Luanda

{{see also|Timeline of Luanda}}

{{see also|Portuguese Angola|Colonial history of Angola}}

File:Museu Nacional de Historia Militar.jpg, founded in 1576 by Paulo Dias de Novais, today hosts the Armed Forces Museum.]]

File:Cidade de São Paulo da Assumpção de Loanda.jpg

Portuguese explorer Paulo Dias de Novais founded Luanda on 25 January 1576{{Cite web|last=Leitão|first=José|title=A Missão no Reino de Angola|url=https://repositorio.ucp.pt/bitstream/10400.14/4910/1/LS_S2_05_JoseADLeitao.pdf|access-date=2020-12-07|archive-date=2021-01-31|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210131222233/https://repositorio.ucp.pt/bitstream/10400.14/4910/1/LS_S2_05_JoseADLeitao.pdf|url-status=live}} as "São Paulo da Assumpção de Loanda". He had brought one hundred families of settlers and four hundred soldiers. Most of the Portuguese community lived within the fort.{{citation needed|date=August 2024}} Several sources from as early as the 17th century called the city "St. Paul de Leonda".{{cite web | title=Carta particolare che comincia con l'Isola di S:Tomaso ò Tome è c:d'S:Clara è finisce con il c:d'Aldeas: la longitudine comincia da i'isola di Pico d'Asores di Europa Carta VIII. Lº6º | website=am.uc.pt | url=https://almamater.uc.pt/bib-geral/nabaisconde/item/44369 | access-date=2024-08-30}}{{cite web | publisher=National Library of New Zealand | title=BY ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH. (FROM OUR OWN CORRESPONDENT.) | website=Papers Past | url=https://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/newspapers/NOT18670409.2.10 | access-date=2024-08-30}}{{cite web | title=Daily British Columbian | website=UBC Library Open Collections | url=https://open.library.ubc.ca/viewer/dbc/1.0346007#p0z-1r0f:leonda | access-date=2024-08-30}}

In 1618, the Portuguese built the fortress called Fortaleza São Pedro da Barra, and they subsequently built two more: Fortaleza de São Miguel (1634) and Forte de São Francisco do Penedo (1765–66). Of these, the Fortaleza de São Miguel is the best preserved.{{cite web |url=http://www.colonialvoyage.com/remainP.html |title=Portuguese Colonial Remains |publisher=Colonialvoyage.com |access-date=2011-04-17 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101225142326/http://www.colonialvoyage.com/remainP.html |archive-date=2010-12-25 }}

Luanda was Portugal's bridgehead from 1627, except during the Dutch rule of Luanda, from 1640 to 1648, as Fort Aardenburgh. The city served as the centre of slave trade to Brazil from {{circa|1550}} to 1836.See Joseph Miller, Way of Death: Merchant Capitalism and the Angolan Slave Trade, London & Madison/Wis, : James Currey & University of Wisconsin Press, 1988 The slave trade was conducted mostly with the Portuguese colony of Brazil; Brazilian ships were the most numerous in the port of Luanda. This slave trade also involved local merchants and warriors who profited from the trade.{{cite book |url=http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.cgi?path=13661080113274 |title=João C. Curto. Álcool e Escravos: O Comércio Luso-Brasileiro do Álcool em Mpinda, Luanda e Benguela durante o Tráfico Atlântico de Escravos (c. 1480-1830) e o Seu Impacto nas Sociedades da África Central Ocidental. Translated by Márcia Lameirinhas. Tempos e Espaços Africanos Series, vol. 3. Lisbon: Editora Vulgata |isbn=978-972-8427-24-5 |publisher=H-net.org |year=2002 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050122054905/http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.cgi?path=13661080113274 |archive-date=2005-01-22 |access-date=2009-05-14 }} During this period, no large scale territorial conquest was intended by the Portuguese; only a few minor settlements were established in the immediate hinterland of Luanda, some on the last stretch of the Kwanza River.

In the 17th century, the Imbangala became the main rivals of the Mbundu in supplying slaves to the Luanda market. In the 1751, between 5,000 and 10,000 slaves were annually sold.{{cite book|last=Njoku|first=Onwuka N.|year=1997|title=Mbundu|url=https://archive.org/details/mbundu00njok|url-access=registration|pages=[https://archive.org/details/mbundu00njok/page/38 38–39]|publisher=Rosen Pub. |isbn=9780823920044 }} By this time, Angola, a Portuguese colony, was in fact like a colony of Brazil, paradoxically another Portuguese colony. A strong degree of Brazilian influence was noted in Luanda until the Independence of Brazil in 1822.

In the 19th century, still under Portuguese rule, Luanda experienced a major economic revolution. The slave trade was abolished in 1836, and in 1844, Angola's ports were opened to foreign shipping. By 1850, Luanda was one of the greatest and most developed Portuguese cities in the vast Portuguese Empire outside Continental Portugal, full of trading companies, exporting (together with Benguela) palm and peanut oil, wax, copal, timber, ivory, cotton, coffee, and cocoa, among many other products. Maize, tobacco, dried meat, and cassava flour are also produced locally. The Angolan bourgeoisie was born by this time.{{Cite web|title=Angola Embassy in Cairo|url=https://www.angolaeg.net/|website=www.angolaeg.net|access-date=2020-05-28|archive-date=2021-06-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210604225442/https://www.angolaeg.net/|url-status=live}}

In 1889, Governor Brito Capelo opened the gates of an aqueduct which supplied the city with water, a formerly scarce resource, laying the foundation for major growth.

File:Luanda,desfilemilitar (cropped).jpg marching in Luanda during the Portuguese Colonial Wars (1961–74).]]

{{main|Estado Novo (Portugal)}}

Throughout Portugal's dictatorship, known as the Estado Novo, Luanda grew from a town of 61,208 with 14.6% of those inhabitants being white in 1940, to a wealthy cosmopolitan major city of 475,328 in 1970 with 124,814 Europeans (26.3%) and around 50,000 mixed race inhabitants (10.5%).{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RsD7bjz6ILY|title=Angola antes da Guerra (Parte 2)|last=angolaPT|date=3 December 2008|access-date=12 September 2017|via=YouTube|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160519222311/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RsD7bjz6ILY|archive-date=19 May 2016}}

Like most of Portuguese Angola, the cosmopolitan{{cite web |url=http://www.pbh.gov.br/bh-internacional/bhz-acordos_irmas.htm |title=Mayor's International Council Sister Cities Program |publisher=Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais|access-date = 2008-08-18 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20071223020811/http://www.pbh.gov.br/bh-internacional/bhz-acordos_irmas.htm |archive-date = 2007-12-23}} city of Luanda was not affected by the Portuguese Colonial War (1961–1974); economic growth and development in the entire region reached record highs during this period. In 1982, a report called Luanda the "Paris of Africa".{{citation needed|date=June 2024}}

{{main|Angolan War of Independence|Portuguese Colonial War|Angolan Civil War}}

File:Luanda - Angola (6276460346).jpg with President of Brazil Dilma Rousseff at the Presidential Palace in 2011.]]

By the time of Angolan independence in 1975, Luanda was a modern city with the majority of its population being African, but also dominated by a strong minority of white Portuguese origin.{{Citation needed|date=April 2015}}

After the Carnation Revolution in Lisbon on April 25, 1974, with the advent of independence and the start of the Angolan Civil War (1975–2002), most of the white Portuguese Luandans left as refugees,[http://www.economist.com/world/mideast-africa/displayStory.cfm?story_id=12079340 Flight from Angola] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130723131954/http://www.economist.com/node/12079340?story_id=12079340 |date=2013-07-23 }}, The Economist (August 16, 1975). principally for Portugal, however many travelled over land to South Africa.

File:Porto de Luanda - Angola 2015.jpg

The large numbers of skilled technicians among the force of Cuban soldiers sent in to support the Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA) government in the Angolan Civil War were able to make a valuable contribution to restoring and maintaining basic services in the city.

In the following years, however, slums called musseques—which had existed for decades—began to grow out of proportion and stretched several kilometres beyond Luanda's former city limits as a result of the decades-long civil war, and because of the rise of deep social inequalities due to large-scale migration of civil war refugees from other Angolan regions. For decades, Luanda's facilities were not adequately expanded to handle this huge increase in the city's population.

File:National Assembly Building (19898889148).jpg]]

In 2001 the provisional Angolan governments cleared the Boavista slum in Luanda Bay so that a luxury housing redevelopment was possible.{{cite book |title=Planet of Slums |publisher=Verso |author1=Mike Davis |isbn=9781844671601 |date=2007 |page=103 }} Luanda has since become one of the world's most expensive cities.{{cite news |url=http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/0/505424e6-1455-11e5-9bc5-00144feabdc0.html#axzz3d7FKVaI7 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210201209/https://www.ft.com/content/505424e6-1455-11e5-9bc5-00144feabdc0#axzz3d7FKVaI7 |archive-date=2022-12-10 |url-access=subscription |title=Tokyo falls out of top 10 most expensive cities - FT.com |newspaper=Financial Times |date=16 June 2015 |publisher=ft.com |access-date=2016-02-07 |url-status=live }}

Following the Luanda Agreement in 2002, with the end of the Angolan Civil War and high economic growth rates fuelled by the wealth provided by the increasing oil and diamond production, major reconstruction started.[http://www.economist.com/node/12009946?story_id=12009946 The Economist: Marching towards riches and democracy?] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110920042156/http://www.economist.com/node/12009946?story_id=12009946 |date=2011-09-20 }} August 28, 2008 Luanda has been of major concern because its population had multiplied and had far outgrown the capacity of the city, especially because much of its infrastructure including water, electricity, and roads had become obsolete and degraded.

Luanda has been undergoing major road reconstruction in the 21st century, and new highways are planned to improve connections to Cacuaco, Viana, Samba, and the new airport.{{cite web|url=http://www.otal.com/angola/ |title=OT Africa Line - Angola |publisher=Otal.com |date=2004-07-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090618063941/http://www.otal.com/angola/ |archive-date=2009-06-18 |url-status=dead }} Major social housing is also being constructed to house those who reside in slums, which dominate the landscape of Luanda. A large Chinese firm has been given a contract to construct the majority of replacement housing in Luanda.{{cite web |url=http://www.chinainternationalfund.com/projects1.asp?Id=287 |title=China International Fund Limited |publisher=Chinainternationalfund.com |access-date=2010-06-28 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090618232837/http://www.chinainternationalfund.com/projects1.asp?Id=287 |archive-date=2009-06-18 }} The Angolan minister of health recently stated poverty in Angola will be overcome by an increase in jobs and the housing of every citizen.{{cite web |url=http://www.portalangop.co.ao/motix/pt_pt/noticias/economia/Pobreza-sera-combatida-com-emprego-habitacoes-sociais-diz-ministro-adjunto,d4542ae2-820b-4c6b-bdee-85dc280983b5.html |title=Angola Press - Economia - Pobreza será combatida com emprego e habitações sociais, diz ministro-adjunto do PM |publisher=Portalangop.co.ao |date=2010-05-25 |access-date=2010-06-28 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110125155231/http://www.portalangop.co.ao/motix/pt_pt/noticias/economia/Pobreza-sera-combatida-com-emprego-habitacoes-sociais-diz-ministro-adjunto,d4542ae2-820b-4c6b-bdee-85dc280983b5.html |archive-date=2011-01-25 }}

File:Luanda_13.23266E_8.80761S.jpg.]]

File:Marginal Avenida 4 de Fevreiro Luanda March 2013 05 (cropped) (cropped).JPG

File:Ilha de Luanda.JPG]]

Luanda is divided into two parts, the Baixa de Luanda (lower Luanda, the old city) and the Cidade Alta (upper city or the new part). The Baixa de Luanda is situated next to the port, and has narrow streets and old colonial buildings.[http://www.gpl.gv.ao/Revista/VIAS%20DE%20LUANDA%20-%20Relat%C3%B3rio%20de%20Actividades%20n%C2%BA29%20-%20NOVEMBRO%20e%20DEZEom MBRO%20de%202010.pdf Streets of Luanda from the Luanda Provincial Government website]{{dead link|date=May 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} new pictures from Luanda City (Portuguese) However, new constructions have by now covered large areas beyond these traditional limits, and a number of previously independent nuclei — like Viana — were incorporated into the city.

Until 2011, the former Luanda Province comprised what now forms five municipalities. In 2011 the Province was enlarged by the addition of two additional municipalities transferred from Bengo Province, namely Icolo e Bengo, and Quiçama. Excluding these additions, the five municipalities comprise Greater Luanda:

Two new municipalities have been created within Greater Luanda since 2017: Talatona and Kilamba-Kiaxi

File:Miradouro da Lua (Angola).jpg

The city of Luanda is divided in six urban districts: Ingombota, Angola Quiluanje, Maianga, Rangel, Samba and Sambizanga.

In Samba and Sambizanga, more high-rise developments are to be built. The capital Luanda is growing constantly - and in addition, increasingly beyond the official city limits and even provincial boundaries.

Luanda is the seat of a Roman Catholic archbishop.{{Cite web |title=Luanda (Archdiocese) [Catholic-Hierarchy] |url=https://catholic-hierarchy.org/diocese/dlund.html |access-date=2025-04-07 |website=catholic-hierarchy.org}} It is also the location of most of Angola's educational institutions, including the private Catholic University of Angola and the public University of Agostinho Neto. It is also the home of the colonial Governor's Palace and the Estádio da Cidadela (the "Citadel Stadium"), Angola's main stadium, with a total seating capacity of 60,000.{{citation needed|date=March 2025}}

Luanda has a hot semi-desert climate (Köppen: BSh), bordering upon a hot desert climate (BWh). The climate is warm to hot but surprisingly dry, owing to the cool Benguela Current, which prevents moisture from easily condensing into rain. Frequent fog prevents temperatures from falling at night even during the completely dry months from May to October. Luanda has an annual rainfall of {{convert|405|mm|in|1}}, but the variability is among the highest in the world, with a co-efficient of variation above 40 percent.Dewar, Robert E. and Wallis, James R; "Geographical patterning in interannual rainfall variability in the tropics and near tropics: An L-moments approach"; in Journal of Climate, 12; pp. 3457–3466 The climate is largely influenced by the offshore Benguela current. The current gives the city a surprisingly low humidity despite its tropical latitude, which makes the hotter months considerably more bearable than similar cities in Western/Central Africa.{{Cite web |title=Visit Luanda, Angola |url=https://visitafrica.site/cities/experience-luanda/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210421003943/https://visitafrica.site/luanda.html |archive-date=2021-04-21 |access-date=2021-02-13 |website=visitafrica.site |language=en-GB}} Observed records since 1858 range from {{convert|55|mm|in}} in 1958 to {{convert|851|mm|in}} in 1916. The short rainy season in March and April depends on a northerly counter current bringing moisture to the city: it has been shown clearly that weakness in the Benguela Current can increase rainfall about sixfold compared with years when that current is strong.[http://traveltoafrica.info/chuva-em-luanda-angola.html Video from heavy rain falls in Luanda] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120727171345/http://traveltoafrica.info/chuva-em-luanda-angola.html |date=2012-07-27 }} December 28, 2010

{{Weather box|location = Luanda (1961–1990, extremes 1879–present)

|metric first = yes

|single line = yes

|temperature colour =

|Jan record high C = 33.9

|Feb record high C = 34.1

|Mar record high C = 37.2

|Apr record high C = 36.1

|May record high C = 36.1

|Jun record high C = 35.0

|Jul record high C = 28.9

|Aug record high C = 28.3

|Sep record high C = 31.0

|Oct record high C = 31.2

|Nov record high C = 36.1

|Dec record high C = 33.6

|year record high C = 37.2

|Jan high C = 29.5

|Feb high C = 30.5

|Mar high C = 30.7

|Apr high C = 30.2

|May high C = 28.8

|Jun high C = 25.7

|Jul high C = 23.9

|Aug high C = 24.0

|Sep high C = 25.4

|Oct high C = 26.8

|Nov high C = 28.4

|Dec high C = 28.6

|year high C = 27.7

|Jan mean C = 26.7

|Feb mean C = 28.5

|Mar mean C = 28.6

|Apr mean C = 28.2

|May mean C = 27.0

|Jun mean C = 23.9

|Jul mean C = 22.1

|Aug mean C = 22.1

|Sep mean C = 23.5

|Oct mean C = 25.2

|Nov mean C = 26.7

|Dec mean C = 26.9

|year mean C = 25.8

|Jan low C = 23.9

|Feb low C = 24.7

|Mar low C = 24.6

|Apr low C = 24.3

|May low C = 23.3

|Jun low C = 20.3

|Jul low C = 18.7

|Aug low C = 18.8

|Sep low C = 20.2

|Oct low C = 22.0

|Nov low C = 23.3

|Dec low C = 23.5

|year low C = 22.3

|Jan record low C = 18.0

|Feb record low C = 16.1

|Mar record low C = 20.0

|Apr record low C = 17.8

|May record low C = 17.8

|Jun record low C = 12.8

|Jul record low C = 11.0

|Aug record low C = 12.2

|Sep record low C = 15.0

|Oct record low C = 17.8

|Nov record low C = 17.2

|Dec record low C = 17.8

|year record low C = 11.0

|rain colour = green

|Jan rain mm = 30

|Feb rain mm = 36

|Mar rain mm = 114

|Apr rain mm = 136

|May rain mm = 16

|Jun rain mm = 0

|Jul rain mm = 0

|Aug rain mm = 1

|Sep rain mm = 2

|Oct rain mm = 7

|Nov rain mm = 32

|Dec rain mm = 31

|Jan humidity = 80

|Feb humidity = 78

|Mar humidity = 80

|Apr humidity = 83

|May humidity = 83

|Jun humidity = 82

|Jul humidity = 83

|Aug humidity = 85

|Sep humidity = 84

|Oct humidity = 81

|Nov humidity = 82

|Dec humidity = 81

|year humidity = 82

|unit rain days = 0.1 mm

|Jan rain days = 4

|Feb rain days = 5

|Mar rain days = 9

|Apr rain days = 11

|May rain days = 2

|Jun rain days = 0

|Jul rain days = 0

|Aug rain days = 1

|Sep rain days = 3

|Oct rain days = 5

|Nov rain days = 8

|Dec rain days = 5

|Jan sun = 217.0

|Feb sun = 203.4

|Mar sun = 207.7

|Apr sun = 192.0

|May sun = 229.4

|Jun sun = 207.0

|Jul sun = 167.4

|Aug sun = 148.8

|Sep sun = 150.0

|Oct sun = 167.4

|Nov sun = 186.0

|Dec sun = 201.5

|year sun =

|Jand sun = 7.0

|Febd sun = 7.2

|Mard sun = 6.7

|Aprd sun = 6.4

|Mayd sun = 7.4

|Jund sun = 6.9

|Juld sun = 5.4

|Augd sun = 4.8

|Sepd sun = 5.0

|Octd sun = 5.4

|Novd sun = 6.2

|Decd sun = 6.5

|yeard sun = 6.2

|source 1 = Deutscher Wetterdienst{{cite web

| url = http://www.dwd.de/DWD/klima/beratung/ak/ak_661600_kt.pdf

| title = Klimatafel von Luanda, Prov. Luanda / Angola

| work = Baseline climate means (1961-1990) from stations all over the world

| publisher = Deutscher Wetterdienst

| language = de

| access-date = 11 June 2016

| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190512103602/https://www.dwd.de/DWD/klima/beratung/ak/ak_661600_kt.pdf

| archive-date = 12 May 2019

| url-status = live

}}

|source 2 = Meteo Climat (record highs and lows)

{{cite web

| url = http://meteo-climat-bzh.dyndns.org/index.php?page=stati&id=1479

| title = Station Luanda

| publisher = Meteo Climat

|language = fr

| access-date = 11 June 2016}}

|date=August 2010

}}

A 2019 paper published in PLOS One estimated that under Representative Concentration Pathway 4.5, a "moderate" scenario of climate change where global warming reaches ~{{convert|2.5-3|C-change|F-change}} by 2100, the climate of Luanda in the year 2050 would most closely resemble the current climate of Guatemala City. The annual temperature would increase by {{convert|0.7|C-change|F-change}}, the temperature of the coldest month by {{convert|0.4|C-change|F-change}}, and the temperature of the warmest month by {{convert|0.1|C-change|F-change}}.{{cite journal |last1=Bastin |first1=Jean-Francois |last2=Clark |first2=Emily |last3=Elliott |first3=Thomas |last4=Hart |first4=Simon |last5=van den Hoogen |first5=Johan |last6=Hordijk |first6=Iris |last7=Ma |first7=Haozhi |last8=Majumder |first8=Sabiha |last9=Manoli |first9=Gabriele |last10=Maschler |first10=Julia |last11=Mo |first11=Lidong |last12=Routh |first12=Devin |last13=Yu |first13=Kailiang |last14=Zohner |first14=Constantin M. |last15=Thomas W. |first15=Crowther |title=Understanding climate change from a global analysis of city analogues |journal=PLOS ONE |date=10 July 2019 |volume=14 |issue=7 |at=S2 Table. Summary statistics of the global analysis of city analogues. |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0217592 |pmid=31291249 |pmc=6619606 |bibcode=2019PLoSO..1417592B |doi-access=free }}{{cite web |url=https://crowtherlab.pageflow.io/cities-of-the-future-visualizing-climate-change-to-inspire-action |title=Cities of the future: visualizing climate change to inspire action |at=Current vs. future cities |access-date=8 January 2023 |archive-date=8 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230108082440/https://crowtherlab.pageflow.io/cities-of-the-future-visualizing-climate-change-to-inspire-action |url-status=dead }} According to Climate Action Tracker, the current warming trajectory appears consistent with {{convert|2.7|C-change|F-change}}, which closely matches RCP 4.5.{{cite web |url=https://climateactiontracker.org/global/cat-thermometer/ |title=The CAT Thermometer |access-date=8 January 2023 |archive-date=14 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190414131223/https://climateactiontracker.org/global/cat-thermometer/ |url-status=live }}

Moreover, according to the 2022 IPCC Sixth Assessment Report, Luanda is one of 12 major African cities (Abidjan, Alexandria, Algiers, Cape Town, Casablanca, Dakar, Dar es Salaam, Durban, Lagos, Lomé, Luanda and Maputo) which would be the most severely affected by the future sea level rise. It estimates that they would collectively sustain cumulative damages of USD 65 billion under RCP 4.5 and USD 86.5 billion for the high-emission scenario RCP 8.5 by the year 2050. Additionally, RCP 8.5 combined with the hypothetical impact from marine ice sheet instability at high levels of warming would involve up to 137.5 billion USD in damages, while the additional accounting for the "low-probability, high-damage events" may increase aggregate risks to USD 187 billion for the "moderate" RCP4.5, USD 206 billion for RCP8.5 and USD 397 billion under the high-end ice sheet instability scenario.Trisos, C.H., I.O. Adelekan, E. Totin, A. Ayanlade, J. Efitre, A. Gemeda, K. Kalaba, C. Lennard, C. Masao, Y. Mgaya, G. Ngaruiya, D. Olago, N.P. Simpson, and S. Zakieldeen 2022: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGII_Chapter09.pdf Chapter 9: Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221206082533/https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGII_Chapter09.pdf |date=2022-12-06 }}. In [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/ Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220228114918/https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/ |date=2022-02-28 }} [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, M. Tignor, E.S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke, V. Möller, A. Okem, B. Rama (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 2043–2121 Since sea level rise would continue for about 10,000 years under every scenario of climate change, future costs of sea level rise would only increase, especially without adaptation measures.{{cite book |url=https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_Full_Report.pdf |title=Technical Summary. In: Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change |date=August 2021 |publisher=IPCC |page=TS14 |access-date=12 November 2021 |archive-date=13 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210813201719/https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_Full_Report.pdf |url-status=live }}

{{Main|Demographics of Angola}}

File:Igreja de Nossa Senhora dos Remédios (19929834976).jpg was built in 1628]]

The inhabitants of Luanda are primarily members of African ethnic groups, mainly Ambundu, Ovimbundu, and Bakongo. The official and the most widely used language is Portuguese, although several Bantu languages are also used, chiefly Kimbundu, Umbundu, and Kikongo.

The population of Luanda has grown dramatically in recent years, due in large part to war-time migration to the city, which is safe compared to the rest of the country.{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-adv/specialsales/spotlight/angola/article8.html |title=International Spotlight: Angola |work=Washingtonpost.com |access-date=2011-04-17 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121106155002/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-adv/specialsales/spotlight/angola/article8.html |archive-date=2012-11-06 }} In 2006, however, Luanda saw an increase in violent crime, particularly in the shanty towns that surround the colonial urban core.{{cite news |title=Angola: Easy access to guns concern as election nears - Angola {{!}} ReliefWeb |url=https://reliefweb.int/report/angola/angola-easy-access-guns-concern-election-nears |access-date=26 September 2023 |work=reliefweb.int |agency=The New Humanitarian |date=13 March 2006 |language=en}}

There is a sizable minority population of European origin, especially Portuguese (about 260,000), as well as Brazilians. In recent years, mainly since the mid-2000s, immigration from Portugal has increased due to greater opportunities present in Angola's booming economy.{{cite news|url=http://www.spiegel.de/international/europe/tens-of-thousands-of-portuguese-emigrate-to-fast-growing-angola-a-833360.html|title=Tens of Thousands of Portuguese Emigrate to Fast-Growing Angola - SPIEGEL ONLINE|newspaper=Der Spiegel |date=17 May 2012 |publisher=spiegel.de|access-date=2016-02-07|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160119133405/http://www.spiegel.de/international/europe/tens-of-thousands-of-portuguese-emigrate-to-fast-growing-angola-a-833360.html|archive-date=2016-01-19|last1=Zuber |first1=Helene }}{{cite news | url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/sep/16/portuguese-exodus-angola-el-dorado | location=London | work=The Guardian | first=David | last=Smith | title=Portuguese escape austerity and find a new El Dorado in Angola | date=2012-09-16 | url-status=live | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170113020932/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/sep/16/portuguese-exodus-angola-el-dorado | archive-date=2017-01-13 }} There is a sprinkling of immigrants from other African countries as well, including a small expatriate South African community. A small number of people of Luanda are of mixed race — European/Portuguese and native African. Over the last decades, a significant Chinese community has formed,{{cite journal |last1=Mei-ting Schmitz |first1=Cheryl |title=Significant Others: Security and Suspicion in Chinese-Angolan Encounters |journal=Journal of Current Chinese Affairs |date=March 1, 2014 |volume=43 |issue=1 |doi=10.1177/18681026140430010 |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/186810261404300103 |access-date=March 8, 2025}} as has a much smaller Vietnamese community.{{citation needed|date=September 2021}}

File:Igreja de Nossa Senhora da Nazaré (19307975263).jpg, b. 1664]]

Among the places of worship, several are predominantly Christian churches and congregations:Britannica,

[https://www.britannica.com/place/Angola Angola] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190409161150/https://www.britannica.com/place/Angola |date=2019-04-09 }}, britannica.com, USA, accessed on July 7, 2019

• Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Luanda (Catholic Church)
• Evangelical Congregational Church in Angola (World Communion of Reformed Churches)
• Evangelical Reformed Church in Angola (World Communion of Reformed Churches)
• Baptist Convention of Angola (Baptist World Alliance)
• Universal Church of the Kingdom of God
• Assemblies of God.
• Jehovah’s Witnesses.

File:Nzingambande.jpg]]

File:Museu_Nacional_de_Antropologia_in_Luanda_-_Angola_2015_(cropped).jpg]]

File:Museu da Escravatura (Luanda, Angola) (cropped).jpg]]

As the economic and political center of Angola, Luanda is similarly the epicenter of Angolan culture. The city is home to numerous cultural institutions, including the Sindika Dokolo Foundation.

The city hosts the annual Luanda International Jazz Festival, since 2009, and houses the Clube Náutico da Ilha de Luanda (CNIL), translated as the "Nautical Club of Luanda Island". CNIL is a sports club founded on February 28, 1924, under the name "Nun'Alvares Sports Club" (Clube Desportivo Nun’Alvares), a name it kept until April 11, 1979, when following the order of the secretary of the National Council of Physical Education and Sport of Angola, which stated, that clubs with names related to colonialism should proceed to its replacement, the club had to change his name.{{cite web |url=http://clubenautico.org/historia.aspx |title=CNIL history |publisher=CNIL |language=Portuguese |accessdate=February 21, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725181346/http://clubenautico.org/historia.aspx |archive-date=July 25, 2011 |url-status=dead }} Since its foundation it is the yacht club with most titles in Angola to date.

The city is home to numerous museums, including:

• National Museum of Anthropology
• National Museum of Natural History
• Museum of the Armed Forces
• National Museum of Slavery

Other monuments in the city include:

• Palácio de Ferro
• Fortress of São Miguel
• Fortress of São Francisco do Penedo
• Luanda Cathedral
• Igreja de Jesus
• Igreja da Nossa Senhora do Cabo
• Igreja da Nossa Senhora da Conceição
• Igreja da Nossa Senhora da Nazaré
• Igreja da Nossa Senhora do Carmo
• Arquivo Histórico Nacional

{{See also|Economy of Angola}}

File:Cidade Financeira de Luanda 2.jpg

File:Marginal Avenida 4 de Fevreiro Luanda March 2013 03 (cropped).JPG

Around one-third of Angolans live in Luanda, 53% of whom live in poverty. Living conditions in Luanda are poor for most of the people, with essential services such as safe drinking water and electricity still in short supply, and severe shortcomings in traffic conditions.[http://www.dfid.gov.uk/Media-Room/Case-Studies/2009/Keeping-the-flow-in-Angolas-slums/ Keeping the flow in Angola's slums] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090715122124/http://www.dfid.gov.uk/Media-Room/Case-Studies/2009/Keeping-the-flow-in-Angolas-slums/ |date=2009-07-15 }}, Department for International Development (DFID), United Kingdom (February 13, 2009)

Luanda is one of the world's most expensive cities for resident foreigners.{{cite web |url=http://www.mercer.com/newsroom/cost-of-living-survey.html |title=Worldwide Cost of Living survey 2015 - City rankings |publisher=www.mercer.com |access-date=2015-06-17 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150619201330/http://www.mercer.com/newsroom/cost-of-living-survey.html |archive-date=2015-06-19 }} In Mercer’s cost of living index, Luanda was ranked as top of the list due to the extremely high costs of goods and security. Luanda sits above Seoul, Geneva and Shanghai in the rankings. These costs have fueled rampant inequality in the city. Skyscrapers are left barren as the price of oil drops.{{Cite news |last=Mayda |first=Matteo de |date=2017-07-07 |title=Divided Luanda: life inside a city fueled by inequality – in pictures |language=en-GB |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/cities/gallery/2017/jul/07/luanda-angola-expensive-city-divided-oil-in-pictures |access-date=2022-09-26 |issn=0261-3077}}

File:Marginal Promenade in Luanda - Angola 2015.jpg

File:Rua Kwame Nkrumah Luanda 05.JPG

New import tariffs imposed in March 2014 made Luanda even more expensive. As an example, a half-litre tub of vanilla ice cream at the supermarket was reported to cost US$31. The higher import tariffs applied to hundreds of items, from garlic to cars. The stated aim was to try to diversify the heavily oil-dependent economy and nurture farming and industry, sectors that have remained weak. These tariffs have caused much hardship in a country where the average salary was US$260 per month in 2010, the latest year for which data was available. However, the average salary in the booming oil industry was over 20 times higher at US$5,400 per month.{{cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/africa/angolas-new-import-tariffs-putting-the-squeeze-on-the-poorest-residents-in-one-of-the-worlds-most-expensive-cities-9278530.html|title=Angola's new import tariffs putting the squeeze on the poorest residents in one of the world's most expensive cities|newspaper=The Independent|date=2014-04-23|access-date=2014-05-02|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140427052726/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/africa/angolas-new-import-tariffs-putting-the-squeeze-on-the-poorest-residents-in-one-of-the-worlds-most-expensive-cities-9278530.html|archive-date=2014-04-27}}

Manufacturing includes processed foods, beverages, textiles, cement and other building materials, plastic products, metalware, cigarettes, and shoes/clothes. Petroleum (found in nearby off-shore deposits) is refined in the city, although this facility was repeatedly damaged during the Angolan Civil War of 1975–2002. Luanda has an excellent natural harbour; the chief exports are coffee, cotton, sugar, diamonds, iron, and salt.{{citation needed|date=October 2022}}

The city also has a thriving building industry, an effect of the nationwide economic boom experienced since 2002, when political stability returned with the end of the civil war. Economic growth is largely supported by oil extraction activities, although great diversification is taking place. Large investment (domestic and international), along with strong economic growth, has dramatically increased construction of all economic sectors in the city of Luanda.{{cite news |url=http://www.economist.com/displaystory.cfm?story_id=10316212 |title=GDP growth: A look ahead |magazine=The Economist |date=2007-12-19 |access-date=2010-06-28 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100125213302/http://www.economist.com/displaystory.cfm?story_id=10316212 |archive-date=2010-01-25 }} In 2007, the first modern shopping mall in Angola was established in the city at Belas Shopping mall.{{cite web|url=http://www.angonoticias.com/Artigos/item/12911|title=Belas shopping inaugurado em Luanda|publisher=Angonoticias.com|date=28 March 2007|access-date=2015-05-26|language=pt|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150527002246/http://www.angonoticias.com/Artigos/item/12911|archive-date=27 May 2015}}

File:Terminal Marítimo de Passageiros (19728280430).jpg administration]]

Luanda is the starting point of the Luanda railway that goes due east to Malanje. The civil war left the railway non-functional, but the railway has been restored up to Dondo and Malanje.{{cite web |url=http://www.chinainternationalfund.com/projects1.asp?Id=284 |title=China International Fund Limited |publisher=Chinainternationalfund.com |access-date=2010-06-28 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090618030958/http://www.chinainternationalfund.com/projects1.asp?Id=284 |archive-date=2009-06-18 }}

File:NAIL Airside View of Terminal.jpg, Luanda]]

The main airport of Luanda was Quatro de Fevereiro Airport, which is still the largest in the country. A new international airport, Angola International Airport was constructed southeast of the city, a few kilometres from Viana, and was expected to be opened in 2011.{{cite web |url=http://www.chinainternationalfund.com/projects1.asp?Id=283 |title=China International Fund Limited |publisher=Chinainternationalfund.com |access-date=2010-06-28 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090618232803/http://www.chinainternationalfund.com/projects1.asp?Id=283 |archive-date=2009-06-18 }} However, as the Angolan government did not continue to make the payments due to the Chinese enterprise in charge of the construction, the firm suspended its work in 2010. The airport finally opened in November 2023. The new airport will gradually replace the old airport.{{Cite news |date=2022-06-17 |title=Angola Delays Opening of $5 Billion Airport for the Fourth Time |language=en |work=Bloomberg.com |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2022-06-17/angola-delays-opening-of-5-billion-airport-for-the-fourth-time |access-date=2022-12-04 |archive-date=2023-02-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230220084400/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2022-06-17/angola-delays-opening-of-5-billion-airport-for-the-fourth-time |url-status=live }}{{cite web |last1=Orban |first1=André |title=New Luanda International Airport opens in Angola after long delay |url=https://www.aviation24.be/airports/luanda-airport-lad/new-luanda-international-airport-opens-in-angola-after-long-delay/ |publisher=Aviation24 |access-date=22 July 2024 |date=10 November 2023}}

The Port of Luanda serves as the largest port of Angola and is one of the busiest ports in Africa.{{Cite web |url=https://www.africanbusinesscentral.com/2015/06/20/the-top-eight-busiest-ports-in-africa-photos-and-infographic/ |title= The top eight busiest ports in Africa (Photos and Infographic) |date=June 20, 2015 |website=African Business Central |access-date=2020-01-21 |archive-date=2020-02-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200204061717/https://www.africanbusinesscentral.com/2015/06/20/the-top-eight-busiest-ports-in-africa-photos-and-infographic/ |url-status=dead }} Major expansion of this port is also taking place.[http://www.scottwilson.com/projects/transportation/maritime/luanda_oil_service_centre.aspx Scott Wilson projects] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080304134946/http://www.scottwilson.com/projects/transportation/maritime/luanda_oil_service_centre.aspx |date=March 4, 2008 }} In 2014, a new port is being developed at Dande, about 30 km to the north.

File:First WAFMAX in Angola 2 (8222830395).jpg is one of the busiest ports in Africa.]]

Luanda's roads are in a poor state of repair, but are undergoing an extensive reconstruction process by the government in order to relieve traffic congestion in the city. Major road repairs can be found taking place in nearly every neighbourhood, including a major 6-lane highway connected Luanda to Viana.{{cite web |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/200808180008.html |title=Angola: Part of Luanda's Highway Complete By December |publisher=allAfrica.com |date=2008-08-15 |access-date=2010-06-28 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091004173236/http://allafrica.com/stories/200808180008.html |archive-date=2009-10-04 }}

Public transit is provided by the suburban services of the Luanda Railway, by the public company TCUL, and by a large fleet of privately owned collective taxis as white-blue painted minibuses called Candongueiro. Candongueiros are usually Toyota Hiace vans, that are built to carry 12 people, although the candongueiros usually carry at least 15 people. They charge from 100 to 200 kwanzas per trip. They are known to disobey traffic rules, for example not stopping at signs and driving over pavements and aisles.

In 2019, the Luanda Light Rail network with an estimated cost of US $3 billion was announced to begin construction in 2020.{{cite web|url=https://macauhub.com.mo/en/2019/11/06/pt-metro-de-superficie-de-luanda-vai-custar-3000-milhoes-de-dolares/|title=Luanda surface light rail system will cost US$3 billion – Macauhub|website=Macauhub|date=6 November 2019|access-date=6 November 2019}}{{Dead link|date=November 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}

File:Lyceum Salvador Correia in Luanda, Angola (cropped).jpg]]

File:New_campus_(6177681401)_(cropped).jpg]]

International schools:

• Escola Portuguesa de Luanda
• Colégio Português de Luanda
• Colégio São Francisco de Assis
• Luanda International School
• English School Community of Luanda

Universities:

• Agostinho Neto University
• Lusíada University
• Catholic University of Angola
• Technical University of Angola
• Methodist University of Angola
• Private University of Angola
• Jean Piaget University of Angola
• University of Luanda
• Universidade Indepedente de Angola
• Higher Institute of Education Sciences of the Luanda

File:Estadio-11Nov-Luanda 03 linke-Seite-Bogen LWS-2011-08-NC 0991.jpg]]

Luanda's Pavilhão Multiusos do Kilamba hosted games for Angola's national basketball team on many occasions.{{cite news |title=Getting to know Africa's flashy basketball arenas |url=https://www.fiba.basketball/news/getting-to-know-africas-flashy-basketball-arenas |access-date=10 December 2020 |work=FIBA |date=2 September 2019 |archive-date=7 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210107193242/https://www.fiba.basketball/news/getting-to-know-africas-flashy-basketball-arenas |url-status=live }}

In 2013 Luanda together with Namibe, today's Moçâmedes, hosted the 2013 FIRS Men's Roller Hockey World Cup, the first time that a World Cup of roller hockey was held in Africa. The city is home to the Desportivo do Bengo football club.

{{See also|List of twin towns and sister cities in Africa#Angola|l1=List of twin towns and sister cities in Angola}}

{{More citations needed section|date=March 2015}}

Luanda is twinned with:

• {{flagicon|USA}} Houston, United States{{cite web|title=Sister Cities|url=http://www.houstontx.gov/abouthouston/sistercities.html|website=www.houstontx.gov|access-date=26 September 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170919143424/http://www.houstontx.gov/abouthouston/sistercities.html|archive-date=19 September 2017}}
• {{flagicon|BRA}} São Paulo, Brazil{{cite web|url=http://www3.prefeitura.sp.gov.br/cadlem/secretarias/negocios_juridicos/cadlem/integra.asp?alt=11072007L%20144710000|title = Pesquisa de Legislação Municipal - No 14471|access-date=2013-08-23|work=Prefeitura da Cidade de São Paulo [Municipality of the City of São Paulo]|language=pt|trans-title=Research Municipal Legislation - No 14471|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111018123138/http://www3.prefeitura.sp.gov.br/cadlem/secretarias/negocios_juridicos/cadlem/integra.asp?alt=11072007L%20144710000|archive-date = 2011-10-18}}[http://pt.wikisource.org/wiki/Lei_Municipal_de_S%C3%A3o_Paulo_14471_de_2007 Lei Municipal de São Paulo 14471 de 2007] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130928023927/http://pt.wikisource.org/wiki/Lei_Municipal_de_S%C3%A3o_Paulo_14471_de_2007 |date=2013-09-28 }} WikiSource {{in lang|pt}}
• {{flagicon|POR}} Lisbon, Portugal{{cite web|url=http://www.anmp.pt/anmp/pro/mun1/gem101l0.php?cod_ent=M1100|title=Lisboa - Geminações de Cidades e Vilas|access-date=2013-08-23|work=Associação Nacional de Municípios Portugueses [National Association of Portuguese Municipalities]|language=pt|trans-title=Lisbon - Twinning of Cities and Towns|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150201175323/http://www.anmp.pt/anmp/pro/mun1/gem101l0.php?cod_ent=M1100|archive-date=2015-02-01|url-status=live}}{{cite web|url=http://www.cm-lisboa.pt/municipio/relacoes-internacionais |title=Acordos de Geminação, de Cooperação e/ou Amizade da Cidade de Lisboa |access-date=2013-08-23 |work=Camara Municipal de Lisboa |language=pt |trans-title=Lisbon - Twinning Agreements, Cooperation and Friendship |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131031202617/http://www.cm-lisboa.pt/municipio/relacoes-internacionais |archive-date=2013-10-31 }}
• {{flagicon|MEX}} Oaxaca, Mexico
• {{flagicon|CPV}} Praia, Cape Verde
• {{flagicon|MOZ}} Beira, Mozambique
• {{flagicon|NAM}} Windhoek, Namibia
• {{flagicon|GNB}} Bissau, Guinea-Bissau
• {{flagicon|PRC}} Beijing, China
• {{flagicon|MAC}} Macau, Macau
• {{flagicon|MOZ}} Maputo, Mozambique
• {{flagicon|NER}} Tahoua, Niger
• {{flagicon|STP}} São Tomé, São Tomé and Príncipe
• {{flagicon|RSA}} Johannesburg, South Africa
• {{flagicon|EGY}} Cairo, Egypt
• {{flagicon|POR}} Porto, Portugal{{cite web |title=Geminações de Cidades e Vilas |url=https://www.anmp.pt/anmp/pro/mun1/gem101l0.php?cod_ent=M4000 |website=www.anmp.pt |access-date=16 August 2021 |archive-date=12 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210712203757/https://www.anmp.pt/anmp/pro/mun1/gem101l0.php?cod_ent=M4000 |url-status=dead }}{{cite web|url=http://www.cm-porto.pt/document/449218/481584.pdf |title=International Relations of the City of Porto |publisher=© 2006–2009 Municipal Directorateofthe PresidencyServices InternationalRelationsOffice |access-date=2009-07-10 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120113054303/http://www.cm-porto.pt/document/449218/481584.pdf |archive-date=2012-01-13 }}{{cite web |author=Associação Porto Digital |url=http://www.cm-porto.pt/gen.pl?sid=cmp.sections/521 |title=C.M. Porto |publisher=Cm-porto.pt |access-date=2011-04-17 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515093608/http://www.cm-porto.pt/gen.pl?sid=cmp.sections%2F521 |archive-date=2011-05-15 }}
• {{flagicon|ANG}} Huambo, Angola
• {{flagicon|FRA}} Toulon, France
• {{flagicon|PAR}} Asunción, Paraguay
• {{flagicon|RSA}} Cape Town, South Africa

{{Reflist|30em}}

{{See also|Timeline of Luanda#Bibliography|l1=Bibliography of the history of Luanda}}

{{Sister project links|voy=Luanda|Luanda}}

{{Commons category|Luanda}}

• [https://web.archive.org/web/20180626051415/http://www.portalluanda.com/ Portal da Cidade de Luanda]
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20050514015807/http://www.cidadeluanda.com/ www.cidadeluanda.com - Luanda, city map, History, Photos]

{{Municipalities of Angola}}

{{List of African capitals}}

{{World's most populous urban areas}}

{{Authority control}}

Category:Capitals in Africa

Category:Municipalities of Angola

Category:Populated coastal places in Angola

Category:Populated places established in 1576

Category:Populated places in Luanda Province

Category:Port cities and towns in Angola

Category:Provincial capitals in Angola

Category:1576 establishments in the Portuguese Empire

Category:1576 establishments in Africa

Category:Cities in Angola