} Saskatchewan,{{cite web|url=https://filehillspolice.ca/about-us/|title=About Us|access-date=2024-05-22|website=File Hills First Nations Police Service}} Manitoba,{{cite web|url=https://altona.ca/m/altona-police-service/history|title=About Us|access-date=2024-05-22|website=Altona Police Service}}{{cite web|url=https://www.mfnp.ca/communities-detachments|title=Community Detachments|access-date=2024-05-22|website=Manitoba First Nations Police Service}} Ontario, Quebec,{{cite web|url=http://www.sp.mrcdescollinesdeloutaouais.qc.ca/|title=Sécurité Publique|access-date=2022-07-04|website=Service de Police de la MRC des Collines-de-l’Outaouais}} New Brunswick,{{cite web|url=http://www.kennebecasisregionalpolice.com/?page_id=32|title=History|access-date=2022-07-04|website=Kennebecasis Regional Police Force}} and Nova Scotia.{{cite web|url=https://www.newglasgow.ca/index.php/departments/police-service|title=Regional Police|access-date=2022-07-04|website=Town of New Glasgow}} The adoption of regional policing has been controversial, however, and a review of nine Canadian police services in 2016 found that there were no significant differences in cost or service quality between regional and non-regional police forces,{{cite web|url=https://www.publicsafety.gc.ca/cnt/rsrcs/pblctns/mlgmtn-plc-srvcs/index-en.aspx|title=Amalgamation of Police Services|access-date=2022-07-04|website=Public Safety Canada|date=21 December 2018 }} and a separate 2015 literature review found that larger police services are less effective and more expensive than those serving about 50 000 people.{{cite web|url=https://www.publicsafety.gc.ca/cnt/rsrcs/pblctns/2015-s014-rprt/index-en.aspx|title=A Literature Review on the Amalgamation of Police Services in Canada|access-date=2022-07-04|website=Public Safety Canada|date=21 December 2018 }} As of 2022, police regionalization continues to be proposed by both provinces and municipalities, particularly in metropolitan areas where several urban municipalities that border one another each maintain independent police services.{{cite web|url=https://windsorstar.com/news/chief-frederick-pushes-for-regional-policing|title=Chief Frederick pushes for regional policing|date=2015-08-04|access-date=2022-07-05|website=Windsor Star}}

[[Image:Police rate in Canada.svg|thumb|200px|Map of police officers per 100,000 population across Canada, 2012.{{cite web |url=http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/85-225-x/2012000/t002-eng.pdf |title=Police officers by level of policing, by province and territory, 2012 |publisher=Statistics Canada|access-date=2014-03-03}}{{legend|#d5e5ff|<176}}

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In 2022, there were 70 566 active police officers in Canada, out of a total authorized strength (the maximum number of officers all the police forces in Canada combined are allowed to hire) of 74 528.{{cite web|url=https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=3510007601|title=Police personnel and selected crime statistics|website=Statistics Canada|date=13 April 2021 }} Additionally, there were 32 717 non-sworn support personnel employed by police services across the country.

Canadian police strength reached a peak in 1975, when there were 206 officers per 100,000 people. Although the current number reflects a significant rise in the total police strength in the country (the highest in twelve years after steady declines in the 1980s and 1990s), Canada still employs fewer police officers per capita than Wales (262/100,000).

Provincially, Nova Scotia had the highest number of officers per capita (193.8/100,000) in 2019. The lowest numbers per capita were in Prince Edward Island and New Brunswick. The three territories, while having far fewer police officers in absolute terms, have around twice as many police officers per capita as the more populous, less remote provinces.

{{main article|Special constable#Canada}}

File:Bill amedeo stalin david.jpg's special constabulary, the Community Safety Unit.]]

A special constabulary is any law enforcement organization composed of special constables or other peace officers ― as opposed to police officers ― with a mandate for criminal law enforcement and/or proactive peacekeeping and security. Their members are usually unarmed, and their duties may consist of providing frontline specialized police services for a transit agency, housing authority, park authority, or university campus;{{cite web|url=https://www.usask.ca/protectiveservices/index.php|title=Protective Services|access-date=2024-05-24|website=University of Saskatchewan}}{{cite web|url=https://www.gotransit.com/en/travelling-with-us/safety-and-security/transit-safety-officers|title=Transit Safety Officers|access-date=2022-07-03|website=GO Transit}}{{cite web|url=https://www.tvo.org/article/who-gets-to-call-themselves-police-and-why-should-you-care|title=Who gets to call themselves police — and why should you care?|date=2019-08-07|access-date=2022-07-03|website=TVO}}{{cite web|url=https://www.torontohousing.ca/careers/communitysafetyunit/Pages/Our-constables.aspx|title=Our special constables|access-date=2022-07-03|website=Toronto Community Housing Corporation}} proactive community policing, crime prevention, and enhanced civil law enforcement for a municipality or First Nation;{{cite web|url=https://www.saskatchewan.ca/government/news-and-media/2014/december/01/commumity-safety-officer-program|title=Province Rolls Out Community Safety Officer Program|date=2014-12-01|access-date=2022-07-03|website=Government of Saskatchewan News and Media}}{{cite web|url=https://www.ld-ps.ca/|title=Lakeland District Protective Services|website=Lakeland District Protective Services}} or security policing and law enforcement for an institution or legislature.{{cite web|url=https://regina.ctvnews.ca/saskatchewan-legislature-makes-changes-to-security-in-light-of-assembly-disruption-1.6656279|title=Saskatchewan legislature makes changes to security in light of assembly disruption|website=CTV News|date=22 November 2023 }}{{cite web|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/toronto/armed-security-unit-ontario-legislature-1.3485777|title=Armed security unit to be deployed at Ontario Legislature|date=2016-03-10|access-date=2022-07-04|website=CBC News}}{{cite web|url=https://www.timescolonist.com/local-news/bc-legislature-guards-to-be-armed-with-guns-4615552|title=B.C. legislature guards to be armed with guns|date=2014-11-05|access-date=2022-07-04|website=Times Colonist}}

Unlike police services, special constabularies only provide supplementary policing and do not replace the police service of jurisdiction. Although officers employed by special constabularies have the authority to investigate crimes and make arrests or issue citations for offences that occur in their area of authority, and some special constabularies may even have primary or exclusive responsibility for some low-level criminal offences or civil law enforcement in that area;{{cite web|url=https://www.upei.ca/security|title=Security Division|website=University of PEI}}{{cite web|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/toronto-man-finds-stolen-truck-in-uae-1.7083615|title=SUV stolen from Toronto driveway shows up 50 days later — and 11,000 km away|website=CBC News}} they do not have ultimate responsibility for law enforcement and policing, and special constabularies are required to turn certain offences over to, or operate under the supervision of, the jurisdictional police service.{{cite news|url=https://www.ontario.ca/laws/regulation/230396?search=community+safety#BK12|title=Community Safety and Policing Act, 2019 - Matters Respecting the Appointment and Functions of Special Constables and the Authorization of Special Constable Employers|newspaper=Ontario.ca|date=24 July 2014 }}

In Canada, special constables (referred to as peace officers in Alberta and safety officers in Manitoba) are sworn peace officers granted police powers to enforce specific legislation in a distinct context or geographic area, and may be employed by a range of organizations other than special constabularies.{{cite web|url=https://specialconstables.ca/special-constables-in-ontario|title=Special Constables In Ontario|access-date=2022-07-03|website=Ontario Special Constable Association}} Special constabularies are generally referred to as special constable services, protective services, or, in some cases, as police services.

File:Queen's Park security at Sep 27 2019 climate strike.jpg (then called the Legislative Security Service) posted outside the provincial parliament in 2019]]

British Columbia, Ontario, Québec,and Saskatchewan maintain special constabularies for the purposes of protecting their provincial legislatures. Select special constables in British Columbia and Ontario were armed with handguns in the wake of the 2014 Parliament Hill shooting. In Alberta, legislative security is provided by the Alberta Sheriffs Branch, an armed provincial law enforcement agency also responsible for courtroom security, traffic enforcement on provincial highways, and some criminal investigations.{{cite web|url=https://www.alberta.ca/sheriff-career.aspx|title=Sheriffs|access-date=2022-07-04|website=Government of Alberta}} In Saskatchewan, in addition to the Legislative District Security Unit, the Provincial Protective Service (responsible for the provincial highway patrol, sheriffs officers, and conservation officers) maintains a special constabulary that patrols Wascana Centre, the park that surrounds the provincial legislature.{{cite web|url=https://www.saskatchewan.ca/government/news-and-media/2021/november/08/province-creating-provincial-protective-services-branch|title=Province Creating Provincial Protective Services Branch|date=2021-11-08|access-date=2022-07-04|website=Government of Saskatchewan}} The federal parliament buildings in Ottawa are protected by the Parliamentary Protective Service, which was formed by amalgamating the House of Commons Security Services, Senate Protective Service, and the RCMP parliamentary precinct detachment.{{cite web|last1=Thibedeau|first1=Hannah|title=RCMP hiring 30 officers for new Parliament Hill security force|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/rcmp-hiring-30-officers-for-new-parliament-hill-security-force-1.3073102|access-date=23 May 2016|website=CBCNews|publisher=CBC/Radio-Canada}} The Service, which was formed after the 2014 Parliament Hill shooting, is not a special constabulary, and only some of its members have the powers of a peace officer.{{cite web|url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/politics/gaps-grow-in-background-checks-for-hill-security-staff/article37070208/|title=Majority of Parliament Hill security staff haven't had thorough background checks|date=2017-11-23|access-date=2022-07-06|website=Globe and Mail}}

File:Calgary transit peace officer.png

In Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba, municipalities and First Nations are able to raise special constabularies to provide community police services; enforce non-criminal legislation; and assist jurisdictional police in securing crime and incident scenes.{{cite web|url=https://www.alberta.ca/peace-officers-overview|title=Peace officers – Overview|website=Government of Alberta}}{{cite web|url=https://sarm.ca/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/cso-faq-factsheet-2020.pdf|title=Community Safety Officer Program|website=Saskatchewan Association of Rural Municipalities}}{{cite web|url=https://www.gov.mb.ca/justice/commsafe/safetyofficer/pubs/policymanual.pdf|title=Safety Officer Program|website=Manitoba Justice Policing Services and Public Safety (PSPS) Bureau}} These agencies are composed of community peace officers (in Alberta), community safety officers (in Saskatchewan), and community/First Nation safety officers (in Manitoba) who are authorized to enforce municipal by-laws and provincial legislation, make arrests and detain members of the public, conduct traffic stops, and, in some cases, conduct investigations into non-emergency criminal offences.{{cite web|url=https://www.brandonsun.com/local/2023/12/28/safety-officers-on-guard-in-sioux-valley|title=Safety officers on guard in Sioux Valley|website=Brandon Sun|date=28 December 2023 }}{{cite web|url=https://www.lacombecounty.com/en/living-here/community-peace-officers.aspx|title=Community Peace Officers|website=Lacombe County (Alberta)|date=17 July 2023 }} Officers employed by these agencies are generally unarmed, but may carry firearms to destroy injured animals.{{cite web|url=https://www.stettlerindependent.com/news/the-role-of-community-peace-officers-in-alberta-7340525|title=The role of Community Peace Officers in Alberta|website=The Stettler Independent|date=9 April 2024 }}

Because these special constabularies are provincially regulated, the exact duties, powers, and regulations governing their operations vary slightly between each province. In Manitoba, for example, community/First Nation safety officers are strictly prohibited from enforcing criminal legislation, while some officers in Saskatchewan and Alberta are empowered to enforce certain Criminal Code violations.{{cite web|url=https://www.lakelandtoday.ca/lac-la-biche-news/new-class-of-community-peace-officers-begins-training-7452513|title=New class of community peace officers begins training|website=Lakeland Today|date=15 September 2023 }}

File:Toronto Police Special Constable Sedan.jpg.]]

Although special constables are often employed by special constabularies, they are also be employed by government agencies that require investigators or traffic agents to have some police authority,{{cite web|url=https://app06.ottawa.ca/calendar/ottawa/citycouncil/opsb/2010/04-26/item2att2.pdf|title=Report on Special Constables in Ontario: A White Paper from the Ontario Association of Chiefs of Police|date=February 2010|website=City of Ottawa}} by police services as part of a tiered police service delivery model,{{cite web|url=https://winnipeg.ctvnews.ca/why-these-communities-are-looking-for-policing-alternatives-1.6385061|title=Why these communities are looking for policing alternatives|date=May 4, 2023|website=CTV News}} or by civil law enforcement agencies in jurisdictions that do not authorize a specific class of civil law enforcement officer.{{cite web|url=http://www.manitobalawreform.ca/pubs/pdf/archives/96-full_report.pdf|title=Special Constables - Report #96|date=November 1996|website=Manitoba Law Reform Commission}} Special constabularies are differentiated from other types of special constable employers by their proactive, uniformed, and semi-independent role in community safety and delivery of police-style services, as opposed to the limited mandate of reactive law enforcement and investigations of other special constable employers or the integrated role of special constables employed by police services.

Civil law enforcement agencies are responsible for the specialized enforcement of civil legislation. Civil law enforcement agencies are maintained by every level of government,{{cite web|url=https://www.gojobs.gov.on.ca/PDR.aspx?JobID=49003|title=Job Specification (Employment Standards Officer)|access-date=2022-07-05|website=Government of Ontario}}{{cite web|url=https://www.surrey.ca/city-government/city-departments/corporate-services/bylaw-licensing-services|title=Bylaw & Licensing Services|access-date=2022-07-06|website=City of Surrey|date=11 December 2019 }}{{cite web|url=https://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/fisheries-peches/enf-loi/index-eng.html|title=Fisheries enforcement|access-date=2022-07-06|website=Fisheries and Oceans Canada|date=23 July 2007 }} a variety of government corporations and authorities,{{cite web|url=https://spca.bc.ca/wp-content/uploads/Special-Provincial-Constable.pdf|title=Special Provincial Constable (Job posting)|access-date=2022-07-05|website=British Columbia Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals}} and First Nations.{{cite web|url=https://www.wfn.ca/your-government/law-enforcement/reporting-offence.htm|title=Reporting an Offence|access-date=2022-07-06|website=Westbank First Nation}}

The powers of civil law enforcement agencies vary significantly. Some, such as the Saskatchewan Highway Patrol, have the authority to enforce criminal legislation in addition to their primary mandate to enforce civil legislation,{{cite web|url=https://globalnews.ca/news/4849209/new-officers-training-saskatchewan-highway-patrol/|title=6 new officers finish training, ready to start with Sask. Highway Patrol|access-date=2024-01-17|website=Global News}} while others are limited to enforcing only a handful of by-laws. Regardless of the breadth of their legislative authority, all civil law enforcement officers in Canada are considered peace officers for the purposes of carrying out their duties,Moore v R [1975] 5 W.W.R. 176.R. vs Jones [1975] 5 W.W.R. 197.{{Cite web |url=https://www.ontario.ca/laws/statute/90p15#BK18|title=Police Services Act R.S.O. 1990, c. P.15, s. 15 (2)}} and may be variously appointed as special constables,{{cite web|url=https://www.timescolonist.com/opinion/comment-bc-must-not-forget-our-special-provincial-constables-5324017|title=Comment: B.C. must not forget our special provincial constables|date=2022-05-03|access-date=2022-07-03|website=Times Colonist}} municipal law enforcement officers,{{Cite web |url=https://www.ontario.ca/laws/statute/90p15#BK18|title=Police Services Act R.S.O. 1990, c. P.15, s. 15 (1)}} provincial offences officers,{{Cite web |url=https://www.simcoemuskokahealth.org/docs/default-source/policies-procedures/lg0107designationofprovincialoffencesofficer.pdf?sfvrsn=4|title=Designation of Provincial Offences Officer|publisher=Simcoe-Muskoka District Health Unit}} or generically as peace officers.{{cite web|url=https://prairiebylawenforcement.ca/roles-and-duties|title=Roles and Duties - PBLE Peace Officer|access-date=2024-01-17|website=Prairie Bylaw Enforcement}}

File:Canada Border Services Agency Dodge Charger in Ontario Special Olympics Law Enforcement Torch Run.jpg patrol car.]]

The federal government maintains several civil law enforcement agencies, most prominent among them the Canada Border Services Agency, which manages Canadian ports of entry and enforces the [https://www.cbsa-asfc.gc.ca/agency-agence/actreg-loireg/legislation-eng.html Customs Act], the Immigration and Refugee Protection Act, and the Quarantine Act."[https://www.cbsa-asfc.gc.ca/agency-agence/actreg-loireg/legislation-eng.html?wbdisable=true Acts, Regulations and Other Regulatory Information]." Canada Border Services Agency. 31 July 2020. Retrieved 6 July 2022. The Agency also operates a Criminal Investigations Unit that investigates criminal violations of CBSA-enforced legislation, such as smuggling or immigration fraud.{{cite web|url=https://www.cbsa-asfc.gc.ca/contact/investigation/menu-eng.html|title=Reporting an Offence|access-date=2022-07-06|website=Canada Border Services Agency|date=27 January 2011 }} The government of Canada also employs fishery officers, who enforce federal fishing and fishery regulations; transport inspectors, who enforce the 23 different pieces of federal transportation legislation the Minister of Transport is responsible for;{{cite web|url=https://tc.canada.ca/en/corporate-services/transparency/transport-canada-s-enforcement-policy|title=Transport Canada's Enforcement Policy|access-date=2022-07-06|website=Transport Canada|date=10 July 2019 }} and Environment and Climate Change Canada enforcement officers, who are responsible for enforcing federal environmental regulations.[http://www.ec.gc.ca/alef-ewe/default.asp?lang=en&n=2140D763-1 Environment Canada – Acts, Regulations and Agreements – Enforcement – Acts and Regulations]. Ec.gc.ca (July 6, 2022). The Canada Revenue Agency operates a variety of compliance and enforcement divisions, but its proactive criminal enforcement unit, which collaborated with RCMP officers to break up organized crime rings, was disbanded after budget cuts in 2012.{{cite web|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/revenue-canada-issues-run-deeper-than-nicolo-rizzuto-cheque-ex-staff-1.1870150|title=Revenue Canada issues run deeper than Nicolo Rizzuto cheque: ex-staff|date=2013-10-26|access-date=2022-07-06|website=CBC News}} (The RCMP disbanded its various counterparts to the CRA's criminal enforcement unit between 2012 and 2020.){{cite web|url=https://www.thestar.com/news/investigations/2020/01/15/the-rcmp-is-shutting-down-its-financial-crimes-unit-in-ontario-heres-why-former-top-mounties-says-its-a-mistake.html|title=The RCMP is shutting down its financial crimes unit in Ontario. Here's why former top Mounties says it's a mistake|date=2020-01-15|access-date=2022-07-06|website=Toronto Star}}{{cite news|url=https://www.thespec.com/ts/opinion/editorials/2022/06/19/canada-is-a-haven-for-financial-crime-that-must-be-stopped.html|title=Canada is a haven for financial crime. That must be stopped|date=2022-06-19|access-date=2022-07-06|website=Hamilton Spectator}} The federal government also operates the Competition Bureau, which enforces the Competition Act, the Consumer Packaging and Labelling Act, the Textile Labelling Act and the Precious Metals Marking Act.{{cite web|url=https://www.competitionbureau.gc.ca/eic/site/cb-bc.nsf/eng/00020.html|title=Our mandate|access-date=2022-07-06|website=Competition Bureau Canada|date=24 February 2020 }} Parks Canada maintains a park warden service, which is responsible for the enforcement of the Canada National Parks Act, the Species at Risk Act, and park-specific legislation.{{cite web|url=https://www.pc.gc.ca/en/pn-np/on/rouge/nature/conservation/protection|title=The role of park wardens in conserving the Rouge|access-date=2022-07-06|website=Parks Canada|date=17 August 2021 }}

File:Highway of Heroes 9 0006 (4062055362).jpg standing alongside Ontario Highway 401 at Trenton for a Highway of Heroes procession in 2009.]]

Each province and territory in Canada operates or authorizes a variety of civil law enforcement agencies, including employment standards and workplace safety offices, animal cruelty organizations, and environmental enforcement services.{{cite web|url=https://windsor.ctvnews.ca/moe-officers-issuing-tickets-to-windsor-drivers-1.1186507|title=MOE officers issuing tickets to Windsor drivers|date=2013-03-07|access-date=2022-07-06|website=CTV News}} Because of the wide-ranging regulatory powers of provinces, and the technical, specialized nature of much of civil law enforcement, many provincial civil law enforcement agencies operate in obscurity. The two most prominent uniformed civil law enforcement services operated by provinces and territories are commercial vehicle and conservation enforcement agencies, which usually maintain proactive patrols and education programs.{{cite web|url=https://www.princeedwardisland.ca/en/information/justice-and-public-safety/peis-conservation-officers|title=PEI's Conservation Officers|access-date=2022-07-06|website=Government of Prince Edward Island|date=14 March 2016 }} While conservation officers in every province and territory are routinely armed, only the provinces of Alberta, Saskatchewan, and New Brunswick deploy armed commercial vehicle enforcement officers.{{cite web|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/saskatchewan/saskatchewan-highway-patrol-rural-crime-vehicle-enforcement-1.4710106|title=New Sask. Highway Patrol gives vehicle enforcement officers expanded policing powers|date=2018-06-17|access-date=2022-07-06|website=CBC News}}{{cite web|url=https://www.trucknews.com/regulations/alberta-commercial-vehicle-enforcement-to-get-new-look/1003140145/|title=Alberta commercial vehicle enforcement to get new look|date=2020-05-20|access-date=2022-07-06|website=trucknews.com}} Some provinces, such as Ontario, empower provincial corporations and authorities to establish and maintain their own civil law enforcement agencies, separate from the provincial government.{{cite web|url=https://www.ontarioparks.com/parksblog/hiring-park-wardens/|title=We're looking for park wardens!|access-date=2022-07-06|website=Ontario Parks|date=15 March 2022 }}

{{Main|Sheriff#Canada}}

File:B46 new livery.jpg Ford Expedition]]

Almost every province and territory in Canada maintains a sheriffs service, although their role and powers vary between jurisdictions. In most provinces and all three territories, sheriffs are limited to providing courtroom security, enforcing court orders, and transporting offenders to and from court.{{cite web|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/north/cruise-ship-arrest-iqaluit-1.5250546|title=Cruise ship gets arrested in Iqaluit and it's a rare occurrence, says official|date=2019-08-19|access-date=2022-07-06|website=CBC News}}{{cite web|url=https://www.manitoba.ca/justice/courts/sheriff.html|title=Sheriff Services|access-date=2022-07-06|website=Government of Manitoba}}{{cite web | url=http://www.bclaws.ca/Recon/document/ID/freeside/12_263_2009 | title=Sheriff Powers, Duties and Responsibilities Regulation }} In Quebec, sheriffs have no security function and are instead limited to enforcing court orders and selecting juries.{{Cite web|last=ICI.Radio-Canada.ca|first=Zone Société-|title=Être shérif en 2017 : l'art de constituer et d'encadrer un jury|url=https://ici.radio-canada.ca/nouvelle/1030799/proces-sherif-jury-jures-palais-justice-deliberation|access-date=2021-04-07|website=Radio-Canada.ca|date=29 April 2017 |language=fr-ca}} Since 2006, the province of Alberta has gradually expanded the mandate and powers of its sheriffs service, which now maintains a highway patrol, a criminal investigations unit, and provides legislative security to the Legislative Assembly of Alberta.{{cite news|title=Alberta sheriffs make highway debut this weekend |publisher=CBC |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/calgary/alberta-sheriffs-make-highway-debut-this-weekend-1.618379 |access-date=2008-06-03 |date=September 1, 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080701044227/https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/calgary/alberta-sheriffs-make-highway-debut-this-weekend-1.618379 |archive-date=July 1, 2008 }} Ontario is the only province or territory in Canada that does not maintain a sheriffs service — instead, court security and prisoner transport duties are handled by local police services, and the enforcement of court orders is the responsibility of the Superior Court of Justice Enforcement Office, which was named and is still sometimes referred to as the sheriff's office.{{cite web|url=https://www.ontario.ca/page/courts-and-court-services|title=Courts and court services|access-date=2022-07-06|website=Government of Ontario}}

{{see also|Bylaw enforcement officer}}

File:Agents de stationnement SPVM Montréal 2016.jpg for parking enforcement in Montreal]]

Every municipality in Canada is authorized to develop and enforce municipal by-laws,{{cite web|url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/municipal-government|title=Municipal Government in Canada|access-date=2022-07-06|website=The Canadian Encyclopedia}} but each province and territory regulates the authority of municipal law enforcement agencies differently. In British Columbia, Manitoba, Ontario, Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward Island, municipal enforcement agencies are generally limited to the enforcement of municipal legislation and operate on an as-requested basis.{{cite web|url=https://www.winnipeg.ca/cms/BLES/default.stm|title=Community By-law Enforcement Services|access-date=2022-07-06|website=City of Winnipeg}}{{cite web|url=https://www.hamilton.ca/government-information/by-laws-and-enforcement|title=By-laws and Enforcement|access-date=2022-07-06|website=City of Hamilton}}{{cite web|url=https://www.cbrm.ns.ca/cbrm-by-laws.html|title=CBRM By-Laws|access-date=2022-07-06|website=Cape Breton Regional Municipality}}{{cite web|url=https://www.summerside.ca/residents/police_services/parking_bylaw_enforcement|title=Parking Bylaw Enforcement|access-date=2022-07-06|website=City of Summerside}} In all three territories, as well as the provinces of Newfoundland and Labrador, Quebec, Saskatchewan, and Alberta, some — but not all — municipal enforcement agencies also enforce provincial legislation and control traffic.{{cite web|url=https://www.iqaluit.ca/city-hall/departments/municipal-enforcement|title=Municipal Enforcement|access-date=2022-07-06|website=City of Iqaluit}}{{cite web|url=https://panow.com/2020/07/02/bylaw-unit-to-be-operated-by-city-not-police/|title=Bylaw unit to be operated by City, not police|date=2020-07-02|access-date=2022-07-06|website=paNOW}} Several municipalities rely on police services or contracted commissionaires for bylaw enforcement.{{cite web|url=https://www.citywindsor.ca/residents/Traffic-And-Parking/ParkingEnforcement/Pages/Parking-Enforcement.aspx|title=Parking Enforcement|access-date=2022-07-06|website=City of Windsor}}

File:Police car in Kuujjuaq (Fort-Chimo), Québec, Canada.jpg), an arm of the Kativik Regional Government. The Regional Government was established as a result of the James Bay and Northern Quebec Agreement and serves a population that is mostly Inuit.]]

Indigenous peoples in Canada are defined in the Constitution Act, 1982 as First Nations, Inuit, and Métis peoples,{{cite web|url=https://caid.ca/ConstAct010208.pdf|title=Constitution Act, 1982}} and the law enforcement powers of Indigenous governments vary significantly between the different groups. Métis self-government exists only in eight settlements in Alberta,{{cite web|url=https://msgc.ca/|title=Metis Settlements of Alberta|website=msgc.ca|access-date=March 16, 2022}} none of which have the authority to raise police services, but may, with provincial approval, establish bylaw enforcement agencies.{{cite web|url=https://open.alberta.ca/publications/m14|title=Metis Settlements Act|website=Government of Alberta|access-date=July 7, 2022}} The territory of Nunavut and regional government of Kativik, both of which are populated mostly by Inuit peoples, were established after Inuit land claims agreements, but are not exclusive to Inuit peoples,{{cite web|url=https://www.krg.ca/en-CA/|title=Kativik Regional Government|website=Kativik Regional Government|access-date=July 7, 2022}}{{cite web|url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/nunavut|title=Nunavut|website=The Canadian Encyclopedia|access-date=July 7, 2022}} have authority over police services.{{cite web|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/north/nunavut-leaders-systematic-rcmp-review-1.5603222|title=Nunavut leaders calling for systematic review of RCMP service in the territory|website=CBC News|access-date=July 7, 2022}} First Nations and Inuit communities governed by the Indian Act have access to the First Nations and Inuit Policing Program operated by Public Safety Canada and can establish their own police forces, funded entirely by the federal and provincial governments,{{cite web|url=https://www.aptnnews.ca/national-news/we-have-to-stop-denying-it-chrt-says-canada-is-discriminating-against-indigenous-police-forces/|title='We have to stop denying it': CHRT says Canada is discriminating against Indigenous police forces|website=APTN News|date=5 February 2022 |access-date=July 8, 2022}} but most Inuit governments and First Nations that have completed the comprehensive land claims process can only contract police services to a third party police force (although frameworks exist for these Nations to eventually establish their own independent police services).Hoffman, Ross, and Andrew Robinson. 2010. “Nisga’a Self-Government: A New Journey Has Begun.” In The Canadian Journal of Native Studies, 30(2): 387-405. Because of the history of the Canadian reserve system, which operated on the assumption that Indigenous families required less land than settler families and routinely gave away reserve lands to settlers without Indigenous consultation or consent,{{cite book |last1=Manuel |first1=Arthur |last2=Derrickson |first2=Ronald M. |title=Unsettling Canada: A National Wake-up Call |date=2015-04-30 |publisher=Between the Lines |location=Toronto |isbn=9781771131773 |url=https://unsettlingcanada.com/|pages=17–18 |access-date=7 July 2022}} many reserves are too small to sustain independent police forces, requiring First Nations to form regional police agencies with neighbouring communities or contract with the federal or provincial governments for police services.{{cite web|url=https://www.publicsafety.gc.ca/cnt/rsrcs/pblctns/2016-r030/index-en.aspx|title=Lifecycle of First Nation Administered Police Services in Canada|website=Public Safety Canada|date=21 December 2018 |access-date=July 7, 2022}}

File:OPP Dec 1978 Police training 06.jpg Police, an OPP-administered First Nations police service. The Shoal Lake Police would later be amalgamated into the Treaty Three Police Service.]]

The policing of Indigenous communities in Canada has long been fraught with racial tension,{{Cite news |last1=Porter |first1=Catherine |last2=Bilefsky |first2=Dan |date=2020-06-13 |title=Video of Arrest of Indigenous Leader Shocks Canada |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/06/12/world/canada/Allan-Adam-athabasca-police.html |access-date=2020-06-13}} inequitable police service delivery,{{cite web|url=https://oiprd.on.ca/wp-content/uploads/OIPRD-BrokenTrust-Final-Accessible-E.pdf|title=BROKEN TRUST: Indigenous People and the Thunder Bay Police Service|website=Office of the Independent Police Review Director (Ontario)|access-date=July 7, 2022}} and the enforcement of colonial laws and practices.{{cite web|url=https://briarpatchmagazine.com/articles/view/the-meaning-of-elections-for-six-nations|title=The Meaning of Elections for Six Nations|website=Briarpatch Magazine|access-date=July 7, 2022}} Beginning in the 1960s, the federal government began to withdraw RCMP officers from reserves in the provinces of Ontario and Quebec in favour of provincial control over First Nations policing.{{cite web|url=https://kb.osu.edu/bitstream/handle/1811/58845/IJRC_Rudell_vol2-issue1_pp101-125.pdf?s|title=Aboriginal Policing in Rural Canada: Establishing a Research Agenda|website=International Journal of Rural Criminology|access-date=July 8, 2022}} Between 1990 and 1995, there were several high-profile conflicts between Indigenous protesters demanding the return of lands to which they had Aboriginal title and non-Indigenous police forces, resulting in the death of a police officer — Corporal Marcel Lemay of the Sûreté du Québec — and an unarmed Indigenous protester named Dudley George.{{cite news|title=Officer shot from Mohawk gunmen's location in pines|work=The Hamilton Spectator|date=August 14, 1995}}{{cite news|url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/national/key-ipperwash-witness-killed-in-highway-crash/article20409136/|title=Key Ipperwash witness killed in highway crash|website=Globe and Mail|date=27 February 2006 |access-date=July 7, 2022|last1=Harries |first1=Kate }} During the 1995 Gustafsen Lake standoff, an RCMP commander reportedly told a subordinate to kill a prominent Indigenous demonstrator and "smear the prick and everyone with him,"{{cite book |last1=Manuel |first1=Arthur |last2=Derrickson |first2=Ronald M. |title=Unsettling Canada: A National Wake-up Call |date=2015-04-30 |publisher=Between the Lines |location=Toronto |isbn=9781771131773 |url=https://unsettlingcanada.com/|pages=81 |access-date=7 July 2022}} and an RCMP media liaison officer was quoted as saying that "smear campaigns are [the RCMP's] specialty."{{cite web|url=https://www.straight.com/news/rcmp-history-of-smear-campaigns-warrants-skepticism-about-violent-confrontation-with-coastal|title=RCMP history of smear campaigns warrants skepticism about "violent confrontation" with Coastal GasLink workers|website=The Georgia Straight|date=17 February 2022 |access-date=July 7, 2022}}

The federal government created the First Nations and Inuit Policing Program in 1992, which scholars have called the first "comprehensive national policing strategy for [a country's] Aboriginal peoples." The Program was designed to allow First Nations and Inuit communities to create their own police forces that met the provincial standards for non-Indigenous police services, or establish their own RCMP detachment staffed by Indigenous officers, but has been criticized as underfunded and discriminatory by Indigenous groups, police chiefs, and the Canadian Human Rights Tribunal.

{{main article|Indigenous police in Canada}}

File:Tyendinaga police car.png

In 2010, there were 38 self-administered First Nation police services in Canada, with one service each in British Columbia,{{cite web|url=https://www.leg.bc.ca/content/CommitteeDocuments/42nd-parliament/3rd-session/rpa/SC-RPA-Report_42-3_2022-04-28.pdf|title=Transforming Policing and Community Safety in British Columbia|website=Legislative Assembly of British Columbia|page=53|access-date=July 8, 2022|archive-date=2022-06-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220614164828/https://www.leg.bc.ca/content/CommitteeDocuments/42nd-parliament/3rd-session/rpa/SC-RPA-Report_42-3_2022-04-28.pdf|url-status=dead}} Saskatchewan,{{cite web|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/saskatoon/sask-police-force-federal-money-recruit-1.4480909|title=Sask.'s only self-run Indigenous police force hopes new federal money will help it keep recruits|website=CBC News|access-date=July 8, 2022}} and Manitoba;{{cite web|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/manitoba/first-nations-policing-funding-1.5692570|title=Manitoba government increasing funding for First Nations police services|website=CBC News|access-date=July 8, 2022}} three services in Alberta;{{cite web|url=https://www.aptnnews.ca/investigates/aptn-investigates-defending-the-land-first-nations-policing/|title=First Nations police chiefs in Alberta say no to a provincial police force|website=APTN News|date=18 April 2022 |access-date=July 8, 2022}} nine in Ontario;{{cite web|url=https://news.ontario.ca/en/release/5951/more-police-officers-for-first-nations|title=More Police Officers for First Nations|website=Government of Ontario Newsroom|access-date=July 8, 2022}} and 23 in Quebec, although that number had decreased to 22 by 2020.{{cite web|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/montreal/indigenous-police-quebec-investment-1.5828964|title=Recruitment of Indigenous police officers a top priority, says Quebec government|website=CBC News|access-date=July 8, 2022}} First Nations police services are required to meet different standards in each province. In British Columbia, First Nations police services are considered "designated policing units" and placed in the same category as the Metro Vancouver Transit Police.{{cite web|url=https://www.leg.bc.ca/content/CommitteeDocuments/42nd-parliament/3rd-session/rpa/SC-RPA-Report_42-3_2022-04-28.pdf|title=Transforming Policing and Community Safety in British Columbia|website=Legislative Assembly of British Columbia|page=17|access-date=July 8, 2022|archive-date=2022-06-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220614164828/https://www.leg.bc.ca/content/CommitteeDocuments/42nd-parliament/3rd-session/rpa/SC-RPA-Report_42-3_2022-04-28.pdf|url-status=dead}} In Alberta, First Nations police services cannot maintain specialized resources, such as police dogs, and must consult with the RCMP before completing investigations into major crimes. In Quebec, however, First Nations police services have the "same missions, responsibilities, and powers [as non-Indigenous police forces] under Quebec police law." First Nations police services in Ontario are considered programs, not essential services, and are not required to meet standards under that province's Police Services Act unless police leadership decides to apply for an opt-in.{{cite web|url=https://www.aptnnews.ca/national-news/ontario-takes-big-step-towards-first-nations-policing-historic-bill/|title=Ontario takes big step towards First Nations policing with historic bill|website=APTN News|date=9 March 2018 |access-date=July 8, 2022}}

Many First Nations police services face serious funding shortfalls. In January 2006, two Indigenous men burned to death and an officer was seriously injured in a rescue attempt at a Nishnawbe-Aski Police Service detachment that the police force could not afford to bring into compliance with the fire code.{{cite web|url=https://nationtalk.ca/story/10th-anniversary-of-kashechewan-fire-marked-with-renewed-call-for-safety|title=10TH Anniversary of Kashechewan Fire Marked with Renewed Call for Safety|website=NationTalk|access-date=July 8, 2022}} (Two years later, the service had only one detachment that met provincial standards.){{cite web|url=http://www.chroniclejournal.com/stories_local.php?id=90120|title=NAN seeks help for 'policing crisis'|website=The Chronicle Journal (Thunder Bay)|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080207001039/http://www.chroniclejournal.com/stories_local.php?id=90120 |access-date=July 8, 2022|archive-date=2008-02-07 }} Other First Nations police services have struggled to pay for officers' wages and benefits or fill frontline positions because of budget shortfalls.{{cite news|url=https://www.kenoraminerandnews.com/2013/04/05/treaty-three-police-imposes-pay-and-benefit-cuts-and-outrages-its-union|title=Treaty Three Police imposes pay and benefit cuts and outrages its union|newspaper=Kenoraminerandnews|access-date=July 8, 2022}} In 2022, the Canadian Human Rights Tribunal found that the federal government, which unilaterally sets the budgets for First Nations police forces participating in the First Nations and Inuit Policing Program, engaged in discrimination when it failed to provide adequate funding to the Mashteuiatsh Innu Nation's police force.

In 2022, the British Columbia Special Committee on Reforming the Police Act unanimously recommended that the First Nations and Inuit Policing Program be replaced with a "new legislative and funding framework, consistent with international and domestic policing best practices and standards,"{{cite web|url=https://www.leg.bc.ca/content/CommitteeDocuments/42nd-parliament/3rd-session/rpa/SC-RPA-Report_42-3_2022-04-28.pdf|title=Transforming Policing and Community Safety in British Columbia|website=Legislative Assembly of British Columbia|page=53|access-date=July 8, 2022|archive-date=2022-06-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220614164828/https://www.leg.bc.ca/content/CommitteeDocuments/42nd-parliament/3rd-session/rpa/SC-RPA-Report_42-3_2022-04-28.pdf|url-status=dead}} and noted that "a truly decolonized lens would see Indigenous police services as an option for neighbouring municipalities or regions."{{cite web|url=https://www.leg.bc.ca/content/CommitteeDocuments/42nd-parliament/3rd-session/rpa/SC-RPA-Report_42-3_2022-04-28.pdf|title=Transforming Policing and Community Safety in British Columbia|website=Legislative Assembly of British Columbia|page=8|access-date=July 8, 2022|archive-date=2022-06-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220614164828/https://www.leg.bc.ca/content/CommitteeDocuments/42nd-parliament/3rd-session/rpa/SC-RPA-Report_42-3_2022-04-28.pdf|url-status=dead}} Earlier that same year, the federal government began engaging First Nations about changes to the program and Indigenous police legislation.{{cite web|url=https://www.canada.ca/en/public-safety-canada/news/2022/03/government-of-canada-launches-engagement-process-for-first-nations-police-services-legislation.html|title=Government of Canada launches engagement process for First Nations police services legislation|website=Public Safety Canada|date=21 March 2022 |access-date=July 8, 2022}}{{cite web|url=https://calgarysun.com/news/local-news/tsuutina-nation-police-force-gets-boost-from-province/wcm/af2237f4-9313-4fbb-be9a-f7ef60fecaa2|title=Tsuut'ina Nation police force gets provincial funding boost|website=Calgary Sun|access-date=July 8, 2022}}

File:Vancouver Police Car decoration (8048429122).jpg, which provides police services to the Musqueam First Nation, is one of many non-Indigenous government services in British Columbia to have added First Nations art to buildings and vehicles in recent years.]]

Every form of Indigenous government has the power to enact and enforce by-laws. Métis settlements receive their authority from the Alberta Metis Settlements Act, and First and Inuit nations receive their authority either from the Indian Act or the relevant comprehensive land claim agreement.{{cite web|url=https://www.oba.org/Sections/Aboriginal-Law/Articles/Articles-2020/November-2020/Program-Highlights-Critical-Issues-in-the-Enforce?lang=fr-ca|title=Critical Issues in the Enforcement of Indigenous Laws|website=Ontario Bar Association|access-date=July 9, 2022}} However, because the Indian Act does not specify whether by-law violations should be prosecuted in federal or provincial and territorial courts, some provincial courts will not prosecute Indigenous laws.{{cite web|url=https://www.mycampbellrivernow.com/56902/news/first-nations-communities-speak-about-law-enforcement-on-reserves/|title=First Nations communities speak about law enforcement on reserves|website=My Campbell River Now|date=10 June 2021 |access-date=July 9, 2022}} The federal government ended a program that allowed Indigenous governments to appoint federal judges to enforce Indigenous laws in specialized courts in 2004, and as of 2022, few Indigenous governments exercise their powers to enact and enforce by-laws.{{cite web|url=https://www.oktlaw.com/solving-the-indian-act-by-law-enforcement-issue-prosecution-of-indian-act-by-laws/|title=Solving the Indian Act by-law enforcement issue: Prosecution of Indian Act by-laws|website=Ontario Bar Association|date=14 April 2020 |access-date=July 9, 2022}}

Several First Nations, such as the Asubpeeschoseewagong First Nation in northern Ontario, rely on police services to enforce by-laws,{{cite web|url=https://www.stratfordbeaconherald.com/news/local-news/treaty-3-police-to-enforce-grassy-narrows-inherent-law/wcm/1c040775-0b01-4bc9-a822-b06e74a400bd/amp/|title=Treaty 3 police to enforce Grassy Narrows inherent law|website=Stratford Beacon-Herald|access-date=July 9, 2022}} while others maintain dedicated by-law enforcement agencies.{{cite web|url=https://nfn.ca/community-liaison-officer/|title=Bylaw Enforcement|website=Nipissing First Nation|access-date=July 9, 2022}} First Nations in Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba can maintain special constabularies for the enforcement of Indigenous and provincial legislation.{{cite web|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/saskatchewan/community-safety-officer-program-piloted-on-reserve-1.6417799|title=Community safety officer program to be piloted on-reserve in Saskatchewan|website=CBC News|access-date=July 9, 2022}}{{cite web|url=https://www.fortmckay.com/events/meet-your-community-peace-officers/|title=Meet your Community Peace Officers|website=Fort McKay First Nation|access-date=July 9, 2022}}{{cite web|url=https://mkonation.com/mko/wp-content/uploads/2015_mko_aga_-_bill_5_the_police_services_amendment_act__first_nation_safety_officers__fin3_w_all_docs_w_nums_print_september_1_2_and_3_2015.pdf|title=Manitoba Keewatinowi Okimakanak briefing on Bill 5, the Police Services Amendment Act|website=Manitoba Keewatinowi Okimakanak, Inc.}} Some First Nations police services, citing a lack of legitimacy or prosecutability, will not enforce Indigenous laws.{{cite web|url=https://yellowheadinstitute.org/2019/01/23/the-promise-and-failure-of-first-nation-policing-in-ontario/|title=The Promise and Failure of First Nation Policing in Ontario|website=Yellowhead Institute|date=23 January 2019 |access-date=July 9, 2022}}

Several First Nations and Indigenous communities operate special constabularies or other law enforcement agencies with limited law enforcement powers, while others operate community safety agencies with no law enforcement powers. Although similar functions existed pre-colonization, the bulk of these organizations are an evolution of the band constable system introduced in the 1960s. Band constables were peace officers tasked with enforcing First Nation by-laws and assisting local police.{{cite web|url=https://www.publicsafety.gc.ca/cnt/trnsprnc/brfng-mtrls/prlmntry-bndrs/20200623/003/indexc-en.aspx|title=Band Constable Program FAQ|website=Public Safety Canada|date=13 September 2021 |access-date=August 4, 2024}} The programme was terminated in 2015 and replaced by special constabularies in Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba, while in New Brunswick, the officers were replaced by locally-hired civilian RCMP employees tasked with delivering crime prevention and community engagement programmes.{{cite web|url=https://www.rcmp.ca/en/gazette/new-brunswick-rcmp-focuses-engaging-indigenous-communities|title=New Brunswick RCMP focuses on engaging with Indigenous communities|website=RCMP|access-date=August 4, 2024}} The special constabularies have responsibility over enforcing provincial and First Nation legislation and are generally prohibited from conducting Criminal Code enforcement.

Other First Nations maintain law enforcement divisions tasked exclusively with enforcing First Nation by-laws. These organizations typically have no authority to enforce provincial or federal legislation. The Musqueam First Nation in British Columbia maintains a Safety and Security Department, responsible for emergency management, community patrols, and "ensur[ing] compliance" with Musqueam by-laws.{{cite web|url=https://www.musqueam.bc.ca/departments/land-capital-and-housing/security/|title=Safety and Security|website=Musqueam Indian Band|access-date=July 9, 2022}} The Fort McKay First Nation in the Alberta oil sands maintains a Park Ranger Program — staffed by peace officers able to enforce First Nation by-laws but only report violations of provincial or federal law — to patrol the reserve's parks and wilderness and provide assistance and education to band members and visitors.{{cite web|url=https://www.fortmckay.com/community/park-ranger-program/|title=Park Ranger Program|website=Fort McKay First Nation|access-date=July 9, 2022}} The Fort McKay First Nation also maintains a special constabulary to provide general community safety services.{{cite web|url=https://www.fortmckay.com/programs-services/fort-mckay-first-nation-protective-services/|title=Protective Services|website=Fort McKay First Nation|access-date=August 4, 2024}}

In Yukon and the Northwest Territories, First Nations can hire "community safety officers", who — unlike community safety officers in Saskatchewan — have no law enforcement or police powers and are instead tasked with patrolling communities, engaging with residents, and responding to emergencies.{{cite web|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/north/yukon-indigenous-led-community-safety-program-will-use-aip-prize-money-to-support-and-expand-program-1.6382077|title=Yukon Indigenous-led community safety program will use AIP prize money to support and expand program|website=CBC News|access-date=July 9, 2022}}{{cite web|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/north/selkirk-first-nation-security-officers-yukon-1.5167654|title=Trust, hope and pride: Selkirk First Nation has its own security officers|website=CBC News|access-date=July 9, 2022}} Many of these agencies are composed mostly or entirely of elders.{{cite web|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/north/teslin-yukon-community-safety-officers-1.6288348|title='Matriarchs of the community': Teslin elders become Yukon's latest community officers|website=CBC News|access-date=July 9, 2022}} Some First Nations in Saskatchewan operate "peacekeeper" programs, whose staff do not have law enforcement or police powers, to respond to non-violent calls for service, vehicle accidents, and fires.{{cite web|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/saskatchewan/pelican-narrows-peacekeeper-program-security-cree-1.4496971|title=New peacekeeper security officers to patrol northern Sask. community troubled by violent crime|website=CBC News|access-date=July 22, 2022}} Similar programmes exist in Winnipeg, Manitoba, where volunteer organizations like the Bear Clan Patrol and the Mama Bear Clan conduct regular patrols of Indigenous neighbourhoods, liaise with Winnipeg Police to search for missing people, and deliver food to unhoused residents.{{cite news|url=https://bearclanpatrol.org/about/|title=About Us|newspaper=Bear Clan|access-date=July 9, 2022}}{{cite journal|url=https://www.csmonitor.com/World/Americas/2022/0607/In-Winnipeg-Bear-Clan-Patrol-is-keeping-Indigenous-women-safer|title=In Winnipeg, Bear Clan Patrol is keeping Indigenous women safer|journal=Christian Science Monitor|date=7 June 2022 |access-date=July 9, 2022}}

File:Emergency Services (33471884184).jpg: a municipal peace officer attending a call for service alongside an officer from a regional RCMP detachment.]]

Tiered policing is a model of specialization in police service delivery that involves hiring specially-trained, non-police employees to assume responsibility over areas of a police service's traditional mandate.{{cite web|url=https://publications.gc.ca/collections/collection_2017/grc-rcmp/PS67-1-2-2014-eng.pdf|title=Tiered Policing: An Alternative Model of Police Service Delivery|date=2014|access-date=2022-07-05|website=Canadian Police College (Paul F. McKenna)}} In contrast to a generalist police service, where sworn police officers with standardized training provide the bulk of police services — response to emergencies, investigation of crimes, community safety initiatives, and some clerical duties — and are augmented by a handful of non-police specialists in administrative roles; tiered police organizations employ a variety of staff with different training and expertise, as well as sworn police officers, who then specialize in various policing functions or components of those functions, including criminal investigations and frontline police service delivery.{{cite web|url=https://cca-reports.ca/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/policing_fullreporten.pdf|title=Policing Canada in the 21st Century: New Policing for New Challenges|website=Council of Canadian Academies}} In Canada, the use of separate organizations to deliver certain frontline police services is also common, particularly in rural areas or in communities that do not maintain an independent police service.{{cite web|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/newfoundland-labrador/gander-enforcement-officers-breakins-1.3424125|title=Gander beefs up enforcement after bold break-ins|website=CBC News}}{{cite web|url=https://www.yellowknife.ca/en/living-here/municipal-enforcement-division.aspx|title=Municipal Enforcement|website=City of Yellowknife|date=4 July 2023 }} In these communities, independent special constabularies, civil law enforcement agencies, and community safety agencies are tasked with delivering basic frontline policing and community safety duties while police services respond to serious criminal violations.{{cite web|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/north/nwt-community-safety-officer-program-1.6112032|title=N.W.T's 1st community safety officer pilot program coming to Fort Liard|website=CBC News}} As of 2024, both forms of the model are common across Canada, and tiered policing is practiced in Yukon, the Northwest Territories, British Columbia,{{cite web|url=https://vancouverisland.ctvnews.ca/it-s-a-challenging-job-new-community-safety-officers-support-homeless-population-in-nanaimo-1.6341009|title='It's a challenging job': New community safety officers support homeless population in Nanaimo|website=CTV News|date=3 April 2023 }}{{cite web|url=https://transitpolice.ca/careers/cso/|title=Community Safety Officer|website=Metro Vancouver Transit Police|date=8 November 2022 }} Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, Ontario,{{cite news|url=https://www.ontario.ca/laws/regulation/230396#BK12|title=O. Reg. 396/23: Matters respecting the appointment and functions of special constables and the authorization of special constable employers under the Community Safety and Policing Act|newspaper=Ontario.ca|date=24 July 2014 }} Quebec, New Brunswick,{{cite web|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/new-brunswick/moncton-public-safety-votes-homelessness-crime-1.6524166|title=Moncton spending $1M to double community officers in response to safety fears|website=CBC News}} and Newfoundland and Labrador.

Literature and research into tiered policing has generally found that tiered delivery models are successful in increasing police efficacy and reducing the cost of policing, but that implementation efforts have been hampered by negative cultural perceptions within police services about non-police specialists and confusion over their role.{{cite web|url=https://www.publicsafety.gc.ca/cnt/rsrcs/pblctns/2015-r042/index-en.aspx|title=The Civilianization of Police in Canada|website=Public Safety Canada|author=John Kiedrowski, Ronald-Frans Melchers, Rick Ruddell, and Michael Petrunik|date=21 December 2018 }} Some non-police specialists have reported demeaning treatment or exclusion from workplace events, while others have highlighted under-utilization of their expertise or, conversely, expectations to participate in law enforcement activities they are neither trained nor authorized to participate in.{{cite web|url=https://www.blueline.ca/cleaning-up-the-peace-officer-role-confusion-in-alberta-6175/|title=Cleaning up the peace officer role confusion in Alberta|date=2017-11-23|access-date=2022-07-05|website=Blue Line Magazine}}{{cite web|url=https://toronto.citynews.ca/2022/06/15/toronto-police-harassment-discrimination-review/|title=60% of Toronto police employees experienced or witnessed harassment/discrimination: report|date=2022-06-05|access-date=2022-07-05|website=CityNews}} Some police services have failed to provide meaningful career advancement or professional development opportunities to non-police staff, and have instead siloed their personnel management strategies between sworn police officers and non-police staff; or they have filled positions intended for non-police specialists with police officers who otherwise would need to be placed on leave for an injury or conduct investigation. Alternatively, police forces like the Royal Canadian Mounted Police have integrated police officers and non-police specialists directly alongside each other, recruiting non-police experts in computer science and accounting to join cyber and financial crime investigation teams.{{cite web|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/rcmp-cyber-hires-1.6442344|title=RCMP looks to bolster its ranks with civilians, says it's 'playing with the DNA' of the service|author=Catharine Tunney|website=CBC News}} These investigators are fully integrated into the organization, given limited police authority, and are charged with interviewing witnesses and obtaining and executing search warrants, among other duties.{{cite web|url=https://www.rcmp-grc.gc.ca/en/civilian-criminal-investigators|title=Civilian Criminal Investigators|website=Royal Canadian Mounted Police}}

Non-police specialists fall into a variety of categories and are referred to by different titles depending on the individual employer and role. They include sworn special constables and peace officers providing a variety of frontline police services; forensic and crime scene investigators;{{cite web|url=https://cobourgpoliceservice.com/special-constables/|title=Special Constables|website=Cobourg Police Service}}{{cite web|url=https://www.tps.ca/organizational-chart/specialized-operations-command/detective-operations/investigative-services/forensic-identification-services/dna-coordinator/|title=DNA Coordinator|website=Toronto Police Service}} criminal investigators; clerical administrators; volunteers;{{cite web|url=https://www.sootoday.com/city-police-beat/sault-police-searching-for-volunteer-auxiliary-officers-9266860|title=Sault Police searching for volunteer auxiliary officers|website=SooToday.com|date=25 July 2024 }}{{cite web|url=https://joinspd.ca/reserve-constable/|title=Reserve Constables|website=Saanich Police Department}} and media affairs specialists.{{cite web|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/vancouver-police-lawsuit-public-affairs-1.7279352|title=Former Vancouver police head of public affairs claims harassment|access-date=2024-08-04|website=CBC News}} Individual police services may refer to non-police specialists as "police staff,"{{cite web|url=https://www.deltapolice.ca/police-staff|title=Police Staff|website=Delta Police Department}} "civilian employees,"{{cite web|url=https://www.barriepolice.ca/join-our-team/civilian-employment/|title=Civilian Employment|website=Barrie Police Service}} or "professional staff."{{cite web|url=https://www.niagarapolice.ca/en/careers-and-opportunities/civilianemployment.aspx|title=Professional Employment|website=Niagara Regional Police Service|date=29 November 2023 }} Special constables and other peace officers employed in enforcement and frontline policing roles operate under a variety of different designations depending on the individual police service and relevant provincial regulation: some police services categorize these officers as civilian or professional staff, while others categorize them as sworn employees in a category distinct from police officers.{{cite web|url=https://www.opp.ca/index.php?&lng=en&id=115&entryid=56b766d38f94aca15828d174|title=Special Constables|website=Ontario Provincial Police}}

File:Toronto Police Parking Enforcement Corolla CROPPED.png car used by that police service's parking enforcement officers, who are specially-trained peace officers tasked with enforcing municipal by-laws.]]

The Winnipeg Police Service and Vancouver Police Department both employ special constables to guard crime scenes, respond to some non-violent calls for service, and direct traffic at emergencies.{{cite web|url=https://www.toronto.ca/legdocs/mmis/2013/au/bgrd/backgroundfile-52331.pdf|title=Vancouver Traffic Authority Program - Feasibility of Toronto Implementation|date=2012|access-date=2022-07-05|website=Toronto Police Service Corporate Planning}} The Saskatoon Police Service employs special constables, referred to as "alternative response officers," to guard crime scenes, direct traffic at emergencies and events, and conduct foot patrols in high-crime areas.{{cite news|url=https://thestarphoenix.com/news/local-news/police-alternative-response-officers-to-be-permanent-in-downtown-riversdale|title=Police alternative response officers to be permanent in downtown, Riversdale|newspaper=Thestarphoenix|author=Thia James|date=2022-09-12}} The File Hills First Nations Police Service employs special constables to fulfill almost all community policing duties in member reserves, manage police stations and police records, conduct traffic enforcement, and respond to some calls for service.{{cite web|url=http://www.filehillspolice.ca/special-constables.html|title=Careers - Special Constables|website=File Hills First Nations Police Service}} Police services in Ontario have practiced tiered policing since the 1980s, when special constables first began to assume court protection and prisoner transport duties, but several police forces including the Brantford Police Service,{{cite news|url=https://www.brantfordexpositor.ca/news/local-news/council-oks-plan-to-hire-special-constables-for-downtown|title=Council OKs plan to hire special constables for downtown|date=2022-02-08|access-date=2022-07-06|newspaper=Brantfordexpositor}} Cobourg Police Service,{{cite web|url=https://www.northumberlandnews.com/news-story/10145618-impact-tiered-policing-makes-service-truly-effective-in-cobourg-says-chief/|title=IMPACT: Tiered policing makes service 'truly effective' in Cobourg, says chief|date=2020-08-25|access-date=2022-07-06|website=Northumberland News}} and Toronto Police Service{{cite web|url=https://www.blueline.ca/toronto-police-hiring-32-more-district-special-constables-by-fall-2019/|title=Toronto Police hiring 32 more district special constables by Fall 2019|date=2020-08-25|access-date=2019-11-01|website=Blue Line Magazine}} now deploy special constables and volunteer auxiliary constables in frontline policing roles. Since 2021, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police has employed Civilian Criminal Investigators, unarmed peace officers recruited from non-police fields, to assist with technical computer science or financial crimes.[https://www.rcmp-grc.gc.ca/en/civilian-criminal-investigators Civilian Criminal Investigators]

File:Ford Explorer Police Montréal.png of the Hampstead, Quebec Public Security division, one of several similar organizations in the urban agglomeration of Montreal.]]

Most common in rural areas, first developed as an intentional framework in the 1980s in Alberta

In all three territories, Alberta, Saskatchewan, the Urban agglomeration of Montreal, Newfoundland and Labrador, and parts of southern Ontario, tiered police service delivery includes separate special constabularies, which provide police services to municipalities served by regional or contracted police forces and to specific organizations, such as universities or transit systems.{{cite web|url=https://www.macleans.ca/society/north-battleford-canadas-most-dangerous-place-is-fighting-for-its-future/|title=Canada's most dangerous place, North Battleford, is fighting for its future|date=2017-11-23|access-date=2022-07-05|website=Maclean's}}

In 2000, the Toronto Police Service partnered with local hospitals to create the Mobile Crisis Intervention Team, which pairs nurses with frontline police officers to respond to mental health crises.{{cite web|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/toronto/toronto-police-set-to-expand-mobile-crisis-intervention-team-1.5726548|title=Toronto police pushing to expand mobile crisis team to respond to mental health calls|date=2020-09-17|access-date=2022-07-05|website=CBC News}} The program is only active in some parts of the City, and only during the afternoon and early evening, although it has gradually expanded since its introduction.{{cite web|url=https://www.thestar.com/news/crime/2014/05/05/toronto_police_expand_mobile_crisis_intervention_program_into_north_york.html|title=Toronto police expand mobile crisis intervention program into North York|date=2014-04-14|access-date=2022-07-05|website=Toronto Star}} Similar programs exist in parts of Ontario;{{cite web|url=https://globalnews.ca/news/4071986/mobile-mental-health-initiative-to-roll-out-across-northumberland-county-this-spring/|title=Mobile mental-health initiative to roll out across Northumberland County this spring|date=2018-04-08|access-date=2022-07-05|website=Global News}}{{cite web|url=https://www.blueline.ca/peel-regional-police-launches-mobile-crisis-rapid-response-team/|title=Peel Regional Police launches Mobile Crisis Rapid Response Team|date=2020-01-21|access-date=2022-07-05|website=Blue Line Magazine}} parts of Metro Vancouver and Vancouver Island;{{cite web|url=https://www.bcss.org/family-advocacy/car-87-vancouver-police-department/|title=Vancouver Police Department Car 87|access-date=2022-07-05|website=British Columbia Schizophrenia Society}}{{cite web|url=https://www.nsnews.com/local-news/new-mental-health-police-service-now-available-on-the-north-shore-5029725|title=New mental health police service now available on the North Shore|date=2022-02-04|access-date=2022-07-05|website=North Shore News}}{{cite web|url=https://www.islandhealth.ca/our-services/mental-health-substance-use-services/integrated-mobile-crisis-response-team-imcrt|title=Integrated Mobile Crisis Response Team (IMCRT)|access-date=2022-07-05|website=Island Health}} Alberta and Saskatchewan, where they are operated by each province's respective provincial health authority;{{cite web|url=https://edmonton.citynews.ca/2021/07/19/alberta-rcmp-mental-health-response-teams/|title=Alberta RCMP expanding use of mental health response teams|date=2021-07-19|access-date=2022-07-05|website=CityNews}} Winnipeg, Manitoba; Saint John, New Brunswick;{{cite web|url=https://www2.gnb.ca/content/gnb/en/news/news_release.2020.02.0070.html|title=New mobile response crisis team announced|date=2020-02-21|access-date=2022-07-05|website=Government of New Brunswick}} the Halifax Regional Municipality;{{cite web|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/nova-scotia/police-force-mental-health-crisis-response-training-de-escalation-1.5631842|title=Rural N.S. police chief says officers not best suited to respond to mental health crises|date=2020-06-29|access-date=2022-07-05|website=RCMP}} Newfoundland and Labrador;{{cite web|url=https://www.rcmp-grc.gc.ca/en/news/2020/mobile-crisis-response-services-expanded-communities-newfoundland-and-labrador|title=Mobile Crisis Response Services Expanded to More Communities in Newfoundland and Labrador|date=2021-09-24|access-date=2022-07-05|website=RCMP}} and some First Nations.{{cite web|url=https://www.t3ps.ca/who-we-are/our-programs/|title=Our Programs|access-date=2022-07-05|website=Treaty Three Police Service}} Many of these services operate part-time, restrict their clientele to certain demographics (such as youths), and have only a few teams to cover a large area. There are no mobile mental health crisis response teams in Quebec or Canada's territories, although the Nunavut RCMP began talks with the Nunavut Justice Department in 2020 to implement a unit.{{cite web|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/north/nunavut-rcmp-justice-mental-health-calls-1.5704443|title=Nunavut, RCMP in talks to send mental health workers on police calls|date=2020-08-30|access-date=2022-07-05|website=CBC News}}

Following the death of Regis Korchinski-Paquet, the Toronto Police Service expanded its Mobile Crisis Intervention Team and began dispatching members of the team through 9-1-1 calls, rather than by back-up requests from other officers. The City of Toronto also launched a new crisis response team, the Community Crisis Service, in 2022. The service, which is composed entirely of unarmed, non-police specialists, operates 24 hours a day, six days a week.{{cite web|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/toronto/toronto-community-crisis-service-pilot-projects-1.6402037|title=Toronto to launch crisis response pilot projects without police in downtown east and northeast|date=2022-03-29|access-date=2022-07-05|website=CBC News}}

{{see also|Police board}}

In every province except Quebec and Prince Edward Island, municipalities operating their own police service are required to establish a police commission, also referred to as a police board or police services board, to oversee local policing, prepare budgets, hire the chief of police, and legally employ every police officer at an arms length of the municipal council.{{cite web|url=https://www.ojp.gov/ncjrs/virtual-library/abstracts/police-commissions-and-boards-canada|title=Police Commissions and Boards in Canada|access-date=2024-02-16|website=U. S. Department of Justice}} These commissions have authority over the policies and procedures of the police service, and while they do not have control over operational matters (i.e. the number of police officers dispatched to a protest or a decision to charge an offender), they can offer advice about and oversee most policing operations.{{cite web|url=https://www.thestar.com/news/gta/g20/g20-summit-report-dismays-police-boards/article_2e0ddd1a-d95a-5e8e-bea9-5ed2df68d981.html|title=G20 summit report dismays police boards|access-date=2024-02-16|website=Toronto Star|date=15 August 2012 }}{{cite web|url=https://www.canadianlawyermag.com/news/opinion/municipal-police-boards-should-do-their-job-of-holding-the-cops-to-account/374319|title=Municipal police boards should do their job of holding the cops to account|access-date=2024-02-16|website=Canadian Lawyer}}

{{main|Police ranks in Canada}}

File:Members of the Calgary Police Service, including Police Chief Mark Neufeld, pose for a photo at the Canada Day festivities in Calgary, Alberta.jpg, including Police Chief Mark Neufeld (second from right), posing for a photo at a Canada Day event in 2022.]]

Canadian police ranks are largely consistent with those used by British and Commonwealth police services. Uniquely, Canadian police services use the title "staff" in place of "chief" for certain ranks, such as staff sergeant or staff inspector.{{cite web|url=http://www.rcmp-grc.gc.ca/about-ausujet/organi-eng.htm |title=Organizational structure|publisher=Royal Canadian Mounted Police|date=13 March 2017 |access-date=3 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090228055017/http://www.rcmp-grc.gc.ca/about-ausujet/organi-eng.htm |archive-date=28 February 2009 |url-status=dead }} Chief of Police is the title of the head of most Canadian police forces, except in British Columbia (where police executives are called Chief Constable or Chief Officer) and Quebec (where police executives are called Directors). In most provinces, police ranks and insignia are regulated by the solicitor general.{{cite web|url=https://www.ontario.ca/laws/regulation/900929|title=Ontario Police Services Act, Reg. 929: Municipal Police Forces|publisher=Royal Canadian Mounted Police|date=13 March 2017 |access-date=3 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090228055017/http://www.rcmp-grc.gc.ca/about-ausujet/organi-eng.htm |archive-date=28 February 2009 |url-status=dead }} The Royal Canadian Mounted Police and Ontario Provincial Police both use the title "Commissioner." Special constabularies typically use the same rank structure as police services, while civil law enforcement agencies usually use role-based rank titles, opting for ranks like "supervisor" instead of "sergeant."

{{See also|List of police firearms in Canada}}

File:RCMP_X26.jpg less-lethal weapon used by the RCMP]]

Frontline police officers in Canada are usually equipped with semi-automatic 9mm calibre handguns. Some special constables, most notably those employed by the Niagara Parks Police Service; federal park wardens; and conservation officers also carry handguns.{{cite news|url=https://niagaraatlarge.com/2010/04/23/time-honoured-niagara-parks-police-%e2%80%93-one-of-oldest-police-forces-in-ontario-could-die-without-public-support/|title=Time-Honoured Niagara Parks Police – One Of Oldest Police Forces In Ontario – Could Die Without Public Support|first1=William|last1=Hogg|date=April 23, 2010|work=NiagaraAtLarge.com|access-date=April 11, 2017}} Most police cruisers are equipped with carbine rifles and other long guns designed to fire less-lethal ammunition.{{cite web|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/toronto/toronto-police-rifles-1.3409707|title=Toronto police to get military-style assault rifles|access-date=2022-07-02|website=CBC News}} Police officers and special constables are also usually equipped with collapsible batons and pepper spray.

Police services have equipped officers with Tasers as early as 2001, but their use has been controversial. In one 2021 incident, a judge stayed all charges against a man who was repeatedly tasered by an Edmonton police officer after a brief foot chase, finding that the officer had tasered him "out of frustration" and violated their police force's Taser policies.{{cite web|url=https://edmontonjournal.com/news/local-news/deployed-out-of-frustration-charges-stayed-after-judge-rules-edmonton-police-broke-own-taser-policy|title='Deployed out of frustration': Charges stayed after judge rules Edmonton police broke own Taser policy |access-date=2022-07-02|website=Edmonton Journal}} In 2007, RCMP officers killed Robert Dziekański, a Polish citizen, with a Taser at the Vancouver International Airport. The incident prompted the Toronto Police Service and Royal Newfoundland Constabulary to put orders for Tasers on hold.{{cite web|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/we-can-learn-from-taser-video-b-c-premier-says-1.634201|title=We can learn from Taser video, B.C. premier says|access-date=2022-07-02|website=CBC News}} (Both forces eventually acquired Tasers.) Taser deployments, and particularly their use against people experiencing mental health crises, continued to attract public scrutiny as of 2022.{{cite web|url=https://bc.ctvnews.ca/vancouver-police-use-taser-on-suicidal-man-give-each-other-fist-bumps-in-social-media-video-1.5918943|title=Vancouver police use Taser on suicidal man, give each other fist bumps in social media video|access-date=2022-07-02|website=CTV News Vancouver|date=25 May 2022 }}

Compared to American police forces, Canadian police and law enforcement agencies have been slow to adopt body-worn cameras.{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YBeyRHHKxE0|title=Why most Canadian police forces don't use body cameras|access-date=2022-07-02|website=CBC News YouTube|date=4 June 2020 }} The first police force to acquire body-worn cameras on a permanent basis was the single-officer police service in the Rural Municipality of Cornwallis, Manitoba, in 2016.{{cite web|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/manitoba/cornwallis-police-camera-manitoba-1.3671410|title=Rural Manitoba police constable among few wearing body cameras|access-date=2022-07-02|website=CBC News}} In the wake of protests following the murder of George Floyd in Minneapolis, body-worn cameras were adopted by several Canadian police forces, including the Toronto Police Service, Cobourg Police Service, Kentville Police Service, and Saint John Police Force. The RCMP planned to roll body-worn cameras out starting in late 2021, but had not yet awarded a contract for supplying the cameras as of November of that year. However, as of May 2023, the RCMP is starting to roll out body-worn cameras to some detachments {{cite web|url=https://www.ctvnews.ca/canada/rcmp-to-begin-field-testing-body-cameras-ahead-of-national-rollout-1.6393793|title=RCMP to begin field-testing body cameras ahead of national rollout.|date=2023-05-10|access-date=2023-05-13|website=CTV News}}

Some special constabularies, such as the Saskatchewan Highway Patrol, also use body-worn cameras.{{cite news|url=https://leaderpost.com/news/saskatchewan/saskatchewan-highway-patrol-officers-will-have-body-cameras/|title=Saskatchewan Highway Patrol officers will have body cameras|date=2018-06-27|access-date=2022-07-02|website=Regina Leader-Post}} The Happy Valley-Goose Bay Municipal Enforcement Department, a special constabulary in Newfoundland and Labrador, equipped its officers with body-worn cameras briefly in 2021 before the province's privacy commissioner recommended that the Town stop the program because of concerns that video footage was not adequately protected.{{cite web|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/newfoundland-labrador/privacy-commissioner-happy-valley-goose-bay-body-cameras-1.6018035|title=Happy Valley-Goose Bay should scrap its bodycam program, says privacy commissioner|date=2021-06-27|access-date=2022-05-07|website=CBC News}}

File:Montreal Police (4368242343).jpg in Vancouver]]

Each law enforcement agency in Canada has its own uniform and identity, which must meet provincial or territorial regulations that ensure some consistency between different agencies. Although these regulations vary between jurisdictions, there are regional similarities in the Prairies and Atlantic Canada. Nationwide, almost every public safety and law enforcement agency equips their members with bulletproof vests, usually worn over the uniform shirt and with title boards (such as "Community Safety Officer" or "Police") that identify their legal status.

In Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, and Ontario, and New Brunswick, municipal police officers must wear navy blue dress shirts and navy blue trousers with red trouser piping.{{cite web|url=https://pubsaskdev.blob.core.windows.net/pubsask-prod/2265/P15-01R1.pdf|title=The Municipal Police Clothing and Rank Regulations, 1991 (Saskatchewan)}}{{Cite web |url=https://www.ontario.ca/laws/regulation/100268#BK10|title=Police Services Act O. Reg. 268/10, s. 9 (4).|date=24 July 2014 }} In British Columbia, Prince Edward Island, and Nova Scotia, municipal police officers generally wear royal blue trouser piping instead of red. Blue trouser piping is required by regulation in British Columbia, but in practice, this is rarely implemented.{{cite web |title=Police (Uniforms) Regulations |url=https://www.bclaws.gov.bc.ca/civix/document/id/complete/statreg/19_564_76#section3 |website=BC Laws |publisher=Province of British Columbia |access-date=4 February 2023}} In Quebec, police officers are not required to wear trouser piping.

In British Columbia, Newfoundland and Labrador, and the territories, municipal peace officers generally wear navy blue dress shirts and navy blue trousers with red trouser piping. In Alberta, peace officers and special constables are generally required to wear light grey shirts and navy blue trousers with matching light grey trouser piping.{{cite web|url=https://www.canlii.org/en/ab/laws/regu/alta-reg-312-2006/latest/alta-reg-312-2006.html|title=Peace Officer (Ministerial) Regulation, Alta Reg 312/2006}} In every other province, there are no consistent regulations for special constables and peace officers except that their uniforms be clearly distinct from those worn by police officers.

Prior to the widespread use of special constables and peace officers in frontline policing roles, public safety and law enforcement officers had generally similar uniforms regardless of their legal status. In the Canadian Prairies, police and peace officers typically wore light grey shirts.{{cite news|url=https://edmontonjournal.com/news/local-news/a-new-look-for-the-edmonton-police-service-report-on-uniforms-vehicle-livery-goes-to-council-monday|title=A new look for the Edmonton Police Service? Report on uniforms, vehicle livery goes to council Monday|author=Jonny Wakefield|newspaper=Edmontonjournal |publisher=Edmonton Journal}} The Royal Canadian Mounted Police is the only police service in Canada that still uses light grey dress shirts for frontline police officers, although Parks Canada Park Wardens also wear grey dress shirts with dark green trousers.{{cite web|url=https://www.facebook.com/photo/?fbid=5876361812380358&set=pb.100064435639765.-2207520000.| website=Facebook }}{{cite web|url=https://parks.canada.ca/pn-np/ab/banff/securite-safety/reglements-regulations |title=Park regulations }} In most other provinces, police officers typically wore light blue shirts. The adoption of navy blue shirts began in the 1990s and was primarily driven by a desire to make uniforms more professional, as police executives felt that lighter colours showed dirt and sweat too readily.{{cite web|url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/national/toronto-police-opt-for-basic-black-look/article1038804/|title=Toronto police opt for basic-black look|date=2000-04-19|access-date=2022-07-02|website=Globe and Mail}}

Historically, police and peace officers in Canada wore their badges on their caps and were generally required to wear their forage caps at all times.{{cite web|url=https://m.simcoe.com/news-story/5630028-barrie-police-wearing-ball-caps-this-summer/|title=Barrie Police wearing ball caps this summer|author=Janis Ramsay|date=17 May 2015 |publisher=Simcoe.com}} In British Columbia, Alberta, and Quebec, this requirement no longer exists, although some police services still require that frontline police officers wear some form of headgear. Beginning in the mid-2010s, an increasing share of police forces in Ontario have allowed frontline officers to wear ballcaps instead of forage caps.{{cite web|url=https://www.oppa.ca/Media/Blog/OPPBallCaps|title=OPP Association Supports OPP Commissioner Authorizing Wearing of OPP Ball Caps|date=2000-04-19|access-date=2022-08-29|website=Ontario Provincial Police Association}}

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| footer = Two Service de police de la Ville de Montréal vehicles. The white design (left), was used in the 2010s, while the navy blue design (right) was introduced in 2018.{{cite web|url=https://dailyhive.com/montreal/montreal-police-new-look-cars-uniforms-2018|title=Montreal police update their cars and uniforms for a new look (VIDEO)|date=2018-06-22|access-date=2022-07-28|website=DH News}}

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{{see also|Police vehicles in the United States and Canada}}

As part of their authority to establish, maintain, and regulate law enforcement agencies, some provinces regulate the models of vehicle that can be used by police services for frontline policing.{{cite web|url=https://cobourgpoliceservice.com/2022/05/25/cobourg-police-service-unveils-mach-e/|title=Cobourg Police Service unveils newest addition to fleet|website=Cobourg Police Service}} In the late 2010s and early 2020s, many Canadian police services began ordering vehicles painted grey, navy blue, or black to replace white- and silver-coloured cruisers, sparking controversy about their accessibility to the public and visibility in low-light conditions.{{cite web|url=https://www.thestar.com/news/city_hall/2016/10/30/canadian-police-forces-switch-to-darker-cruisers-a-disturbing-trend-critics-say.html|title=Canadian police forces' switch to darker cruisers 'a disturbing trend,' critics say|date=2016-10-30|access-date=2022-07-02|website=Toronto Star}} In every province and territory, police services are entitled to use red and blue lights on marked and unmarked emergency vehicles.

File:St. Thomas Police Cruiser.jpg in 2022.]]

In the early 2020s, some police services in Ontario began to pilot Battenburg markings.{{cite web|url=https://london.ctvnews.ca/st-thomas-police-testing-out-new-cruiser-paint-design-1.5456479|title=St. Thomas police testing out new cruiser paint design|date=2021-06-04|access-date=2022-07-28|website=CTV News}}{{cite web|url=https://www.orilliamatters.com/police-beat/barrie-police-unveil-new-checkerboard-look-for-some-cruisers-5625522|title=Barrie police unveil new checkerboard look for some cruisers|date=2021-06-04|access-date=2022-07-28|website=OrilliaMatters.com}}{{Cite web |last=Draper |first=John |date=2023-08-30 |title=Highly Visible Police Cars – Cobourg News Blog |url=https://www.cobourgblog.com/news-2023/highly-visible-police-cars |access-date=2023-10-26 |website=Cobourg News Blog |language=en-CA}} As of 2025, the Barrie Police Service has adopted the high visibility markings for its entire fleet, while the police forces in London and Brantford have adopted the markings for vehicles used by special constables.{{Cite web |last=Mays |first=Jennett |title=Barrie Police make the switch to Battenburg Cruisers |url=https://www.barriepolice.ca/barrie-police-make-the-switch-to-battenburg-cruisers/ |access-date=2023-10-09 |website=barriepolice |language=en-CA}}{{cite web|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/london/london-police-hires-19-special-constables-in-bid-to-curb-lengthy-call-response-times-1.7365855|title=London police hires 19 special constables in bid to curb lengthy call response times|website=CBC News}}{{cite web|url=https://www.brantbeacon.ca/brantford-police-service-unveil-newly-designed-vehicles/|title=Brantford Police Service unveil newly designed vehicles|website=Brant Beacon|date=2 April 2025 }}

Most special constabularies use fleets of marked police-model vehicles, and many are painted in colours that reflect the larger corporate branding scheme of their parent organization.{{cite web|url=http://cdn.coverstand.com/44080/371613/83f6fe37d9316c49bd32f5ed4f0f1d29c0266242.pdf|title=Canada's Best Dressed Police Vehicle|date=January 2017|access-date=2022-07-29|website=Blue Line Magazine}}{{cite web|url=https://www.blueline.ca/a-meaningful-design-the-best-dressed-awards-2021/|title=A Meaningful Design: 2021 Best Dressed Award Winners |date=February 2021|access-date=2022-07-29|website=Blue Line Magazine}} In Alberta and Saskatchewan, vehicles maintained by special constabularies must have two blue reflective stripes, the organization's logo, and text that reads "Peace Officer" (in Alberta) or "Community Safety Officer" (in Saskatchewan) on the bottom of the passenger doors. In Quebec, special constabularies are restricted to using red emergency lights exclusively,{{cite web|url=https://www.legisquebec.gouv.qc.ca/en/document/cs/C-24.2|title=Highway Safety Code|access-date=2022-08-04|website=Quebec National Assembly}} and in Ontario, special constables can only use emergency lights or sirens if authorized by the relevant police services board.{{cite web|url=https://www.thestar.com/news/gta/2013/10/07/ttc_argues_for_return_of_special_constables.html|title=TTC argues for return of special constables|date=2013-10-07|access-date=2022-07-05|website=Toronto Star}} In every other province and in all three territories, including Alberta and Saskatchewan, special constabularies can use red and blue lights.

Only some civil law enforcement agencies operate marked vehicles, and the exact markings vary significantly based on the role and nature of the agency. Some agencies, which are operated by police services, use vehicles that are painted in variations of the larger police force's livery,{{cite web|url=https://www.blogto.com/city/2022/03/specialized-toronto-cop-cars-scanning-plates/|title=Specialized Toronto cop cars are taking pics of every single license plate and here's why|date=March 2022|access-date=2022-08-04|website=blogTO}} while others operated directly by municipalities or provinces may use vehicles from the larger motor pool, marked only with the parent organization's logo. In British Columbia, by-law enforcement officers are authorized to use red lights,{{cite web|url=https://www.bclaws.gov.bc.ca/civix/document/id/complete/statreg/26_58_01|title=Motor Vehicle Act|access-date=2022-08-04|website=British Columbia Legislature}} and in Ontario, civil law enforcement officers enforcing emissions or commercial vehicle regulations may use red and blue lights and sirens.{{cite web|url=https://www.ontario.ca/laws/statute/90h08#BK133|title=Highway Traffic Act|access-date=2022-08-04|website=Ontario Provincial Parliament|date=24 July 2014 }} In every province and territory, civil law enforcement officers employed by conservation officer or commercial vehicle enforcement services can use red and blue lights. Civil law enforcement officers are otherwise restricted to amber lights.

{{Portal|Canada}}

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• Canadian Association of Police Governance
• Crime in Canada
• Indigenous police in Canada
• International Criminal Police Organization (Interpol)
• Law enforcement by country
• List of law enforcement agencies
• List of law enforcement agencies in Canada
• List of countries by size of police forces
• Missing and murdered Indigenous women and girls (MMIWG)
• Terrorism in Canada

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