Vietnamese people

According to Churchman (2010), all endonyms and exonyms referring to the Vietnamese such as Việt (related to ancient Chinese geographical imagination), Kinh (related to medieval administrative designation), or Keeu and Kæw (derived from Jiāo 交, ancient Chinese toponym for Northern Vietnam, Old Chinese *kraw) by Kra-Dai speaking peoples, are related to political structures or have common origins in ancient Chinese geographical imagination. Most of the time, the Austroasiatic-speaking ancestors of the modern Kinh under one single ruler might have assumed for themselves a similar or identical social self-designation inherent in the modern Vietnamese first-person pronoun ta (us, we, I) to differentiate themselves with other groups. In the older colloquial usage, ta corresponded to "ours" as opposed to "theirs", and during colonial time they were "nước ta" (our country) and "tiếng ta" (our language) in contrast to "nước tây" (western countries) and "tiếng tây" (western languages).{{sfn|Churchman|2010|p=33}}

The term "{{linktext|Việt}}" (Yue) ({{CJKV|t={{linktext|越}}|s={{linktext|越}}|p=Yuè|w=Yüeh⁴|cy=Yuht|v={{linktext|Việt}}}}) in Early Middle Chinese was first written using the logograph "戉" for an axe (a homophone), in oracle bone and bronze inscriptions of the late Shang dynasty ({{circa|lk=no|1200}} BC), and later as "越".{{cite journal

| title = The Austroasiatics in Ancient South China: Some Lexical Evidence

| first1 = Jerry | last1 = Norman | first2 = Tsu-lin | last2 = Mei |author1-link=Jerry Norman (sinologist) |author2-link=Mei Tsu-lin| journal = Monumenta Serica | year = 1976 | volume = 32 | pages = 274–301 | doi = 10.1080/02549948.1976.11731121 }} At that time it referred to a people or chieftain to the northwest of the Shang.{{cite journal| title = Defining the Hundred Yue| first = William| last = Meacham| journal = Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association| volume = 15| year = 1996| pages = 93–100| doi = 10.7152/bippa.v15i0.11537| doi-broken-date = 1 November 2024| url = http://ejournal.anu.edu.au/index.php/bippa/article/view/405/394| url-status = dead| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140228202613/http://ejournal.anu.edu.au/index.php/bippa/article/view/405/394| archive-date = 28 February 2014}}Theobald, Ulrich (2018) [http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Myth/shang-event.html "Shang Dynasty – Political History"] in ChinaKnowledge.de – An Encyclopaedia on Chinese History, Literature and Art. quote: "Enemies of the Shang state were called fang 方 "regions", like the Tufang 土方, which roamed the northern region of Shanxi, the Guifang 鬼方 and Gongfang 𢀛方 in the northwest, the Qiangfang 羌方, Suifang 繐方, Yuefang 戉方, Xuanfang 亘方 and Zhoufang 周方 in the west, as well as the Yifang 夷方 and Renfang 人方 in the southeast." In the early 8th century BC, a tribe on the middle Yangtze were called the Yangyue, which was later used to describe peoples living further south. Between the 7th and 4th centuries BC, Yue/Việt referred to the State of Yue in the lower Yangtze basin and its people. From the 3rd century BC, the term was used for the non-Chinese populations of south and southwest China and northern Vietnam, with particular ethnic groups called Minyue, Ouyue (Vietnamese: Âu Việt), Luoyue (Vietnamese: Lạc Việt), etc., collectively called the Baiyue (Bách Việt, {{CJKV|t={{linktext|百越}}|s={{linktext|百越}}|p=Bǎiyuè|cy=Baak Yuet|v=Bách Việt|l=Hundred Yue/Viet}}; ). The term Baiyue/Bách Việt first appeared in the book Lüshi Chunqiu compiled around 239 BC.The Annals of Lü Buwei, translated by John Knoblock and Jeffrey Riegel, Stanford University Press (2000), p. 510. {{ISBN|978-0-8047-3354-0}}. "For the most part, there are no rulers to the south of the Yang and Han Rivers, in the confederation of the Hundred Yue tribes."Lüshi Chunqiu "Examination on Relying on Rulers" [https://ctext.org/lv-shi-chun-qiu/shi-jun "Relying on Rulers"] text: "揚、漢之南，百越之際，敝凱諸、夫風、餘靡之地，縛婁、陽禺、驩兜之國，多無君" translation: South of the Yang and Han rivers, among the Hundred Yuè, the lands of Bikaizhu, Fufeng, Yumi, the nations of Fulou, Yang'ou, Huandou, most had no rulers" By the 17th and 18th centuries AD, educated Vietnamese referred to themselves as người Việt 𠊛越 (Viet people) or người Nam 𠊛南 (southern people).{{sfn|Lieberman|2003|p=405}}

File:𠊛越.png

Beginning in the 10th and 11th centuries, a strand of Viet-Muong (northern Vietic language), with influence from a hypothetical Chinese dialect in northern Vietnam, dubbed as Annamese Middle Chinese, evolved into what is now the Vietnamese language.{{Cite journal|last=Phan|first=John|date=2010|title=Re-Imagining "Annam": A New Analysis of Sino–Viet–Muong Linguistic Contact|url=http://chl-old.anu.edu.au/publications/csds/csds2010/03-1_Phan_2010.pdf|journal=Chinese Southern Diaspora Studies|volume=4|access-date=24 October 2021|archive-date=7 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307035705/http://chl-old.anu.edu.au/publications/csds/csds2010/03-1_Phan_2010.pdf|url-status=dead}}{{sfn|Taylor|2013|p=5}}{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hNoWDgAAQBAJ&dq=annamese+middle+chinese&pg=PT174|isbn=978-0-19-062730-0|title=Viet Nam: A History from Earliest Times to the Present|date=10 February 2017|publisher=Oxford University Press}} Its speakers called themselves the "Kinh" people, meaning people of the "metropolitan" centered around the Red River Delta with Hanoi as its capital. Historic and modern chữ Nôm scripture classically uses the Han character '京', pronounced "Jīng" in Mandarin, and "Kinh" with Sino-Vietnamese pronunciation. Other variants of Proto-Viet-Muong were driven from the lowlands by the Kinh and were called Trại (寨 Mandarin: Zhài), or "outpost" people", by the 13th century. These became the modern Mường people.{{sfn|Taylor|2013|pp=4–6}} According to Victor Lieberman, người Kinh (Chữ Nôm: 𠊛京) may be a colonial-era term for Vietnamese speakers inserted anachronistically into translations of pre-colonial documents, but literature on 18th century ethnic formation is lacking.{{sfn|Lieberman|2003|p=405}}

According to the Vietnamese legend, The Tale of the Hồng Bàng Clan (Hồng Bàng thị truyện), written in the 15th century, the first Vietnamese were descended from the dragon lord Lạc Long Quân and the fairy Âu Cơ. They married and had one hundred eggs, from which hatched one hundred children. Their eldest son ruled as the Hùng king.{{sfn|Kelley|2016|pp=165–167}} The Hùng kings were claimed to be descended from the mythical figure Shen Nong.{{sfn|Kelley|2016|p=175}}

The earliest reference of the proto-Vietnamese in Chinese annals was the Lạc (Chinese: Luo), Lạc Việt, or the Dongsonian,{{sfn|Kiernan|2019|pp=41–42}} an ancient tribal confederacy of perhaps polyglot Austroasiatic and Kra-Dai speakers who occupied the Red River Delta in northern Vietnam.{{sfn|Kiernan|2019|p=42}}{{citation |surname1=Kelley |given1=Liam C. |title=Vietnam at the Vanguard: New Perspectives Across Time, Space, and Community |pages=88–107 |year=2021 |editor-surname1=Gillen |editor-given1=Jamie |editor-surname2=Kelley |editor-given2=Liam C. |editor-surname3=Le |editor-given3=Ha Pahn |chapter=Competing Imagined Ancestries: The Lạc Việt, the Vietnamese, and the Zhuang |publisher=Springer Singapore |isbn=978-9-81165-055-0 |surname2=Hong |given2=Hai Dinh}}

One hypothesis suggests that the forerunners of the ethnic Kinh descend from a subset of proto-Austroasiatic people in southern China, either around Yunnan, Lingnan, or the Yangtze River, as well as mainland Southeast Asia. These proto-Austroasiatics also diverged into Monic speakers, who settled further to the west, and the Khmeric speakers, who migrated further south. The Munda of northeastern India were another subset of proto-Austroasiatics who likely diverged earlier than the aforementioned groups, given the linguistic distance in basic vocabulary of the languages. Most archaeologists, linguists, and other specialists, such as Sinologists and crop experts, believe that they arrived no later than 2000 BC, bringing with them the practice of riverine agriculture and in particular, the cultivation of wet rice.Blench, Roger. 2018. [https://evols.library.manoa.hawaii.edu/bitstream/10524/52438/3/JSEALS_Special_Publication_3.pdf Waterworld: lexical evidence for aquatic subsistence strategies in Austroasiatic]. In Papers from the Seventh International Conference on Austroasiatic Linguistics, 174–193. Journal of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society Special Publication No. 3. University of Hawai{{okina}}i Press.Blench, Roger. 2017. [http://www.rogerblench.info/Language/Austroasiatic/Waterworld.pdf Waterworld: lexical evidence for aquatic subsistence strategies in Austroasiatic]. Presented at ICAAL 7, Kiel, Germany.Sidwell, Paul. 2015b. Phylogeny, innovations, and correlations in the prehistory of Austroasiatic. Paper presented at the workshop Integrating inferences about our past: new findings and current issues in the peopling of the Pacific and South East Asia, 22–23 June 2015, Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History, Jena, Germany.{{cite web |last=Peiros |first=Ilia |year=2011 |title=Some thoughts on the problem of the Austro-Asiatic homeland |url=http://www.jolr.ru/files/(68)jlr2011-6(101-114).pdf |access-date=4 August 2019 |work=Journal of Language Relationship}}

Some linguists, such as James Chamberlain and Joachim Schliesinger, have suggested that Vietic-speaking people migrated northwards from the North Central Region of Vietnam to the Red River Delta, which had originally been inhabited by Tai speakers.{{sfn|Chamberlain|2000|p=40}}{{sfnp|Schliesinger|2018a|pp=21, 97}}{{sfnp|Schliesinger|2018b|pp=3–4, 22, 50, 54}}{{sfn|Kiernan|2019|pp=46–47}} However, Michael Churchman found no records of population shifts in Jiaozhi (centered around the Red River Delta) in Chinese sources, indicating that a fairly stable population of Austroasiatic speakers, ancestral to modern Vietnamese, inhabited the delta during the Han-Tang periods.{{sfnp|Churchman|2010|p=36}} Others{{Who|date=January 2024}} have proposed that tribes in northern Vietnam and southern China did not have any kind of defined ethnic boundary and could not be described as "Vietnamese" (Kinh) in any satisfactory sense.{{sfnp|Churchman|2010|pp=27–29, 31, 32, 33}} Thus, attempts to identify ethnic groups in ancient Vietnam are problematic and often inaccurate.{{sfnp|Churchman|2010|p=25}}

Another theory, based upon linguistic diversity, locates the most probable homeland of the Vietic languages in modern-day Bolikhamsai Province and Khammouane Province in Laos as well as in parts of Nghệ An Province and Quảng Bình Province in Vietnam. In the 1930s, clusters of Vietic-speaking communities discovered in the hills of eastern Laos were believed to be the earliest inhabitants of that region.{{sfn|Kiernan|2019|p=52}}

But so far, many scholars link the origin of the Vietic languages to northern Vietnam, around the Red River Delta.{{cite book |last1=Sagart |first1=Laurent |title=Past Human Migrations in East Asia |date=2008 |isbn=978-1-134-14963-6 |editor-last1=Sanchez-Mazas |editor-first1=Alicia |pages=133–157 |chapter=The expansion of setaria farmers in East Asia: a linguistic and archaeological model |doi=10.4324/9780203926789 |id={{HAL|hal-04864187}} |quote=The cradle of the Vietic branch of Austroasiatic is very likely in north Vietnam, at least 1000km to the south‑west of coastal Fújiàn |editor-last2=Blench |editor-first2=Roger |editor-last3=Ross |editor-first3=Malcolm D. |editor-last4=Peiros |editor-first4=Ilia |editor-last5=Lin |editor-first5=Marie}}{{cite journal |last1=Ferlus |first1=Michael |date=2009 |title=A Layer of Dongsonian Vocabulary in Vietnamese |journal=Journal of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society |volume=1 |pages=95–108 |id={{HAL|halshs-00932218v3}}}}{{cite web |last=Alves |first=Mark |date=10 May 2019 |title=Data from Multiple Disciplines Connecting Vietic with the Dong Son Culture |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/333720204}}{{self-published inline|date=April 2025}}

The Kinh Vietnamese have dual ancestry from Đông Sơn-related peoples and southern China, like Mường peoples. Đông Sơn-related peoples are believed to be genetically and craniometrically discontinuous from the previous Hoabinhian hunter-gatherers of northern Vietnam due to extensive admixture with East Asian populations.{{Cite journal |last1=Oxenham |first1=Marc F. |last2=Matsumura |first2=Hirofumi |last3=Dung |first3=Nguyen Kim |date=2010 |title=Man Bac: The Excavation of a Neolithic Site in Northern Vietnam |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt24hcpx.8 |journal=ANU Press |volume=33 |pages=21–32 |jstor=j.ctt24hcpx.8}}{{cite book |last1=Enfield |first1=N. J. |title=Dynamics of Human Diversity |date=2011 |publisher=Pacific Linguistics |isbn=978-0-85883-638-9 |pages=153–178}} Another study, however, suggests some affinities between present Kinh Vietnamese and hunter-gatherers from the Con Co Ngua site in Thanh Hoa, Vietnam about 6.2 k cal BP, who were phenotypically closer to Late Pleistocene Southeast Asians and modern Melanesians and Aboriginal Australians.{{Cite journal |last1=Tran |first1=Huyen Linh |last2=Mai |first2=Huong Pham |last3=Thi |first3=Dung Le |last4=Thi |first4=Nhung Doan |display-authors=3 |date=2023 |title=The first maternal genetic study of hunter-gatherers from Vietnam |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00438-023-02050-0#Sec2 |journal=Molecular Genetics and Genomics |volume=298 |issue=5 |pages=1225–1235 |doi=10.1007/s00438-023-02050-0 |pmid=37438447 |via=Springer Nature Link}}Kinh Vietnamese also show affinities with Núi Nấp populations from Bronze Age Vietnam,{{cite journal |last1=McColl |first1=Hugh |last2=Racimo |first2=Fernando |last3=Vinner |first3=Lasse |last4=Demeter |first4=Fabrice |last5=Gakuhari |first5=Takashi |last6=Moreno-Mayar |first6=J. Víctor |last7=van Driem |first7=George |last8=Gram Wilken |first8=Uffe |last9=Seguin-Orlando |first9=Andaine |last10=de la Fuente Castro |first10=Constanza |last11=Wasef |first11=Sally |last12=Shoocongdej |first12=Rasmi |last13=Souksavatdy |first13=Viengkeo |last14=Sayavongkhamdy |first14=Thongsa |last15=Saidin |first15=Mohd Mokhtar |date=6 July 2018 |title=The prehistoric peopling of Southeast Asia |url=https://researchmgt.monash.edu/ws/files/344873217/343042905_oa.pdf |journal=Science |volume=361 |issue=6397 |pages=88–92 |bibcode=2018Sci...361...88M |doi=10.1126/science.aat3628 |pmid=29976827 |last16=Allentoft |first16=Morten E. |last17=Sato |first17=Takehiro |last18=Malaspinas |first18=Anna-Sapfo |last19=Aghakhanian |first19=Farhang A. |last20=Korneliussen |first20=Thorfinn |last21=Prohaska |first21=Ana |last22=Margaryan |first22=Ashot |last23=de Barros Damgaard |first23=Peter |last24=Kaewsutthi |first24=Supannee |last25=Lertrit |first25=Patcharee |last26=Nguyen |first26=Thi Mai Huong |last27=Hung |first27=Hsiao-chun |last28=Minh Tran |first28=Thi |last29=Nghia Truong |first29=Huu |last30=Nguyen |first30=Giang Hai |last31=Shahidan |first31=Shaiful |last32=Wiradnyana |first32=Ketut |last33=Matsumae |first33=Hiromi |last34=Shigehara |first34=Nobuo |last35=Yoneda |first35=Minoru |last36=Ishida |first36=Hajime |last37=Masuyama |first37=Tadayuki |last38=Yamada |first38=Yasuhiro |last39=Tajima |first39=Atsushi |last40=Shibata |first40=Hiroki |last41=Toyoda |first41=Atsushi |last42=Hanihara |first42=Tsunehiko |last43=Nakagome |first43=Shigeki |last44=Deviese |first44=Thibaut |last45=Bacon |first45=Anne-Marie |last46=Duringer |first46=Philippe |last47=Ponche |first47=Jean-Luc |last48=Shackelford |first48=Laura |last49=Patole-Edoumba |first49=Elise |last50=Nguyen |first50=Anh Tuan |last51=Bellina-Pryce |first51=Bérénice |last52=Galipaud |first52=Jean-Christophe |last53=Kinaston |first53=Rebecca |last54=Buckley |first54=Hallie |last55=Pottier |first55=Christophe |last56=Rasmussen |first56=Simon |last57=Higham |first57=Tom |last58=Foley |first58=Robert A. |last59=Lahr |first59=Marta Mirazón |last60=Orlando |first60=Ludovic |last61=Sikora |first61=Martin |last62=Phipps |first62=Maude E. |last63=Oota |first63=Hiroki |last64=Higham |first64=Charles |last65=Lambert |first65=David M. |last66=Willerslev |first66=Eske}} cited in {{harvnb|Alves|2019}}. who can be modeled as a mixture of Dushan-related (~65%) and northern East Asian-related (~35%) ancestry.{{cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Tianyi |last2=Wang |first2=Wei |last3=Xie |first3=Guangmao |last4=Li |first4=Zhen |last5=Fan |first5=Xuechun |last6=Yang |first6=Qingping |last7=Wu |first7=Xichao |last8=Cao |first8=Peng |last9=Liu |first9=Yichen |last10=Yang |first10=Ruowei |last11=Liu |first11=Feng |last12=Dai |first12=Qingyan |last13=Feng |first13=Xiaotian |last14=Wu |first14=Xiaohong |last15=Qin |first15=Ling |date=July 2021 |title=Human population history at the crossroads of East and Southeast Asia since 11,000 years ago |journal=Cell |volume=184 |issue=14 |pages=3829–3841.e21 |doi=10.1016/j.cell.2021.05.018 |pmid=34171307 |last16=Li |first16=Fajun |last17=Ping |first17=Wanjing |last18=Zhang |first18=Lizhao |last19=Zhang |first19=Ming |last20=Liu |first20=Yalin |last21=Chen |first21=Xiaoshan |last22=Zhang |first22=Dongju |last23=Zhou |first23=Zhenyu |last24=Wu |first24=Yun |last25=Shafiey |first25=Hassan |last26=Gao |first26=Xing |last27=Curnoe |first27=Darren |last28=Mao |first28=Xiaowei |last29=Bennett |first29=E. Andrew |last30=Ji |first30=Xueping |last31=Yang |first31=Melinda A. |last32=Fu |first32=Qiaomei}}

The Đông Sơn culture was pioneered by the Lạc Việt peoples, who also founded the Văn Lang chiefdom, ruled by the semi-mythical Hùng kings.{{sfn|Kiernan|2019|p=53}} To the south of the Dongsonians/Lạc Việt was the Sa Huỳnh culture of the Austronesian Chamic people.{{sfn|Kiernan|2019|p=56}} Around 400–200 BC, the Lạc Việt interacted with the Âu Việt, a splinter group of Tai people from southern China,{{Cite book |last1=Chapuis |first1=Oscar |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Jskyi00bspcC&pg=PA13 |title=A History of Vietnam: From Hong Bang to Tu Duc |date=1 January 1995 |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |isbn=978-0-313-29622-2}} and Sinitic peoples from further north.{{sfn|Schafer|1967|p=14}} According to a late-third- or early-fourth-century AD Chinese chronicle, Thục Phán, the leader of the Âu Việt, conquered Văn Lang and deposed the last Hùng king.{{sfn|Kelley|2016|pp=167–168}} Having submissions of Lạc lords, Thục Phán proclaimed himself King An Dương of Âu Lạc kingdom, uniting the Lạc Việt and Âu Việt tribes.{{sfn|Kiernan|2019|p=53}}

In 179 BC, Zhao Tuo, a Chinese general who established the Nanyue state in modern-day southern China, annexed Âu Lạc, which initiated Sino-Vietic interaction that lasted for a millennium.{{sfn|Kiernan|2019|p=69}} In 111 BC, the Han Empire conquered Nanyue, which also brought northern Vietnam under Han rule.{{sfn|Kiernan|2019|p=75}}

By the 7th century to 9th century AD, as the Tang Empire ruled over the region, historians such as Henri Maspero proposed that Vietnamese-speaking people became separated from other Vietic groups such as the Mường and Chứt due to heavier Chinese influences on the Vietnamese.{{sfn|Maspero|1912|p=10}} In the mid-9th century, local rebels aided by Nanzhao almost ended Tang rule.{{sfn|Schafer|1967|p=63}} The Tang reconquered the region in 866, causing half of the local rebels to flee into the mountains, marking the separation between the Mường and the Vietnamese.{{sfn|Maspero|1912|p=10}}{{sfn|Taylor|1983|p=248}}

According to Jennifer Holmgren, the first six centuries of Chinese rule saw more Vietnamization of local Chinese than Sinicization of local Vietnamese.{{sfnp|Kiernan|2019|p=100}} Compared to the first six centuries of Chinese rule when demographics were relatively stable, Chinese migration during the Tang period was of sufficient magnitude to cause basic changes to certain portions of Vietnamese society in northern Vietnam. Most of these Chinese migrants came as soldiers or merchants, took a wife from the indigenous population, and settled down. They were individuals that settled down in a nuclear family, causing the average household size to decrease. Despite the increase of Chinese migrants to Vietnam, it was still much more constrained compared to Chinese migration to Guangdong and Guangxi due to the structure of Vietnamese society, which limited the ability of Chinese rulers to register and tax the local population. Vietnamese society retained their language and heritage. Other peoples like the Muong, Tay, and Nung people fled Chinese control into the uplands, where Chinese registers could not reach them. Non-Chinese foreign migration was also significant in the south due to pressures elsewhere such as the expanding Cham kingdom.{{sfn|Taylor|1983|p=140-143}} Around 10.5% of Kinh Vietnamese carry the Han Chinese O-M7 haplogroup, suggesting heavy assimilation of Chinese migrants in northern Vietnam.{{cite journal |last1=He |first1=Jun-Dong |last2=Peng |first2=Min-Sheng |last3=Quang |first3=Huy Ho |last4=Dang |first4=Khoa Pham |last5=Trieu |first5=An Vu |last6=Wu |first6=Shi-Fang |last7=Jin |first7=Jie-Qiong |last8=Murphy |first8=Robert W. |last9=Yao |first9=Yong-Gang |last10=Zhang |first10=Ya-Ping |editor1-last=Kayser |editor1-first=Manfred |title=Patrilineal Perspective on the Austronesian Diffusion in Mainland Southeast Asia |journal=PLOS ONE|date=7 May 2012 |volume=7 |issue=5 |page=e36437 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0036437 |pmid=22586471 |pmc=3346718 |bibcode=2012PLoSO...736437H |doi-access=free }}

In 938, the Vietnamese leader Ngô Quyền who was a native of Thanh Hóa, led Vietnamese forces to defeat the Chinese armada at Bạch Đằng River. He proclaimed himself king over a polity that could be perceived as "Vietnamese".{{sfn|Kiernan|2019|pp=127, 131 [Quote (p.131): From the tenth century, Vietnamese history comes into its own. After millennia of undocumented prehistory and a thousand years of imperial rule documented only in Chinese, new indigenous historical sources throw increasing light on political, economic, and cultural developments in the territory that had comprised the Protectorate of Annam. How new were these developments? A tenth-century ruler revived for a second time the ancient name of the kingdom of Nán Yuè in its Vietnamese form, Nam Việt. But this new kingdom would then adopt a new name, Đại Việt (Great Việt), and unlike its classical Yuè predecessors and short-lived tenth-century counterparts in south China, it successfully resisted reintegration into the empire. The new autonomous Việt realm inherited both the Sino-Vietnamese hereditary aristocracy and the provincial geography of Tang Annam. From north to south, it was a diverse region of five provinces and border marches. Restive ethnic Tai and other upland groups, formerly allied to the defunct Nanzhao kingdom, straddled the mountainous northern frontier. Lowland Jiao province in the central plain of the Red and Bạch Đằng rivers was the most Sinicized region, home to most of the northern settlers and traders and an influential Sino-Vietnamese Buddhist community, as well as Vietic-speaking rice farmers. Here the Vietnamese language was emerging as settlers adopted the Proto-Việt-Mường tongue of their indigenous neighbors, infusing it with much of their Annamese Middle Chinese vocabulary]}}

File:Trang phục Kinh.jpg

Ngô Quyền died in 944 and his kingdom collapsed into chaos and disturbances between twelve warlords and chiefs.{{sfn|Kiernan|2019|p=139}} In 968, a leader named Đinh Bộ Lĩnh united them and established the Đại Việt (Great Việt) kingdom.{{sfn|Kiernan|2019|p=141}} With assistance of powerful Buddhist monks, Đinh Bộ Lĩnh chose Hoa Lư in the southern edge of the Red River Delta as the capital instead of Tang-era Đại La, adopted Chinese-style imperial titles, coinage, and ceremonies and tried to preserve the Chinese administrative framework.{{sfn|Lieberman|2003|p=352}} The independence of Đại Việt, according to Andrew Chittick, allows it "to develop its own distinctive political culture and ethnic consciousness".{{cite book|title=The Jiankang Empire in Chinese and World History |author=Andrew Chittick |page=340 |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2020 |isbn=978-0-19093-754-6}} In 979, Emperor Đinh Tiên Hoàng was assassinated, and Queen Dương Vân Nga married Dinh's general Lê Hoàn and appointed him as Emperor. Disturbances in Đại Việt attracted attention from the neighbouring Chinese Song dynasty and Champa Kingdom, but they were defeated by Lê Hoàn.{{sfn|Kiernan|2019|pp=144–145}} A Khmer inscription dated 987 records the arrival of Vietnamese merchants (Yuon) in Angkor.{{sfn|Kiernan|2019|p=157}} Chinese writers Song Hao, Fan Chengda and Zhou Qufei all reported that the inhabitants of Đại Việt "tattooed their foreheads, crossed feet, black teeth, bare feet and blacken clothing".{{sfn|Marsh|2016|pp=84–85}} The early 11th-century Cham inscription of Chiên Đàn, My Son, erected by king of Champa Harivarman IV (r. 1074–1080), mentions that he had offered Khmer (Kmīra/Kmir) and Viet (Yvan) prisoners as slaves to various local gods and temples of the citadel of Tralauṅ Svon.{{citation|last=Golzio|first=Karl-Heinz|year=2004|title=Inscriptions of Campā based on the editions and translations of Abel Bergaigne, Étienne Aymonier, Louis Finot, Édouard Huber and other French scholars and of the work of R. C. Majumdar. Newly presented, with minor corrections of texts and translations, together with calculations of given dates|publisher=Shaker Verlag|pages=163–164|quote=Original Old Cam text: ...(pa)kā ra vuḥ kmīra yvan· si mak· nan· di yām̃ hajai tralauṅ· svon· dadam̃n· sthāna tra ra vuḥ urām̃ dinan· pajem̃ karadā yam̃ di nagara campa.}} Many Kinh Vietnamese also lived in Champa and were well-assimilated, like other Austroasiatic groups living in the state.{{Cite journal |last1=Thao |first1=Dinh Huong |last2=Dinh |first2=Tran Huu |last3=Mitsunaga |first3=Shigeki |last4=Duy |first4=La Duc |date=2024 |title=Investigating demic versus cultural diffusion and sex bias in the spread of Austronesian languages in Vietnam |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=19 |issue=6 |pages=e0304964 |bibcode=2024PLoSO..1904964T |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0304964 |pmc=11182502 |pmid=38885215 |doi-access=free}}

Successive Vietnamese royal families from the Đinh, Early Lê, Lý, Trần and Hồ dynasties, who had (Hoa)/Chinese ancestry, ruled the kingdom peacefully from 968 to 1407. Emperor Lý Thái Tổ (r. 1009–1028) relocated the Vietnamese capital from Hoa Lư to Đại La, the center of the Red River Delta in 1010.{{sfn|Kiernan|2019|p=148}} They practiced elitist marriage alliances between clans and nobles in the country. Mahayana Buddhism became state religion, with Cham, Indian and Chinese cultures influencing Vietnamese music instruments, dance and religious worship.{{sfn|Kiernan|2019|pp=153–154}} Confucianism also slowly gained attention and influence.{{sfn|Kiernan|2019|p=155}} The earliest surviving corpus and text in the Vietnamese language were dated to the early 12th century whilst surviving chữ Nôm script inscriptions were dated to the early 13th century, showcasing enormous influences of Chinese culture among the early Vietnamese elites.{{sfn|Kiernan|2019|pp=135, 138}}

The Mongol Yuan dynasty unsuccessfully invaded Đại Việt in the 1250s and 1280s, though they sacked Hanoi.{{sfn|Kiernan|2019|pp=169, 170}} The Ming dynasty of China conquered Đại Việt in 1406, brought the Vietnamese under Chinese rule for 20 years, before they were driven out by Vietnamese leader Lê Lợi.{{sfn|Kiernan|2019|pp=194–197}} The fourth grandson of Lê Lợi, Emperor Lê Thánh Tông (r. 1460–1497), is considered one of the greatest monarchs in Vietnamese history. His reign is recognized for the extensive administrative, military, education, and fiscal reforms he instituted, and a cultural revolution that replaced the old traditional aristocracy with a generation of literati scholars. He also adopted Confucianism and transformed Đại Việt from a Southeast Asian style polity to a bureaucratic state that flourished. Thánh Tông's forces, armed with gunpowder weapons, overwhelmed the long-term rival Champa in 1471 and launched an unsuccessful invasion against the Laotian and Lan Na kingdoms in the 1480s.{{sfn|Kiernan|2019|pp=204–211}}

File:Quan di vong thoi nha Nguyen Minh Mang 1828.jpg

File:Quanlai.jpg , 1883–1886]]

File:Viet1919.jpg

With the death of Thánh Tông in 1497, the Đại Việt kingdom swiftly declined. Extreme climate, failing crops, regionalism and factionism tore the Vietnamese apart.{{sfn|Kiernan|2019|pp=213–214}} From 1533 to 1790s, four powerful Vietnamese families – Mạc, Lê, Trịnh and Nguyễn – each ruled their own domains. In the northern Vietnamese polity of Đàng Ngoài (outer realm), the Lê emperors barely sat on the throne while the Trịnh lords held power of the court. The Mạc controlled northeast Vietnam. The Nguyễn lords ruled the southern polity of Đàng Trong (inner realm).{{sfn|Kiernan|2019|pp=221–223}} Thousands of ethnic Vietnamese migrated south and settled on the old Cham lands, with Cham inhabitants assimilating into the new Vietnamese state.{{sfn|Kiernan|2019|pp=224–225}}{{cite journal |last1=Ho |first1=Hoang-Anh |last2=Martinsson |first2=Peter |last3=Olsson |first3=Ola |title=The origins of cultural divergence: evidence from Vietnam |journal=Journal of Economic Growth |date=March 2022 |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=45–89 |doi=10.1007/s10887-021-09194-x |doi-access=free }} Vietnamese also settled in the highlands of Vietnam and intermixed with the natives over centuries. European missionaries and traders from the sixteenth century brought new religion, ideas and crops to the Vietnamese (Annamese). By 1639, there were 82,500 Catholic converts throughout Vietnam. In 1651, Alexandre de Rhodes published a 300-pages catechism in Latin and romanized-Vietnamese (chữ Quốc Ngữ) or the Vietnamese alphabet.{{sfn|Kiernan|2019|pp=233–234}}

Conflict among Vietnamese ended in 1802 as Emperor Gia Long, who was aided by French mercenaries, defeated the Tay Son kingdoms and reunited Vietnam. By 1847, the Vietnamese state under Emperor Thiệu Trị, a people that were identified as "người Việt Nam" accounted for nearly 80 percent of the country's population.{{sfn|Lieberman|2003|p=433}} This demographic model continues to persist through the French Indochina, Japanese occupation and modern day.

Between 1862 and 1867, the southern third of the country became the French colony of Cochinchina.{{sfn|McLeod|1991|p=61}} By 1884, the entire country had come under French rule, with the central and northern parts of Vietnam separated into the two protectorates of Annam and Tonkin. The three Vietnamese entities were formally integrated into the union of French Indochina in 1887.{{sfn|Ooi|2004|p=520}}{{sfn|Cook|2001|p=396}} The French administration imposed significant political and cultural changes on Vietnamese society.{{sfn|Frankum|2011|p=172}} A Western-style system of modern education introduced new humanist values into Vietnam.{{sfn|Nhu Nguyen|2016|p=37}}

File:South Vietnamese soldiers 1972.jpg

Despite having a long recorded ethnic history, the formation of the ethnic Vietnamese or Kinh identity, only begun by the late 19th and early 20th century, with the help of the colonial administration. Following the colonial government's efforts of ethnic classification, nationalism, especially ethnonationalism and eugenic social Darwinism, were encouraged among the new Vietnamese intelligentsia's discourse. Ethnic tensions sparked by Vietnamese ethnonationalism peaked during the late 1940s at the beginning phase of the First Indochina War (1946–1954), which resulted in violence between Khmer and Vietnamese in the Mekong Delta.

The mid-20th century marked a pivotal turning point with the Vietnam War, a conflict that not only left an indelible impact on the nation but also had far-reaching consequences for the Vietnamese people. The war, which lasted from 1955 to 1975, resulted in significant social, economic, and political upheavals, shaping the modern history of Vietnam and its people. Following the end of the Vietnam War in 1975, the post-war era brought economic hardships and strained social dynamics, prompting resilient efforts at reconstruction, reconciliation, and the implementation of economic reforms such as the Đổi Mới policies in the late 20th century.

Several studies show close genetic affinities between Kinh Vietnamese and Thais{{cite journal |last1=Vu-Trieu |first1=A. |last2=Djoulah |first2=S. |last3=Tran-Thi |first3=C. |last4=Ngyuyen-Thanh |first4=T. |last5=Le Monnier De Gouville |first5=I. |last6=Hors |first6=J. |last7=Sanchez-Mazas |first7=A. |title=HLA-DR and -DQB1 DNA polymorphisms in a Vietnamese Kinh population from Hanoi |journal=European Journal of Immunogenetics |date=October 1997 |volume=24 |issue=5 |pages=345–356 |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2370.1997.d01-107.x |pmid=9442802 }}{{Cite journal |last1=Le |first1=Vinh S. |last2=Tran |first2=Kien T. |last3=Bui |first3=Hoa T.P. |last4=Le |first4=Huong T.T. |display-authors=3 |date=2019 |title=A Vietnamese human genetic variation database |journal=Human Mutation |volume=40 |issue=10 |pages=1664–1675 |doi=10.1002/humu.23835 |pmid=31180159 |doi-access=free }}{{Cite journal |last1=Kutanan |first1=Wibhu |last2=Liu |first2=Dang |last3=Kampuansai |first3=Jatupol |last4=Srikummool |first4=Metawee |display-authors=3 |date=2021 |title=Reconstructing the Human Genetic History of Mainland Southeast Asia: Insights from Genome-Wide Data from Thailand and Laos |journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution |volume=38 |issue=8 |pages=3459–3477 |doi=10.1093/molbev/msab124 |pmid=33905512 |pmc=8321548 }}{{Cite journal |last1=Woravatin |first1=Wipada |last2=Stoneking |first2=Mark |last3=Srikummool |first3=Metawee |last4=Kampuansai |first4=Jatupol |display-authors=3 |date=2023 |title=South Asian maternal and paternal lineages in southern Thailand and the role of sex-biased admixture |id={{HAL|hal-04367499v1}} |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=18 |issue=9 |pages=e0291547 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0291547 |doi-access=free |pmid=37708147 |pmc=10501589 |bibcode=2023PLoSO..1891547W }}{{cite journal |last1=Nguyen |first1=Nam Ngoc |last2=Hoang |first2=Trong Luc |last3=Nguyen |first3=Trang Hong |last4=Le |first4=Phuong Thi |last5=Nguyen |first5=Chi Hung |last6=Tran |first6=Viet Vinh |last7=Chu |first7=Hoang Ha |last8=Hoang |first8=Ha |title=The mitochondrial DNA HVI and HVII sequences and haplogroup distribution in a population sample from Vietnam |journal=Annals of Human Biology |date=17 November 2022 |volume=49 |issue=7–8 |pages=367–371 |doi=10.1080/03014460.2022.2152488 |pmid=36437685 }} although other studies show closer affinities with Tai-Kadai peoples.{{Cite journal |last1=Liu |first1=Dang |last2=Duong |first2=Nguyen Thuy |last3=Ton |first3=Nguyen Dang |last4=Phong |first4=Nguyen Van |display-authors=3 |date=2020 |title=Extensive Ethnolinguistic Diversity in Vietnam Reflects Multiple Sources of Genetic Diversity |journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution |volume=37 |issue=9 |pages=2503–2519 |doi=10.1093/molbev/msaa099 |pmid=32344428 |pmc=7475039 }}{{cite report |type=Preprint |doi=10.1101/2020.11.08.373225 |title=Genomic Insights into the Demographic History of Southern Chinese |date=2020 |last1=Huang |first1=Xiufeng |last2=Xia |first2=Zi-Yang |last3=Bin |first3=Xiaoyun |last4=He |first4=Guanglin |last5=Guo |first5=Jianxin |last6=Lin |first6=Chaowen |last7=Yin |first7=Lianfei |last8=Zhao |first8=Jing |last9=Ma |first9=Zhuofei |last10=Ma |first10=Fuwei |last11=Li |first11=Yingxiang |last12=Hu |first12=Rong |last13=Wei |first13=Lan-Hai |last14=Wang |first14=Chuan-Chao }}{{Cite journal |last1=Yang |first1=Zhaoqing |last2=Chen |first2=Hao |last3=Lu |first3=Yan |last4=Gao |first4=Yang |display-authors=3 |date=2022 |title=Genetic evidence of tri-genealogy hypothesis on the origin of ethnic minorities in Yunnan |journal=BMC Biology |volume=20 |issue=166 |page=166 |doi=10.1186/s12915-022-01367-3 |doi-access=free |pmid=35864541 |pmc=9306206 }}{{Cite journal |last1=Huang |first1=Xiufeng |last2=Xia |first2=Zi-Yang |last3=Bin |first3=Xiaoyun |last4=He |first4=Guanglin |display-authors=3 |date=2022 |title=Genomic Insights Into the Demographic History of the Southern Chinese |journal=Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution |volume=10 |doi=10.3389/fevo.2022.853391 |doi-access=free}} Overall, the Kinh predominantly have southern Chinese ancestry, which is closely related to Lingnan Han,{{Cite journal |last1=Pischedda |first1=S. |last2=Barral-Arca |first2=R. |last3=Gómez-Carballa |first3=A. |last4=Pardo-Seco |first4=J. |display-authors=3 |date=2017 |title=Phylogeographic and genome-wide investigations of Vietnam ethnic groups reveal signatures of complex historical demographic movements |journal=Scientific Reports |volume=7 |issue=12630 |page=12630 |bibcode=2017NatSR...712630P |doi=10.1038/s41598-017-12813-6 |pmc=5626762 |pmid=28974757}}{{Cite journal |last1=Liu |first1=Dang |last2=Duong |first2=Nguyen Thuy |last3=Ton |first3=Nguyen Dang |last4=Phong |first4=Nguyen Van |display-authors=3 |date=2020 |title=Extensive Ethnolinguistic Diversity in Vietnam Reflects Multiple Sources of Genetic Diversity |journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution |volume=37 |issue=9 |pages=2503–2519 |doi=10.1093/molbev/msaa099 |pmc=7475039 |pmid=32344428}}{{cite journal |last1=Cong |first1=Pei-Kuan |last2=Bai |first2=Wei-Yang |last3=Li |first3=Jin-Chen |last4=Yang |first4=Meng-Yuan |last5=Khederzadeh |first5=Saber |last6=Gai |first6=Si-Rui |last7=Li |first7=Nan |last8=Liu |first8=Yu-Heng |last9=Yu |first9=Shi-Hui |last10=Zhao |first10=Wei-Wei |last11=Liu |first11=Jun-Quan |last12=Sun |first12=Yi |last13=Zhu |first13=Xiao-Wei |last14=Zhao |first14=Pian-Pian |last15=Xia |first15=Jiang-Wei |date=26 May 2022 |title=Genomic analyses of 10,376 individuals in the Westlake BioBank for Chinese (WBBC) pilot project |journal=Nature Communications |volume=13 |issue=1 |page=2939 |bibcode=2022NatCo..13.2939C |doi=10.1038/s41467-022-30526-x |pmc=9135724 |pmid=35618720 |last16=Guan |first16=Peng-Lin |last17=Qian |first17=Yu |last18=Tao |first18=Jian-Guo |last19=Xu |first19=Lin |last20=Tian |first20=Geng |last21=Wang |first21=Ping-Yu |last22=Xie |first22=Shu-Yang |last23=Qiu |first23=Mo-Chang |last24=Liu |first24=Ke-Qi |last25=Tang |first25=Bei-Sha |last26=Zheng |first26=Hou-Feng}} but also have minor genetic contributions from Laotians, Malays (i.e. Proto-Malay, Negrito, and Bidayut) and Thais (i.e. Mlabri and H’tin). There is no evidence of genetic input from Chams from the Nam Tiến conquests although Kinh Vietnamese share mtDNA haplotypes with Cham, originating from well-assimilated Kinh that lived in the Champa state.

The Kinh also possess 'genetic characteristics of the Baiyue lineage', similar to other Tai-Kadai-speaking Baiyue populations in mainland China.{{Cite journal |last1=Chen |first1=Hao |last2=Lin |first2=Rong |last3=Lu |first3=Yan |last4=Zhang |first4=Rui |display-authors=3 |date=2022 |title=Tracing Bai-Yue Ancestry in Aboriginal Li People on Hainan Island |journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution |volume=39 |issue=10 |doi=10.1093/molbev/msac210 |pmc=9585476 |pmid=36173765 }} In particular, they cluster with Longli Bouyei and Qiandongnan Dong, who could be described as a good representative of the 'ancestral Tai-Kadai' population.{{cite report |title=New insights from the combined discrimination of modern/Ancient genome-wide shared alleles and haplotypes: Differentiated demographic history reconstruction of Tai-Kadai and Sinitic people in South China |last1=Wang |first1=Mengge |last2=He |first2=Guanglin |last3=Zou |first3=Xing |last4=Chen |first4=Pengyu |last5=Wang |first5=Zheng |last6=Tang |first6=Renkuan |last7=Yang |first7=Xiaomin |last8=Chen |first8=Jing |last9=Yang |first9=Meiqing |last10=Li |first10=Yingxiang |last11=Liu |first11=Jing |last12=Wang |first12=Fei |last13=Zhao |first13=Jing |last14=Guo |first14=Jianxin |last15=Hu |first15=Rong |date=2021 |doi=10.1101/2021.06.19.449013 |type=Preprint |last16=Wei |first16=Lan-Hai |last17=Chen |first17=Gang |last18=Yeh |first18=Hui-Yuan |last19=Wang |first19=Chuan-Chao}} There is also evidence that the Kinh diverged from the Hlai, who have the most enriched Baiyue ancestry among Tai-Kadai groups, much earlier than the Dai diverged from Hlai.

Overall, majority of Vietnamese belong to maternal haplogroups M (39%) and N (61%). In particular, M's subhaplogroup of M7 (20%) and N's subhaplogroups of R9’F (27%) and haplogroup B (25%) are common. In northern Vietnam, haplogroups, A, B4, F1a and G are common.{{cite journal |last1=Duong |first1=Nguyen Thuy |last2=Macholdt |first2=Enrico |last3=Ton |first3=Nguyen Dang |last4=Arias |first4=Leonardo |last5=Schröder |first5=Roland |last6=Van Phong |first6=Nguyen |last7=Thi Bich Thuy |first7=Vo |last8=Ha |first8=Nguyen Hai |last9=Thi Thu Hue |first9=Huynh |last10=Thi Xuan |first10=Nguyen |last11=Thi Phuong Oanh |first11=Kim |last12=Hien |first12=Le Thi Thu |last13=Hoang |first13=Nguyen Huy |last14=Pakendorf |first14=Brigitte |last15=Stoneking |first15=Mark |date=3 August 2018 |title=Complete human mtDNA genome sequences from Vietnam and the phylogeography of Mainland Southeast Asia |journal=Scientific Reports |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=11651 |bibcode=2018NatSR...811651D |doi=10.1038/s41598-018-29989-0 |pmc=6076260 |pmid=30076323 |last16=Van Hai |first16=Nong}}Haplogroups A and C are particularly common in northwest Vietnam, with haplogroups M and M7 peaking in northeast Vietnam and settlements near the Gulf of Tonkin. Haplogroup M71 also peaks in central Vietnam. In contrast, haplogroups M and M7 are quite rare for northwest Vietnam and far south Vietnam, near the Mekong Delta. In southern Vietnam, haplogroups D (9%) and N peak (67%) and to an extent, R9'F (29%). R9'F is instead more common in the Red River Delta (32-36%), followed by central (21%) and northwest Vietnam (16%).

Meanwhile, common paternal haplogroups for Vietnamese are O1a1a2,{{cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Mengge |last2=Huang |first2=Yuguo |last3=Liu |first3=Kaijun |last4=Wang |first4=Zhiyong |last5=Zhang |first5=Menghan |last6=Yuan |first6=Haibing |last7=Duan |first7=Shuhan |last8=Wei |first8=Lanhai |last9=Yao |first9=Hongbing |last10=Sun |first10=Qiuxia |last11=Zhong |first11=Jie |last12=Tang |first12=Renkuan |last13=Chen |first13=Jing |last14=Sun |first14=Yuntao |last15=Li |first15=Xiangping |last16=Su |first16=Haoran |last17=Yang |first17=Qingxin |last18=Hu |first18=Liping |last19=Yun |first19=Libing |last20=Yang |first20=Junbao |last21=Nie |first21=Shengjie |last22=Cai |first22=Yan |last23=Yan |first23=Jiangwei |last24=Zhou |first24=Kun |last25=Wang |first25=Chuanchao |last26=He |first26=Guanglin |last27=Liu |first27=Chao |last28=Wang |first28=Mengge |last29=Tang |first29=Renkuan |last30=Yun |first30=Libing |last31=Yang |first31=Junbao |last32=Wang |first32=Chuan-Chao |last33=Yan |first33=Jiangwei |last34=Zhu |first34=Bofeng |last35=Hu |first35=Liping |last36=Nie |first36=Shengjie |last37=Yao |first37=Hongbing |last38=Zhu |first38=Bofeng |last39=Liu |first39=Chao |last40=He |first40=Guanglin |title=Multiple Human Population Movements and Cultural Dispersal Events Shaped the Landscape of Chinese Paternal Heritage |journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution |date=3 July 2024 |volume=41 |issue=7 |doi=10.1093/molbev/msae122 |pmid=38885310 |pmc=11232699 }} O1b1a1a and N4-F2930.{{cite journal |last1=Ilumäe |first1=Anne-Mai |last2=Reidla |first2=Maere |last3=Chukhryaeva |first3=Marina |last4=Järve |first4=Mari |last5=Post |first5=Helen |last6=Karmin |first6=Monika |last7=Saag |first7=Lauri |last8=Agdzhoyan |first8=Anastasiya |last9=Kushniarevich |first9=Alena |last10=Litvinov |first10=Sergey |last11=Ekomasova |first11=Natalya |last12=Tambets |first12=Kristiina |last13=Metspalu |first13=Ene |last14=Khusainova |first14=Rita |last15=Yunusbayev |first15=Bayazit |last16=Khusnutdinova |first16=Elza K. |last17=Osipova |first17=Ludmila P. |last18=Fedorova |first18=Sardana |last19=Utevska |first19=Olga |last20=Koshel |first20=Sergey |last21=Balanovska |first21=Elena |last22=Behar |first22=Doron M. |last23=Balanovsky |first23=Oleg |last24=Kivisild |first24=Toomas |last25=Underhill |first25=Peter A. |last26=Villems |first26=Richard |last27=Rootsi |first27=Siiri |title=Human Y Chromosome Haplogroup N: A Non-trivial Time-Resolved Phylogeography that Cuts across Language Families |journal=The American Journal of Human Genetics |date=July 2016 |volume=99 |issue=1 |pages=163–173 |doi=10.1016/j.ajhg.2016.05.025 |pmid=27392075 |pmc=5005449 }}

{{Main|Religion in Vietnam}}

{{Pie chart

|caption = Religion in Vietnam (2019)

|label1 = Vietnamese folk religion or non religious

|value1 = 86.32

|color1 = #C00000

|label2 = Catholicism

|value2 = 6.1

|color2 = DarkOrchid

|label3 = Buddhism

|value3 = 4.79

|color3 = Gold

|label4 = Hoahaoism

|value4 = 1.02

|color4 = Tomato

|label5 = Protestantism

|value5 = 1

|color5 = DodgerBlue

|label6 = Others

|value6 = 0.77

|color6 = GreenYellow

}}

According to the 2019 census, the religious demographics of Vietnam are as follows:

• 86.32% Vietnamese folk religion or unaffiliated
• 6.1% Catholicism
• 4.79% Buddhism (mainly Mahayana)
• 1.02% Hoahaoism
• 1% Protestantism
• <1% Caodaism
• 0.77 Others

It is worth noting here that the data is highly skewed, as a large majority of Vietnamese may be unaffiliated with any religion, yet practice forms of traditional folk religion or Mahayana Buddhism.{{cite report |type=Preprint |doi=10.20944/preprints202003.0092.v1 |doi-access=free |title=From Religious Heritage to Cultural Heritage: Study the Heritage of Buddhism in Vietnam |date=2020 |last1=Hong Van |first1=Vu }} Vietnamese folk religion is not an organized religious system, but a set of local worship traditions devoted to the "thần", a term which can be translated as "spirits", "Gods" or with the more exhaustive locution "generative powers". These Gods can be nature deities or national, community or kinship tutelary deities or ancestral Gods and the ancestral Gods of a specific family. Ancestral Gods are often deified heroic persons. Vietnamese mythology preserves narratives telling of the actions of many of the cosmic Gods and cultural heroes.{{Cite web |date=20 June 2019 |title=Vietnamese Folk Religion Beliefs |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/vietnamese-folk-religion-the-religion-of-the-majority-in-vietnam.html |access-date=18 December 2024 |website=WorldAtlas |language=en-US}}

Estimates for the year 2010 published by the Pew–Templeton Global Religious Futures Project:{{cite web| website=Pew–Templeton Global Religious Futures Project| url= http://www.globalreligiousfutures.org/countries/vietnam/religious_demography/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210111040451/http://www.globalreligiousfutures.org/countries/vietnam/religious_demography/|archive-date=11 January 2021| title=Vietnam}}{{unreliable source?|date=July 2024|reason=WP:GLOBALRELIGIOUSFUTURES}}

• Vietnamese folk religion, 45.3%
• Unaffiliated, 29.6%
• Buddhism, 16.4%
• Christianity, 8.2%
• Other, 0.5%

{{Main|Overseas Vietnamese}}

File:Vietnamnese Abroad.svgOriginally from northern Vietnam and southern China, the Vietnamese have expanded south and conquered much of the land belonging to the former Champa Kingdom and Khmer Empire over the centuries. They are the dominant ethnic group in most provinces of Vietnam, and constitute a small percentage of the population in neighbouring Cambodia. According to a 2020 study, Kinh Vietnamese mostly reside in the lowlands of Vietnam.

Beginning around the sixteenth century, groups of Vietnamese migrated to Cambodia and China for commerce and political purposes. Descendants of Vietnamese migrants in China form the Gin ethnic group in the country and primarily reside in and around Guangxi Province. Vietnamese form the largest ethnic minority group in Cambodia, at 5% of the population.[https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/cambodia/ CIA – The World Factbook, Cambodia], retrieved 11 December 2012 Under the Khmer Rouge, they were heavily persecuted and survivors of the regime largely fled to Vietnam.

During French colonialism, Vietnam was regarded as the most important colony in Asia by the French colonial powers, and the Vietnamese had a higher social standing than other ethnic groups in French Indochina.Carine Hahn, Le Laos, Karthala, 1999, page 77 As a result, educated Vietnamese were often trained to be placed in colonial government positions in the other Asian French colonies of Laos and Cambodia rather than locals of the respective colonies. There was also a significant representation of Vietnamese students in France during this period, primarily consisting of members of the elite class. A large number of Vietnamese also migrated to France as workers, especially during World War I and World War II, when France recruited soldiers and locals of its colonies to help with war efforts in metropolitan France. The wave of migrants to France during World War I formed the first major presence of the Vietnamese in France and the Western world.[http://eglasie.mepasie.org/divers-horizons/1995-10-16-la-diaspora-vietnamienne-en-france-un-cas La Diaspora Vietnamienne en France un cas particulier] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203000103/http://eglasie.mepasie.org/divers-horizons/1995-10-16-la-diaspora-vietnamienne-en-france-un-cas |date=3 December 2013 }} (in French)

File:Congregation Of The Mother Coredemtrix.jpg

When Vietnam gained its independence from France in 1954, a number of Vietnamese loyal to the colonial government also migrated to France. During the partition of Vietnam into North and South, a number of South Vietnamese students also arrived to study in France, along with individuals involved in commerce for trade with France, which was a principal economic partner with South Vietnam.

File:Ethnolinguistic Groups of Mainland Southeast Asia.png

Forced repatriation in 1970 and deaths during the Khmer Rouge era reduced the Vietnamese population in Cambodia from between 250,000 and 300,000 in 1969 to a reported 56,000 in 1984."[http://countrystudies.us/cambodia/40.htm Cambodia – Population]". Library of Congress Country Studies.

The fall of Saigon and end of the Vietnam War prompted the start of the Vietnamese diaspora, which saw millions of Vietnamese fleeing the country from the new communist regime. Recognizing an international humanitarian crisis, many countries accepted Vietnamese refugees, primarily the United States, France, Australia and Canada.{{cite web|url=http://www.civilization.ca/cultur/vietnam/vilea03e.html|title=Online Exhibitions – Exhibitions – Canadian Museum of History|website=www.civilization.ca}} Meanwhile, under the new communist regime, tens of thousands of Vietnamese were sent to work or study in Eastern Bloc countries of Central and Eastern Europe as development aid to the Vietnamese government and for migrants to acquire skills that were to be brought home to help with development.{{harvnb|Hillmann|2005|p=87}}

{{Columns-list |colwidth=15em|

• Baiyue
• Lạc Việt
• Âu Lạc
• Vietnamese language
• List of Vietnamese people
• Overseas Vietnamese (Known as "Việt Kiều")
• Vietnamese culture
• Vietnamese cuisine
• Vietnamese music
• Vietnamese name
• List of ethnic groups in Vietnam
• History of Vietnam
• Southeast Asia
• Ethnic groups of Southeast Asia
• Vietnamese clothing
• Culture of Vietnam}}

{{Reflist|group=n}}

{{Notelist}}

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• {{cite book |author= |year=2001 |title=Selections from Regional Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5sUuAQAAIAAJ&q=pakistan+embassy+hanoi+2000 |publisher=Institute of Regional Studies |volume=20 |ref=none }}
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• {{cite book |last= Pelley |first= Patricia M. |year=2002 |title=Postcolonial Vietnam: New Histories of the National Past |publisher=Duke University Press |isbn=978-0-8223-2966-4 |ref=none }}
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|last1=Dodd

|first1 = Jan

|last2 = Lewis

|first2 = Mark

|year = 2003

|title = Vietnam

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|isbn = 978-1-84353-095-4

|ref=none }}

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|author = Protected Areas and Development Partnership

|year = 2003

|title = Review of Protected Areas and Development in the Four Countries of the Lower Mekong River Region

|publisher = ICEM

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|ref=none }}

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|last= Smith

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|year = 2005

|title = Southeast Asia and New Zealand: A History of Regional and Bilateral Relations

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|first2 = Robert G.

|year = 2005

|title = Displacements and Diasporas: Asians in the Americas

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|ref=none }}

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|first= Mary

|year = 2006

|title = Vietnam: A Question and Answer Book

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|ref=none }}

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|editor-last1=Tran |editor-first1=Nhung Tuyet

|editor-last2 =Reid |editor-first2=Anthony

|editor-link2 = Anthony Reid (academic)

|year = 2006

|title = Viet Nam: Borderless Histories

|publisher = University of Wisconsin Press

|isbn = 978-0-299-21773-0

|ref=none }}

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|last= Jeffries

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|year = 2007

|title = Vietnam: A Guide to Economic and Political Developments

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|ref=none }}

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|last= Koskoff

|first= Ellen

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|title = The Concise Garland Encyclopedia of World Music: The Middle East, South Asia, East Asia, Southeast Asia

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|ref=none }}

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|ref=none }}

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|title = Random Curves: Journeys of a Mathematician

|publisher = Springer Science + Business Media

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|year = 2010

|title = Asian Development Outlook 2010 Update

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|isbn = 978-92-9092-181-3

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|title = War and Shadows: The Haunting of Vietnam

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|ref=none }}

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|title = Vietnam Business Guide: Getting Started in Tomorrow's Market Today

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|isbn = 978-90-272-4608-0

|ref=none }}

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|year = 2011

|title = The Cham of Vietnam: History, Society and Art

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|title = Multicultural Handbook of Food, Nutrition and Dietetics

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|last= Vo

|first= Nghia M.

|year = 2012

|title = Legends of Vietnam: An Analysis and Retelling of 88 Tales

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|ref=none }}

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|isbn = 978-1-907263-64-4

|url-access = registration

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}}

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|year = 2013

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|year = 2013

|title = Golden Dragon And Purple Phoenix: The Chinese And Their Multi-ethnic Descendants In Southeast Asia

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|ref=none }}

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|first1 = Tuyet L.

|last2 = Cosslett

|first2 = Patrick D.

|year = 2013

|title = Water Resources and Food Security in the Vietnam Mekong Delta

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|ref=none }}

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|title = Practical Knowledge in Teacher Education: Approaches to teacher internship programmes

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|isbn = 978-1-317-80333-1

|ref=none }}

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|last= Yao

|first= Alice

|year = 2016

|title = The Ancient Highlands of Southwest China: From the Bronze Age to the Han Empire

|publisher = Oxford University Press

|isbn = 978-0-19-936734-4

|ref=none }}

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|first= Do

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|title = Vietnam and the South China Sea: Politics, Security and Legality

|publisher = Taylor & Francis

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|ref=none }}

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|first= Janis Talivaldis

|year = 2016

|title = Religion and Culture in Dialogue: East and West Perspectives

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• {{cite book

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|year = 2016

|title = Textiles and Clothing of Việt Nam: A History

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|ref=none }}

• {{cite book

|last= Travel

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|year = 2017

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|publisher = Dorling Kindersley Limited

|isbn = 978-0-241-30136-4

|ref=none }}

• {{cite book

|last= Hinchey

|first= Jane

|year = 2017

|title = Vietnam: Discover the Country, Culture and People

|publisher = Redback Publishing

|isbn = 978-1-925630-02-2

|ref=none }}

• {{cite book

|last= Trieu Dan

|first= Nguyen

|year = 2017

|title = A Vietnamese Family Chronicle: Twelve Generations on the Banks of the Hat River

|publisher = McFarland Publishing

|isbn = 978-0-7864-8779-0

|ref=none }}

• {{cite book

|last1=Tran

|first1 = Tri C.

|last2 = Le

|first2 = Tram

|year = 2017

|title = Vietnamese Stories for Language Learners: Traditional Folktales in Vietnamese and English Text (MP3 Downloadable Audio Included)

|publisher = Tuttle Publishing

|isbn = 978-1-4629-1956-7

|ref=none }}

• {{cite book

|last1=Cosslett

|first1 = Tuyet L.

|last2 = Cosslett

|first2 = Patrick D.

|year = 2017

|title = Sustainable Development of Rice and Water Resources in Mainland Southeast Asia and Mekong River Basin

|publisher = Springer Publishing

|isbn = 978-981-10-5613-0

|ref=none }}

• {{cite book

|last1=Zhu

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|last3 = Collins

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|year = 2017

|title = Business Leaders and Leadership in Asia

|publisher = Taylor & Francis

|isbn = 978-1-317-56749-3

|ref=none }}

• {{cite book

|last= Lamport

|first= Mark A.

|year = 2018

|title = Encyclopedia of Christianity in the Global South

|publisher = Rowman & Littlefield Publishers

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• {{cite book

|last= Dinh Tham

|first= Nguyen

|year = 2018

|title = Studies on Vietnamese Language and Literature: A Preliminary Bibliography

|publisher = Cornell University Press

|isbn = 978-1-5017-1882-3

|ref=none }}

• {{cite book

|last= Dayley

|first= Robert

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|title = Southeast Asia in the New International Era

|publisher = Taylor & Francis

|isbn = 978-0-429-97424-3

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• {{cite book

|last= Chen

|first= Steven

|year = 2018

|title = The Design Imperative: The Art and Science of Design Management

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|isbn = 978-3-319-78568-4

|ref=none }}

• {{cite book |editor-last= Wilcox |editor-first= Wynn |title=Vietnam and the West: New Approaches |date=2010 |publisher=SEAP Publications, Cornell University Press |location=Ithaca, NY |isbn=978-0-87727-782-8 |ref=none }}
• {{cite news

|author = The Harvard Crimson

|year = 1972

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|title = Med School Professor Praises North Vietnam's Medical Care

|newspaper = The Harvard Crimson

|ref = none

}}

• {{cite news

|last = Swanson

|first = Susan

|year = 1978

|url = https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/local/1978/03/16/vietnamese-celebrate-womens-day-in-old-and-new-ways/d3502136-2573-4dc0-8ddf-22485acc6765/

|title = Vietnamese Celebrate 'Women's Day' in Old and New Ways

|newspaper = The Washington Post

|ref = none

}}

• {{cite news

|last = Cockburn

|first = Patrick

|year = 1994

|url = https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/us-finally-ends-vietnam-embargo-1391770.html

|title = US finally ends Vietnam embargo

|newspaper = The Independent

|ref = none

}}

• {{cite news

|last = Mitchell

|first = Alison

|date = 12 July 1995

|url = https://www.nytimes.com/1995/07/12/world/opening-vietnam-overview-us-grants-vietnam-full-ties-time-for-healing-clinton.html

|title = Opening to Vietnam: The Overview; U.S. Grants Vietnam Full Ties; Time for Healing, Clinton Says

|work = The New York Times

|ref = none

}}

• {{cite news

|author = BBC News

|year = 2004

|url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/3752682.stm

|title = Vietnam's new-look economy

|work = BBC News

|ref = none

}}

• {{cite news

|author = BBC News

|year = 2005

|url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4494347.stm

|title = The legacy of Agent Orange

|work = BBC News

|ref = none

}}

• {{cite web

|author = DigInfo

|year = 2007

|url = http://www.diginfo.tv/2007/12/05/07-0601-d.php

|title = TOSY TOPIO – Table Tennis Playing Robot

|publisher = DigInfo

|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090521023057/http://www.diginfo.tv/2007/12/05/07-0601-d.php

|archive-date = 21 May 2009

|url-status = dead

|ref = none

}}

• {{cite web

|author = China Daily

|year = 2008

|url = http://english.sina.com/sports/p/2008/1229/208116.html

|title = Vietnam win first int'l title

|work = China Daily

|publisher = Sina English

|ref = none

}}

• {{cite news

|author = The Economist

|year = 2008

|url = http://www.economist.com/node/11041548?story_id=E1_TTDQTVQR

|title = A bit of everything [Vietnam's quest for role models]

|newspaper = The Economist

|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20121021084608/http://www.economist.com/node/11041548?story_id=E1_TTDQTVQR

|archive-date = 21 October 2012

|url-status = dead

|access-date = 16 October 2018

|df = dmy-all

|ref = none

}}

• {{cite web

|author = Vietnam+

|year = 2008

|url = https://en.vietnamplus.vn/high-speed-railway-engineers-to-be-trained-in-japan/10244.vnp

|title = High speed railway engineers to be trained in Japan

|publisher = Vietnam+

|ref = none

}}

• {{cite web

|last = Khanh

|first = Vu

|year = 2008

|url = http://sggpnews.org.vn/lifestyle/cultural-values-of-traditional-vietnamese-wedding-3422.html

|title = Cultural values of traditional Vietnamese wedding

|publisher = Sài Gòn Giải Phóng

|ref = none

}}

• {{cite news

|author = BBC News

|year = 2009

|url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/8429351.stm

|title = Vietnam lawyer charged with subversion

|work = BBC News

|ref = none

}}

• {{cite news

|last = Mydans

|first = Seth

|date = 24 December 2009

|url = https://www.nytimes.com/2009/12/24/world/asia/24vietnam.html

|title = Vietnam Charges Lawyer With Capital Crime

|work = The New York Times

|ref = none

}}

• {{cite news

|author = The Japan Times

|year = 2009

|url = https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2009/12/12/national/vietnam-opts-for-japanese-bullet-trains/

|title = Vietnam opts for Japanese bullet trains

|publisher = The Japan Times

|newspaper = The Japan Times Online

|ref = none

}}

• {{cite web

|last = Corapi

|first = Annie

|year = 2010

|url = https://edition.cnn.com/2010/HEALTH/08/25/healthiest.ethnic.cuisines/index.html

|title = The 10 healthiest ethnic cuisines

|publisher = CNN Health

|ref = none

}}

• {{cite magazine

|last = Borel

|first = Brooke

|year = 2010

|url = https://www.popsci.com/technology/article/2010-02/ping-pong-playing-terminator

|title = A Ping-Pong-Playing Terminator

|magazine = Popular Science

|ref = none

}}

• {{cite news

|last = Huong

|first = Minh

|year = 2010

|url = https://vietnamnews.vn/Sunday/Features/201033/Folk-poetry-preservation-a-labour-of-love.html

|title = Folk poetry preservation a labour of love

|newspaper = Việt Nam News

|ref = none

|access-date = 13 March 2021

|archive-date = 16 October 2018

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• {{cite journal

|last1 = Buiter

|first1 = Willem

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|first2 = Ebrahim

|year = 2011

|url = https://voxeu.org/article/global-growth-generators-moving-beyond-emerging-markets-and-brics

|title = Global growth generators: Moving beyond emerging markets and BRICs

|journal = Centre for Economic Policy Research

|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20181017023329/https://voxeu.org/article/global-growth-generators-moving-beyond-emerging-markets-and-brics

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• {{cite journal |last1=Pincus |first1=Jonathan |title=Why Doesn't Vietnam Grow Faster? State Fragmentation and the Limits of Vent for Surplus Growth |journal=Southeast Asian Economies |date=2015 |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=26 |doi=10.1355/ae32-1c |ref=none }}
• {{cite journal

|last = Hong Phuong

|first = Nguyen

|year = 2012

|url = http://tec.earth.sinica.edu.tw/TEM/meeting/20120606_pdf/771_18_GEM_Taipei_June12_VietnamHazard.pdf

|title = Seismic Hazard Studies in Vietnam

|journal = GEM Semi-Annual Meeting – Academia Sinica

|via = Taiwan Earthquake Research Center

|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20181010113105/http://tec.earth.sinica.edu.tw/TEM/meeting/20120606_pdf/771_18_GEM_Taipei_June12_VietnamHazard.pdf

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|last1 = McCaig

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|first2 = Nina

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|url = https://www.dartmouth.edu/~npavcnik/docs/Vietnam_structural_change_October_2013.pdf

|title = Moving out of agriculture: structural change in Vietnam

|publisher = Dartmouth College

|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20181009053832/https://www.dartmouth.edu/~npavcnik/docs/Vietnam_structural_change_October_2013.pdf

|archive-date = 9 October 2018

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|year = 2013

|title = Repayment Burdens of Student Loans for Vietnamese Higher Education

|journal = Crawford School Research Paper

|via = Social Science Research Network

|ssrn = 2213076

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|last1 = Huu Duc

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|last4 = Ngoc Bao

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|year = 2013

|url = https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/easts/10/0/10_2080/_pdf

|title = On Various Essential Data Related to Status Quo of Motorcycles in Vietnam

|journal = Journal of the Eastern Asia Society for Transportation Studies

|via = J-STAGE

|volume = 10

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• {{cite journal |last1=Cox |first1=Anne |last2=Le |first2=Viet |title=Governmental influences on the evolution of agricultural cooperatives in Vietnam: an institutional perspective with case studies |journal=Asia Pacific Business Review |date=3 July 2014 |volume=20 |issue=3 |pages=401–418 |doi=10.1080/13602381.2014.931045 |url=https://ro.uow.edu.au/buspapers/477 |ref=none }}
• {{cite journal

|last1=Banout

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|display-authors = 4

|year = 2014

|title = Agent Orange Footprint Still Visible in Rural Areas of Central Vietnam

|journal = Journal of Environmental and Public Health

|volume = 2014

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}}

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|journal = Gdańskie Studia Azji Wschodniej

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|url = https://terebess.hu/zen/mesterek/Self-regulation.pdf

|title = Self-regulation techniques in Vietnamese Zen Truc Lam Monastery

|publisher = Terebess Online

|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20181008135502/https://terebess.hu/zen/mesterek/Self-regulation.pdf

|archive-date = 8 October 2018

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• {{cite journal

|last = Crook

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|url = http://digitalcollections.sit.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2852&context=isp_collection

|title = Traveling Through Space: A Look at the Evolution of Transportation in Vietnam and its Implications

|journal = Independent Study Project (ISP) Collection

|via = SIT Digital Collections

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• {{cite journal

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|url = https://www.hse.ru/data/2014/09/22/1315713592/62HUM2014.pdf

|title = Legendary Ancestors, National Identity, and the Socialization of Children in Contemporary Vietnam

|journal = Centre for Asian and African Studies

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• {{cite journal

|last1=Merola

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|year = 2014

|title = Arsenic exposure to drinking water in the Mekong Delta

|journal = Science of the Total Environment

|volume = 511

|pages = 544–552

|doi = 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2014.12.091

|pmid = 25585157

|bibcode = 2015ScTEn.511..544M

|ref=none }}

• {{cite journal |last1=Trân |first1=Thi Thai Ha |title=Education financing in Vietnam |journal=Revue internationale d'éducation de Sèvres |date=2014 |volume=HS - 2 |doi=10.4000/ries.3895 |doi-access=free |ref=none }}
• {{cite journal

|last = Kim Phuong

|first = Tran

|year = 2014

|url = https://www.metalbulletin.com/events/download.ashx/document/speaker/7373/a0ID000000X0k5EMAR/Presentation

|title = Vietnam: Highland bauxite Projects and initial economic effects

|journal = Vietnam Institute of Geosciences and Mineral Resources

|via = Metal Bulletin

|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20181004074521/https://www.metalbulletin.com/events/download.ashx/document/speaker/7373/a0ID000000X0k5EMAR/Presentation

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• {{cite report

|last = Pham

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|year = 2015

|url = http://www.cuts-geneva.org/pdf/TAF087_good-practice-telecom-regulations_Vietnam.pdf

|title = The Vietnam Telecommunications Sector: Good Practices in Regulatory Reform in Relation to Competition Policy & Law Issues

|location = Toronto, Geneva and Brighton

|via = CUTS International

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• {{cite journal

|last = Tung Hieu

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|issue = 169

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• {{cite journal

|last1=Sohr

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|year = 2016

|title = Traffic Information System for Hanoi

|journal = Procedia Engineering

|doi = 10.1016/j.proeng.2016.02.035

|volume = 142

|pages = 221–228

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• {{cite journal

|author = BirdLife International

|year = 2016

|title = Lophura edwardsi

|journal = The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species

|doi = 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T45354985A95145107.en

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• {{cite journal

|last1 = Viet Trung

|first1 = Le

|last2 = Quoc Viet

|first2 = Tran

|last3 = Van Chat

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|year = 2016

|url = https://www.vpi.pvn.vn/upload/file/TCDK/2016/Thang%2011/Le%20Viet%20Trung.pdf

|title = An Overview of Vietnam's Oil and Gas Industry

|journal = Petroleum Economics & Management

|via = Vietnam Petroleum Institute

|volume = 10

|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20181010050015/https://www.vpi.pvn.vn/upload/file/TCDK/2016/Thang%2011/Le%20Viet%20Trung.pdf

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• {{cite journal

|last1=Trinh

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|last2 = Nguyen

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|last3 = Do

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|last7 = Sintchenko

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|last8 = Marais

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|display-authors = 4

|year = 2016

|title = Tuberculosis and HIV co-infection in Vietnam

|journal = International Journal of Infectious Diseases

|volume = 46

|issue = 2

|pages = 12–22

|doi = 10.1016/0022-5428(93)90038-Q

|pmid = 27044521

|ref=none }}

• {{cite journal |last1=Feinberg |first1=Richard E. |title=Principles and Power: The Treatment of Property Claims by Socialist Vietnam |journal=Problems of Post-Communism |date=3 March 2016 |volume=63 |issue=2 |pages=75–83 |doi=10.1080/10758216.2015.1083377 |ref=none }}
• {{cite journal

|last1=Linh Le

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|last2 = Anh Trinh

|first2 = Tu

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|title = Encouraging Public Transport Use to Reduce Traffic Congestion and Air Pollutant: A Case Study of Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam

|journal = Procedia Engineering

|volume = 142

|pages = 236–243

|doi = 10.1016/j.proeng.2016.02.037

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• {{cite thesis

|last = Anh Dinh

|first = Thuy

|year = 2016

|url = http://ethesisarchive.library.tu.ac.th/thesis/2016/TU_2016_5866090052_5610_4098.pdf

|title = The Causes and Effects of Korean Pop Culture on Vietnamese Consumer Behavior

|publisher = Thammasat University

|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20181012063519/http://ethesisarchive.library.tu.ac.th/thesis/2016/TU_2016_5866090052_5610_4098.pdf

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• {{cite journal

|last1=Minh Hoang

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|year = 2016

|title = The influence of delta formation mechanism on geotechnical property sequence of the late Pleistocene–Holocene sediments in the Mekong River Delta

|journal = Heliyon

|volume = 2

|issue = 11

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• {{cite journal

|last1 = Shaofei

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|url = http://jtp.cnki.net/bilingual/detail/html/ZGBJ201603017

|title = The relationship between Nanyue and Annam in the ancient historical records of China and Vietnam

|journal = Honghe Prefecture Center for Vietnamese Studies, Honghe University

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• {{cite journal

|last = Van Hoang

|first = Chung

|year = 2017

|url = https://www.iseas.edu.sg/images/pdf/ISEAS_Perspective_2017_34.pdf

|title = Evangelizing Post-Đổi Mới Vietnam: The Rise of Protestantism and the State's Response

|journal = Perspective

|publisher = ISEAS–Yusof Ishak Institute

|issue = 34

|issn = 2335-6677

|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20181014021910/https://www.iseas.edu.sg/images/pdf/ISEAS_Perspective_2017_34.pdf

|archive-date = 14 October 2018

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}}

• {{cite report

|last1 = H. Dang

|first1 = Hai-Anh

|last2 = Glewwe

|first2 = Paul W.

|year = 2017

|url = https://www.riseprogramme.org/sites/www.riseprogramme.org/files/publications/RISE_WP-017_Dang%20%26%20Glewwe.pdf

|title = Well Begun, but Aiming Higher: A Review of Vietnam's Education Trends in the Past 20 Years and Emerging Challenges

|via = Research on Improving Systems of Education

|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20181005063352/https://www.riseprogramme.org/sites/www.riseprogramme.org/files/publications/RISE_WP-017_Dang%20%26%20Glewwe.pdf

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}}

• {{cite report |last1=Øverland |first1=Indra |last2=Vakulchuk |first2=Roman |display-authors=1 |title=Impact of Climate Change on ASEAN International Affairs: Risk and Opportunity Multiplier |date=2017 |hdl=11250/2465067 |hdl-access=free |ref=none }}
• {{cite journal

|last1=Baccini

|first1 = Leonardo

|last2 = Impullitti

|first2 = Giammario

|author3-link=Edmund Malesky

|last3 = Malesky

|first3 = Edmund J.

|year = 2017

|title = Globalization and State Capitalism: Assessing Vietnam's Accession to the WTO

|journal = CESifo Working Paper Series

|via = Social Science Research Network

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• {{cite journal |last1=Truong |first1=Son Hong |last2=Ye |first2=Qinghua |last3=Stive |first3=Marcel J.F. |title=Estuarine Mangrove Squeeze in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam |journal=Journal of Coastal Research |date=July 2017 |volume=33 |issue=4 |pages=747–763 |doi=10.2112/JCOASTRES-D-16-00087.1 |ref=none }}
• {{cite journal

|last1 = Nang Chung

|first1 = Trinh

|last2 = Giang Hai

|first2 = Nguyen

|year = 2017

|url = http://www.vjol.info/index.php/VSS/article/viewFile/30440/25877

|title = Dong Son Culture in First Ten Centuries AD

|journal = Institute of Archaeology, Vietnam Academy of Social Sciences

|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20181018032546/http://www.vjol.info/index.php/VSS/article/viewFile/30440/25877

|archive-date = 18 October 2018

|url-status = dead

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}}

• {{cite journal |last1=Dang Vu |first1=Hoai Nam |last2=Nielsen |first2=Martin Reinhardt |title=Understanding utilitarian and hedonic values determining the demand for rhino horn in Vietnam |journal=Human Dimensions of Wildlife |date=3 September 2018 |volume=23 |issue=5 |pages=417–432 |doi=10.1080/10871209.2018.1449038 |bibcode=2018HDW....23..417D |ref=none }}
• {{cite thesis |last1=Truong |first1=Ngan |title=Solid Waste Management in Vietnam : Current situation, challenges and strategies for development |date=2018 |id={{CORE output|161428547}} |url=https://urn.fi/URN:NBN:fi:amk-201805189003 |ref=none }}
• {{cite book

|last1 = Truong

|first1 = Nhu

|last2 = Vo

|first2 = Dang H.

|last3 = Nguyen

|first3 = Dzung

|year = 2018

|url = https://mrlg.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/Mekong-State-of-Land-DISCUSSION-DRAFT-single-layout.pdf

|title = Mekong State of Land

|via = Mekong Region Land Governance

|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20181006021518/https://mrlg.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/Mekong-State-of-Land-DISCUSSION-DRAFT-single-layout.pdf

|archive-date = 6 October 2018

|url-status = dead

|access-date = 16 October 2018

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• {{cite report

|last = Quang Vinh

|first = Bui

|url = https://www2.gwu.edu/~iiep/assets/docs/Bai%20trinh%20bay%20VN2035%20tai%20DC-ENG.pdf

|title = Vietnam 2035: Toward Prosperity, Creativity, Equity, and Democracy

|publisher = George Washington University

|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20181017030816/https://www2.gwu.edu/~iiep/assets/docs/Bai%20trinh%20bay%20VN2035%20tai%20DC-ENG.pdf

|archive-date = 17 October 2018

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|ref = none

}}

• {{cite book|last1=Chamberlain|first1=James R.|editor1-last=Burusphat|editor1-first=Somsonge|title=Proceedings of the International Conference on Tai Studies, July 29–31, 1998|date=2000|publisher=Institute of Language and Culture for Rural Development, Mahidol University|location=Bangkok, Thailand|isbn=974-85916-9-7|chapter-url=http://sealang.net/sala/archives/pdf8/chamberlain1998origin.pdf|access-date=29 August 2014|chapter=The origin of the Sek: implications for Tai and Vietnamese history}}
• {{cite journal|last= Churchman|first= Michael|title= Before Chinese and Vietnamese in the Red River Plain: The Han–Tang Period|journal= Chinese Southern Diaspora Studies|url= http://chl-old.anu.edu.au/publications/csds/csds2010/04-2_Churchman_2010.pdf|volume= 4|year= 2010|access-date= 16 July 2021|archive-date= 9 March 2021|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210309155610/https://chl-old.anu.edu.au/publications/csds/csds2010/04-2_Churchman_2010.pdf|url-status= dead}}
• {{cite journal

|author = Cornell University

|url = https://seap.einaudi.cornell.edu/rice-vietnamese-culture-and-economy

|title = Rice in Vietnamese Culture and Economy

|journal = Mario Einaudi Center for International Studies – Southeast Asia Program

|date = 15 February 2024

|ref = none

}}

• {{cite journal

|journal = Ritsumeikan Language and Culture Studies

|last = Van Van

|first = Hoang

|url = http://r-cube.ritsumei.ac.jp/repo/repository/rcube/4129/LCS_22_1pp7-18_HOANG.pdf

|title = The Current Situation and Issues of the Teaching of English in Vietnam

|publisher = Ritsumeikan Asia Pacific University

|volume = 22

|issue = 1

|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20181012055826/http://r-cube.ritsumei.ac.jp/repo/repository/rcube/4129/LCS_22_1pp7-18_HOANG.pdf

|archive-date = 12 October 2018

|url-status = dead

|ref = none

}}

• {{cite book |last1=Schliesinger |first1=Joachim |title=Origin of the Tai People 5—Cradle of the Tai People and the Ethnic Setup Today Volume 5 of Origin of the Tai People|year=2018a|publisher=Booksmango |isbn=978-1641531825}}
• {{cite book |last1=Schliesinger |first1=Joachim |title=Origin of the Tai People 6—Northern Tai-Speaking People of the Red River Delta and Their Habitat Today Volume 6 of Origin of the Tai People |year=2018b|publisher=Booksmango |isbn=978-1641531832}}

{{refend}}

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Category:Ethnic groups in Vietnam