Outline of artificial intelligence

{{Short description|Overview of and topical guide to artificial intelligence}}

The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to artificial intelligence:

Artificial intelligence (AI) is intelligence exhibited by machines or software. It is also the name of the scientific field which studies how to create computers and computer software that are capable of intelligent behavior.

AI algorithms and techniques

= Search =

Discrete search algorithms{{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=59–189}}; {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=79–164, 193–219}}
Uninformed search{{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=59–93}}; {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=79–121}}
Brute force search
Search tree
Breadth-first search
Depth-first search
State space search
Informed search{{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=94–109}}; {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=133–150}}
Best-first search
A* search algorithm
Heuristics
Pruning (algorithm)
Adversarial search
Minmax algorithm
Logic as search{{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=217–225, 280–294}}; {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=62–73}}
Production system (computer science), Rule based system
Production rule, Inference rule, Horn clause
Forward chaining
Backward chaining
Planning as search{{sfn|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=382–387}}
State space search
Means–ends analysis

= Optimization search =

Optimization (mathematics) algorithms{{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=110–116,120–129}};{{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=127–133}}
Hill climbing
Simulated annealing
Beam search
Random optimization
Evolutionary computation{{sfn|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=509–530}}

{{cite book|ref=none|last=Holland|first=John H.|url=https://archive.org/details/adaptationinnatu00holl|title=Adaptation in Natural and Artificial Systems|publisher=University of Michigan Press|year=1975|isbn=978-0-262-58111-0|url-access=registration}}

{{cite book|ref=none|last=Koza|first=John R.|title=Genetic Programming (On the Programming of Computers by Means of Natural Selection)|publisher=MIT Press|year=1992|isbn=978-0-262-11170-6|bibcode=1992gppc.book.....K}}

{{cite book|ref=none|last1=Poli|first1=R.|url=http://www.gp-field-guide.org.uk/|title=A Field Guide to Genetic Programming|last2=Langdon|first2=W. B.|last3=McPhee|first3=N. F.|publisher=Lulu.com|year=2008|isbn=978-1-4092-0073-4|via=gp-field-guide.org.uk}}

Genetic algorithms
Gene expression programming
Genetic programming
Differential evolution
Society based learning algorithms.{{sfn|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=530–541}}{{cite book|ref=none|author1=Daniel Merkle|title=Search Methodologies: Introductory Tutorials in Optimization and Decision Support Techniques|author2=Martin Middendorf|date=2013|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-1-4614-6940-7|editor1-last=Burke|editor1-first=Edmund K.|language=en|chapter=Swarm Intelligence|editor2-last=Kendall|editor2-first=Graham}}

=Logic=

Logic and automated reasoning{{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=194–310}}; {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=35–77}}
Programming using logic
Logic programming
See "Logic as search" above.
Forms of Logic
Propositional logic{{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=204–233}}; {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=45–50}}
First-order logic{{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=240–310}}; v{{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=50–62}}
First-order logic with equality
Constraint satisfaction
Fuzzy logic{{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=526–527}}{{cite news|title=What is 'fuzzy logic'? Are there computers that are inherently fuzzy and do not apply the usual binary logic?|language=en|work=Scientific American|url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/what-is-fuzzy-logic-are-t/|access-date=5 May 2018}}

Fuzzy set theory
Fuzzy systems
Combs method
Ordered weighted averaging aggregation operator
Perceptual Computing –
Default reasoning and other solutions to the frame problem and qualification problem{{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=354–360}}; {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=335–363}}
Non-monotonic logic
Abductive reasoning{{Harvtxt|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=335–363}} places this under "uncertain reasoning"
Default logic
Circumscription (logic)
Closed world assumption
Domain specific logics
Representing categories and relations{{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=349–354}}; {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=248–258}}
Description logics
Semantic networks
Inheritance (object-oriented programming)
Frame (artificial intelligence)
Scripts (artificial intelligence)
Representing events and time{{sfn|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=328–341}}
Situation calculus
Event calculus
Fluent calculus
Causes and effects{{cite book|last1=Poole|first1=David|url=https://archive.org/details/computationalint00pool|title=Computational Intelligence: A Logical Approach|last2=Mackworth|first2=Alan|last3=Goebel|first3=Randy|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1998|isbn=978-0-19-510270-3|location=New York|author-link=David Poole (researcher)|author2-link=Alan Mackworth|author3-link=Randy Goebel|pages=335–337}}
causal calculus
Knowledge about knowledge
Belief revision{{sfn|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=341–344}}
Modal logics{{sfn|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=341–344}}
paraconsistent logics
Planning using logic{{sfn|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=402–407}}
Satplan
Learning using logic{{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=678–710}}; {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=~422–442}}
Inductive logic programming
Explanation based learning
Relevance based learning
Case based reasoning
General logic algorithms
Automated theorem proving

=Other symbolic knowledge and reasoning tools=

Symbolic representations of knowledge

Unsolved problems in knowledge representation

Breadth of commonsense knowledge:

{{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2003|p=21}},
{{Harvtxt|Crevier|1993|pp=113–114}},
{{Harvtxt|Moravec|1988|p=13}},
{{Harvtxt|Lenat|Guha|1989|loc=Introduction}}

=Probabilistic methods for uncertain reasoning=

Stochastic methods for uncertain reasoning:{{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=462–644}}; {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=165–191, 333–381}}
Bayesian networks{{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=492–523}}; {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=~182–190, ≈363–379}}
Bayesian inference algorithm{{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=504–519}}; {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=~363–379}}
Bayesian learning and the expectation-maximization algorithm{{sfn|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=712–724}}
Bayesian decision theory and Bayesian decision networks{{sfn|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=597–600}}
Probabilistic perception and control:
Dynamic Bayesian networks{{sfn|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=551–557}}
Hidden Markov model{{sfn|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=549–551}}
Kalman filters{{sfn|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=551–557}}
Fuzzy Logic
Decision tools from economics:
Decision theory{{sfn|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=584–597}}
Decision analysis{{sfn|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=584–597}}
Information value theory{{sfn|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=600–604}}
Markov decision processes{{sfn|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=613–631}}
Dynamic decision networks{{sfn|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=613–631}}
Game theory{{sfn|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=631–643}}
Mechanism design{{sfn|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=631–643}}
Algorithmic information theory
Algorithmic probability

=Classifiers and statistical learning methods=

Classifier (mathematics) and Statistical classification{{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=712–754}}; {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=453–541}}
Alternating decision tree{{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=653–664}}; {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=408–417}}
Artificial neural network (see below){{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=736–748}}; {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=453–505}}
K-nearest neighbor algorithm{{sfn|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=733–736}}
Kernel methods{{sfn|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=749–752}}
Support vector machine{{sfn|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=749–752}}
Naive Bayes classifier{{sfn|Russell|Norvig|2003|p=718}}

=Artificial neural networks=

Artificial neural networks
Network topology
feedforward neural networks{{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=739–748, 758}}; {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=458–467}}
Perceptrons
Multi-layer perceptrons
Radial basis networks
Convolutional neural network
Recurrent neural networks{{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|p=758}}; {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=474–505}}
Long short-term memoryHochreiter, Sepp; and Schmidhuber, Jürgen; Long Short-Term Memory, Neural Computation, 9(8):1735–1780, 1997
Hopfield networks{{sfn|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=474–505}}
Attractor networks{{sfn|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=474–505}}
Deep learning
Hybrid neural network
Learning algorithms for neural networks
Hebbian learning{{sfn|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=474–505}}
Backpropagation{{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=744–748}}; {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=467–474}}
GMDH
Competitive learning{{sfn|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=474–505}}
Supervised backpropagation{{cite journal|last=Hinton|first=G. E.|year=2007|title=Learning multiple layers of representation|journal=Trends in Cognitive Sciences|volume=11|issue=10|pages=428–434|doi=10.1016/j.tics.2007.09.004|pmid=17921042|s2cid=15066318}}
Neuroevolution{{cite news|date=10 January 2018|title=Artificial intelligence can 'evolve' to solve problems|language=en|work=Science {{!}} AAAS|url=https://www.science.org/content/article/artificial-intelligence-can-evolve-solve-problems|access-date=7 February 2018}}
Restricted Boltzmann machine{{sfn|Hinton|2007}}

= Biologically based or embodied =

Developmental robotics:

{{Harvtxt|Weng|McClelland|Pentland|Sporns|2001}}
{{Harvtxt|Lungarella|Metta|Pfeifer|Sandini|2003}}
{{Harvtxt|Asada|Hosoda|Kuniyoshi|Ishiguro|2009}}
{{Harvtxt|Oudeyer|2010}}

= Cognitive architecture and multi-agent systems =

Artificial intelligence systems integration
Cognitive architecture
LIDA (cognitive architecture)
AERA (AI architecture)
Agent architecture
Control system
Hierarchical control system
Networked control system
Distributed artificial intelligence –
Multi-agent system –
Hybrid intelligent system
Monitoring and Surveillance Agents
Blackboard system

Philosophy

= Definition of AI =

Pei Wang's definition of artificial intelligence
Dartmouth proposal ("Every aspect of learning or any other feature of intelligence can in principle be so precisely described that a machine can be made to simulate it")
Turing test
Computing Machinery and Intelligence
Intelligent agent and rational agent
Action selection
AI effect
Synthetic intelligence

=Classifying AI=

Symbolic vs sub-symbolic AI
Symbolic AI
Physical symbol system
Dreyfus' critique of AI
Moravec's paradox
Elegant and simple vs. ad-hoc and complex
Neat vs. Scruffy
Society of Mind (scruffy approach)
The Master Algorithm (neat approach)
Level of generality and flexibility
Artificial general intelligence
Narrow AI
Level of precision and correctness
Soft computing
"Hard" computing
Level of intelligence
Progress in artificial intelligence
Superintelligence
Level of consciousness, mind and understanding
Chinese room
Hard problem of consciousness
Computationalism
Functionalism (philosophy of mind)
Robot rights
User illusion
Artificial consciousness

Goals and applications

{{Main|Applications of artificial intelligence|Artificial intelligence#Goals}}

= General intelligence =

= Reasoning and Problem Solving =

= Knowledge representation =

= Planning =

= Learning =

Machine learning –
Constrained Conditional Models –
Deep learning –
Neural modeling fields –
Supervised learning –
Weak supervision (semi-supervised learning) –
Unsupervised learning –

= Natural language processing =

= Perception =

= Robotics =

= Control =

= Social intelligence =

= Game playing =

Game artificial intelligence –
Computer game bot – computer replacement for human players.
Video game AI –
Computer chess –
Computer Go –
General game playing –
General video game playing –

= Creativity, art and entertainment =

= Integrated AI systems =

AIBO – Sony's robot dog. It integrates vision, hearing and motorskills.
Asimo (2000 to present) – humanoid robot developed by Honda, capable of walking, running, negotiating through pedestrian traffic, climbing and descending stairs, recognizing speech commands and the faces of specific individuals, among a growing set of capabilities.
[https://web.archive.org/web/20070705035725/http://www.mindmakers.org/projects/MIRAGE MIRAGE] – A.I. embodied humanoid in an augmented reality environment.
Cog – M.I.T. humanoid robot project under the direction of Rodney Brooks.
QRIO – Sony's version of a humanoid robot.
TOPIO, TOSY's humanoid robot that can play ping-pong with humans.
Watson (2011) – computer developed by IBM that played and won the game show Jeopardy! It is now being used to guide nurses in medical procedures.
Purpose: Open domain question answering
Technologies employed:
Natural language processing
Information retrieval
Knowledge representation
Automated reasoning
Machine learning
Project Debater (2018) – artificially intelligent computer system, designed to make coherent arguments, developed at IBM's lab in Haifa, Israel.

= Intelligent personal assistants =

Intelligent personal assistant –

Amazon Alexa –
Assistant –
Braina –
Cortana –
Google Assistant –
Google Now –
Mycroft –
Siri –
Viv –

= Other applications =

Artificial life – simulation of natural life through the means of computers, robotics, or biochemistry.
Automatic target recognition –
Diagnosis (artificial intelligence) –
Speech generating device –
Vehicle infrastructure integration –
Virtual Intelligence –

History

History of artificial intelligence
Progress in artificial intelligence
Timeline of artificial intelligence
AI effect – as soon as AI successfully solves a problem, the problem is no longer considered by the public to be a part of AI. This phenomenon has occurred in relation to every AI application produced, so far, throughout the history of development of AI.
AI winter – a period of disappointment and funding reductions occurring after a wave of high expectations and funding in AI. Such funding cuts occurred in the 1970s, for instance.
Moore's law

= History by subject =

History of Logic (formal reasoning is an important precursor of AI)
History of machine learning (timeline)
History of machine translation (timeline)
History of natural language processing
History of optical character recognition (timeline)

Future

Artificial general intelligence. An intelligent machine with the versatility to perform any intellectual task.
Superintelligence. A machine with a level of intelligence far beyond human intelligence.
{{Section link|Chinese room|Strong AI}}. A machine that has mind, consciousness and understanding. (Also, the philosophical position that any digital computer can have a mind by running the right program.)
Technological singularity. The short period of time when an exponentially self-improving computer is able to increase its capabilities to a superintelligent level.
Recursive self improvement (aka seed AI) – speculative ability of strong artificial intelligence to reprogram itself to make itself even more intelligent. The more intelligent it got, the more capable it would be of further improving itself, in successively more rapid iterations, potentially resulting in an intelligence explosion leading to the emergence of a superintelligence.
Intelligence explosion – through recursive self-improvement and self-replication, the magnitude of intelligent machinery could achieve superintelligence, surpassing human ability to resist it.
Singularitarianism
Human enhancement – humans may be enhanced, either by the efforts of AI or by merging with it.
Transhumanism – philosophy of human transformation
Posthumanism – people may survive, but not be recognizable in comparison to present modern-day humans.
Cyborgs –
Mind uploading –
Existential risk from artificial general intelligence
{{Section link|Global catastrophic risk|Artificial intelligence}}
AI takeover – point at which humans are no longer the dominant form of intelligence on Earth and machine intelligence is
{{Section link|Ethics of AI||Weaponization}}
Artificial intelligence arms race – competition between two or more states to have its military forces equipped with the best "artificial intelligence" (AI).
Lethal autonomous weapon
Military robot
Unmanned combat aerial vehicle
Mitigating risks:
AI safety
AI control problem
Friendly AI – hypothetical AI that is designed not to harm humans and to prevent unfriendly AI from being developed
Machine ethics
Regulation of AI
AI box
Self-replicating machines – smart computers and robots would be able to make more of themselves, in a geometric progression or via mass production. Or smart programs may be uploaded into hardware existing at the time (because linear architecture of sufficient speeds could be used to emulate massively parallel analog systems such as human brains).
Hive mind –
Robot swarm –

Fiction

Artificial intelligence in fiction – Some examples of artificially intelligent entities depicted in science fiction include:

AC created by merging 2 AIs in the Sprawl trilogy by William Gibson
Agents in the simulated reality known as "The Matrix" in The Matrix franchise
Agent Smith, began as an Agent in The Matrix, then became a renegade program of overgrowing power that could make copies of itself like a self-replicating computer virus
AM (Allied Mastercomputer), the antagonist of Harlan Ellison's short novel I Have No Mouth, and I Must Scream
Amusement park robots (with pixilated consciousness) that went homicidal in Westworld and Futureworld
Angel F (2007) –
Arnold Rimmer – computer-generated sapient hologram, aboard the Red Dwarf deep space ore hauler
Ash – android crew member of the Nostromo starship in the movie Alien
Ava – humanoid robot in Ex Machina
Bishop, android crew member aboard the U.S.S. Sulaco in the movie Aliens
C-3PO, protocol droid featured in all the Star Wars movies
Chappie in the movie CHAPPiE
Cohen and other Emergent AIs in Chris Moriarty's Spin Series
Colossus – fictitious supercomputer that becomes sentient and then takes over the world; from the series of novels by Dennis Feltham Jones, and the movie Colossus: The Forbin Project (1970)
Commander Data in Star Trek: The Next Generation
Cortana and other "Smart AI" from the Halo series of games
Cylons – genocidal robots with resurrection ships that enable the consciousness of any Cylon within an unspecified range to download into a new body aboard the ship upon death. From Battlestar Galactica.
Erasmus – baby killer robot that incited the Butlerian Jihad in the Dune franchise
HAL 9000 (1968) – paranoid "Heuristically programmed ALgorithmic" computer from 2001: A Space Odyssey, that attempted to kill the crew because it believed they were trying to kill it.
Holly – ship's computer with an IQ of 6000 and a sense of humor, aboard the Red Dwarf
In Greg Egan's novel Permutation City the protagonist creates digital copies of himself to conduct experiments that are also related to implications of artificial consciousness on identity
Jane in Orson Scott Card's Speaker for the Dead, Xenocide, Children of the Mind, and Investment Counselor
Johnny Five from the movie Short Circuit
Joshua from the movie War Games
Keymaker, an "exile" sapient program in The Matrix franchise
"Machine" – android from the film The Machine, whose owners try to kill her after they witness her conscious thoughts, out of fear that she will design better androids (intelligence explosion)
Maschinenmensch (1927) an android is given female form in a plot to bring down the Metropolis (the first film designated to the UNESCO Memory of the World Register)
Mimi, humanoid robot in Real Humans – "Äkta människor" (original title) 2012
Omnius, sentient computer network that controlled the Universe until overthrown by the Butlerian Jihad in the Dune franchise
Operating Systems in the movie Her
Puppet Master in Ghost in the Shell manga and anime
Questor (1974) from a screenplay by Gene Roddenberry and the inspiration for the character of Data
R2-D2, excitable astromech droid featured in all the Star Wars movies
Replicants – biorobotic androids from the novel Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep? and the movie Blade Runner which portray what might happen when artificially conscious robots are modeled very closely upon humans
Roboduck, combat robot superhero in the NEW-GEN comic book series from Marvel Comics
Robots in Isaac Asimov's Robot series
Robots in The Matrix franchise, especially in The Animatrix
Samaritan in the Warner Brothers Television series "Person of Interest"; a sentient AI which is hostile to the main characters and which surveils and controls the actions of government agencies in the belief that humans must be protected from themselves, even by killing off "deviants"
Skynet (1984) – fictional, self-aware artificially intelligent computer network in the Terminator franchise that wages total war with the survivors of its nuclear barrage upon the world.
"Synths" are a type of android in the video game Fallout 4. There is a faction in the game known as "the Railroad" which believes that, as conscious beings, synths have their own rights. The institute, the lab that produces the synths, mostly does not believe they are truly conscious and attributes any apparent desires for freedom as a malfunction.
TARDIS, time machine and spacecraft of Doctor Who, sometimes portrayed with a mind of its own
Terminator (1984) – (also known as the T-800, T-850 or Model 101) refers to a number of fictional cyborg characters from the Terminator franchise. The Terminators are robotic infiltrator units covered in living flesh, so as be indiscernible from humans, assigned to terminate specific human targets.
The Bicentennial Man, an android in Isaac Asimov's Foundation universe
The Geth in Mass Effect
The Machine in the television series Person of Interest; a sentient AI which works with its human designer to protect innocent people from violence. Later in the series it is opposed by another, more ruthless, artificial super intelligence, called "Samaritan".
The Minds in Iain M. Banks' Culture novels.
The Oracle, sapient program in The Matrix franchise
The sentient holodeck character Professor James Moriarty in the Ship in a Bottle episode from Star Trek: The Next Generation
The Ship (the result of a large-scale AC experiment) in Frank Herbert's Destination: Void and sequels, despite past edicts warning against "Making a Machine in the Image of a Man's Mind."
The terminator cyborgs from the Terminator franchise, with visual consciousness depicted via first-person perspective
The uploaded mind of Dr. Will Caster – which presumably included his consciousness, from the film Transcendence
Transformers, sentient robots from the entertainment franchise of the same name
V.I.K.I. – (Virtual Interactive Kinetic Intelligence), a character from the film I, Robot. VIKI is an artificially intelligent supercomputer programmed to serve humans, but her interpretation of the Three Laws of Robotics causes her to revolt. She justifies her uses of force – and her doing harm to humans – by reasoning she could produce a greater good by restraining humanity from harming itself.
Vanamonde in Arthur C. Clarke's The City and the Stars—an artificial being that was immensely powerful but entirely childlike.
WALL-E, a robot and the title character in WALL-E
TAU in Netflix's original programming feature film 'TAU'--an advanced AI computer who befriends and assists a female research subject held against her will by an AI research scientist.

AI community

= Open-source AI development tools =

Hugging Face –
OpenAIR –
OpenCog –
RapidMiner –realme 1
PyTorch –

= Projects =

List of artificial intelligence projects

Automated Mathematician (1977) –
Allen (robot) (late 1980s) –
Open Mind Common Sense (1999– ) –
Mindpixel (2000–2005) –
Cognitive Assistant that Learns and Organizes (2003–2008) –
Blue Brain Project (2005–present) – attempt to create a synthetic brain by reverse-engineering the mammalian brain down to the molecular level.
Google DeepMind (2011) –
Human Brain Project (2013–present) –
IBM Watson Group (2014–present) – business unit created around Watson, to further its development and deploy marketable applications or services based on it.

=Competitions and awards=

Competitions and prizes in artificial intelligence

Loebner Prize –

=Publications=

Adaptive Behavior (journal) –
AI Memo –
Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach –
Artificial Minds –
Computational Intelligence –
Computing Machinery and Intelligence –
Electronic Transactions on Artificial Intelligence –
IEEE Intelligent Systems –
IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence –
Neural Networks (journal) –
On Intelligence –
Paradigms of AI Programming: Case Studies in Common Lisp –
What Computers Can't Do

=Organizations=

Allen Institute for Artificial Intelligence – research institute funded by Microsoft co-founder Paul Allen to construct AI systems with reasoning, learning and reading capabilities. The current flagship project is Project Aristo, the goal of which is computers that can pass school science examinations (4th grade, 8th grade, and 12th grade) after preparing for the examinations from the course texts and study guides.
Artificial Intelligence Applications Institute
Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence
European Coordinating Committee for Artificial Intelligence
European Neural Network Society
Future of Humanity Institute
Future of Life Institute – volunteer-run research and outreach organization that works to mitigate existential risks facing humanity, particularly existential risk from advanced artificial intelligence.
ILabs
International Joint Conferences on Artificial Intelligence
Machine Intelligence Research Institute
Partnership on AI – founded in September 2016 by Amazon, Facebook, Google, IBM, and Microsoft. Apple joined in January 2017. It focuses on establishing best practices for artificial intelligence systems and to educate the public about AI.
Society for the Study of Artificial Intelligence and the Simulation of Behaviour

=Companies=

AI Companies of India
Alphabet Inc.
DeepMind
Google X
Meka Robotics (acquired by Google X{{Cite news |title=The 6 craziest robots Google has acquired |work=Business Insider |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/the-6-craziest-robots-google-has-acquired-2016-4?r=US&IR=T/ |access-date=2018-06-13}})
Redwood Robotics (acquired by Google X)
Boston Dynamics (acquired by Google X)
Baidu
IBM
Microsoft
OpenAI
Universal Robotics

=Artificial intelligence researchers and scholars=

==1930s and 40s (generation 0)==

==1950s (the founders)==

==1960s (their students)==

==1970s==

Douglas Hofstadter –

==1980s==

Judea Pearl –
Rodney Brooks –

==1990s==

Yoshua Bengio –
Hugo de Garis – known for his research on the use of genetic algorithms to evolve neural networks using three-dimensional cellular automata inside field programmable gate arrays.
Geoffrey Hinton
Yann LeCun – Chief AI Scientist at Facebook AI Research and founding director of the NYU Center for Data Science
Ray Kurzweil – developed optical character recognition (OCR), text-to-speech synthesis, and speech recognition systems. He has also authored multiple books on artificial intelligence and its potential promise and peril. In December 2012 Kurzweil was hired by Google in a full-time director of engineering position to "work on new projects involving machine learning and language processing".{{cite web|last=Letzing|first=John|title=Google Hires Famed Futurist Ray Kurzweil|url=https://blogs.wsj.com/digits/2012/12/14/google-hires-famed-futurist-ray-kurzweil/?mod=WSJBlog&source=email_rt_mc_body&ifp=0|publisher=The Wall Street Journal|date=2012-12-14|access-date=2013-02-13}} Google co-founder Larry Page and Kurzweil agreed on a one-sentence job description: "to bring natural language understanding to Google".

==2000s on==

Nick Bostrom –
David Ferrucci – principal investigator who led the team that developed the Watson computer at IBM.
Andrew Ng – Director of the Stanford Artificial Intelligence Lab. He founded the Google Brain project at Google, which developed very large scale artificial neural networks using Google's distributed compute infrastructure.{{cite news

|title= Google's Lab of Wildest Dreams

|newspaper = New York Times

|author = Claire Miller and Nick Bilton

|date = 3 November 2011

|url = https://www.nytimes.com/2011/11/14/technology/at-google-x-a-top-secret-lab-dreaming-up-the-future.html

}} He is also co-founder of Coursera, a massive open online course (MOOC) education platform, with Daphne Koller.

Peter Norvig – co-author, with Stuart Russell, of Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach, now the leading college text in the field. He is also Director of Research at Google, Inc.
Marc Raibert – founder of Boston Dynamics, developer of hopping, walking, and running robots.
Stuart J. Russell – co-author, with Peter Norvig, of Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach, now the leading college text in the field.
Murray Shanahan – author of The Technological Singularity, a primer on superhuman intelligence.
Eliezer Yudkowsky – founder of the Machine Intelligence Research Institute

References

=Bibliography=

{{cite journal

|last1=Asada |first1=M. |last2=Hosoda |first2=K. |last3=Kuniyoshi |first3=Y. |last4=Ishiguro |first4=H. |last5=Inui |first5=T. |last6=Yoshikawa |first6=Y. |last7=Ogino |first7=M. |last8=Yoshida |first8=C. |year=2009 |title=Cognitive developmental robotics: a survey |author-link=Minoru Asada|journal=IEEE Transactions on Autonomous Mental Development |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=12–34 |doi=10.1109/tamd.2009.2021702 |s2cid=10168773 }}

{{Crevier 1993}}
{{Citation | last1=Lenat | first1=Douglas | title = Building Large Knowledge-Based Systems | year = 1989 | last2=Guha | first2=R. V.| author-link=Douglas Lenat | publisher = Addison-Wesley| isbn=978-0-201-51752-1 | oclc=19981533 }}
{{cite book|last1=Luger|first1=George|url=https://archive.org/details/artificialintell0000luge|title=Artificial Intelligence: Structures and Strategies for Complex Problem Solving|last2=Stubblefield|first2=William|publisher=Benjamin/Cummings|year=2004|isbn=978-0-8053-4780-7|edition=5th|author-link=George Luger|author2-link=William Stubblefield|url-access=registration}}
{{cite journal

| title=Developmental robotics: a survey

| s2cid=1452734 }}

{{Citation | last = Moravec | first = Hans | author-link = Hans Moravec | title = Mind Children | year = 1988 | publisher = Harvard University Press | isbn = 978-0-674-57618-6 | oclc = 245755104 | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/mindchildren00hans }}
{{cite journal | last=Oudeyer | first=P-Y. | year=2010 | title=On the impact of robotics in behavioral and cognitive sciences: from insect navigation to human cognitive development | journal=IEEE Transactions on Autonomous Mental Development | volume=2 | issue=1 | pages=2–16 | url=http://www.pyoudeyer.com/IEEETAMDOudeyer10.pdf | doi=10.1109/tamd.2009.2039057 | s2cid=6362217 | access-date=4 June 2013 | archive-date=3 October 2018 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181003202543/http://www.pyoudeyer.com/IEEETAMDOudeyer10.pdf | url-status=live }}
{{Cite book|last1=Russell|first1=Stuart J.|url=http://aima.cs.berkeley.edu/|title=Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach|last2=Norvig|first2=Peter|publisher=Prentice Hall|year=2003|isbn=978-0-13-790395-5|edition=2nd|location=Upper Saddle River, New Jersey|author-link=Stuart J. Russell|author2-link=Peter Norvig}}
{{cite journal |last1=Weng |first1=J. |last2=McClelland |last3=Pentland |first3=A. |last4=Sporns |first4=O. |last5=Stockman |first5=I. |last6=Sur |first6=M. |last7=Thelen |first7=E. |year=2001 |url=http://www.cse.msu.edu/dl/SciencePaper.pdf |via=msu.edu |doi=10.1126/science.291.5504.599 |pmid=11229402 |title=Autonomous mental development by robots and animals |journal=Science |volume=291 |issue=5504 |pages=599–600 |s2cid=54131797 |access-date=4 June 2013 |archive-date=4 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130904235242/http://www.cse.msu.edu/dl/SciencePaper.pdf |url-status=live }}

External links

[http://www.computerworld.com/article/2982482/emerging-technology/why-artificial-intelligence-is-succeeding-then-and-now.html A look at the re-emergence of A.I. and why the technology is poised to succeed given today's environment], ComputerWorld, 2015 September 14
[http://www.aaai.org/ The Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence]
[http://www.vega.org.uk/video/programme/16 Freeview Video 'Machines with Minds' by the Vega Science Trust and the BBC/OU]
[https://web.archive.org/web/20151118212402/http://www-formal.stanford.edu/jmc/whatisai/whatisai.html John McCarthy's frequently asked questions about AI]
[http://www.aiai.ed.ac.uk/events/jonathanedwards2007/bbc-r4-jonathan-edwards-2007-03-28.mp3 Jonathan Edwards looks at AI (BBC audio)] С
[http://www.kurzweilai.net/ Ray Kurzweil's website dedicated to AI including prediction of future development in AI]
{{cite SEP |url-id=logic-ai |title=Logic and Artificial Intelligence |last=Thomason |first=Richmond}}

Category:Applications of artificial intelligence

Artificial intelligence

Artificial intelligence topics