Timeline of artificial intelligence

! Development

|Greek myths of Hephaestus and Pygmalion incorporated the idea of intelligent automata (such as Talos) and artificial beings (such as Galatea and Pandora).{{sfn|McCorduck|2004|pp=4–5}}

| Yan Shi presented King Mu of Zhou with mechanical men which were capable of moving their bodies independently.{{sfn|Needham|1986|p=53}}

| Aristotle described the syllogism, a method of formal, mechanical thought in the Organon.{{Cite book|title=The Organon|publisher = Random House with Oxford University Press |year=1941 |editor=Richard McKeon |editor-link = Richard McKeon}}{{Cite journal|title=Aristotle Writing Science: An Application of His Theory|journal = Journal of Technical Writing and Communication|volume = 46|pages = 83–104|last=Giles|first=Timothy|doi=10.1177/0047281615600633|year = 2016|s2cid = 170906960}}{{sfn|Russell|Norvig|2021|p=6}} Aristotle also described means–ends analysis (an algorithm for planning) in Nicomachean Ethics, the same algorithm used by Newell and Simon's General Problem Solver (1959).{{sfn|Russell|Norvig|2021|p=7}}

|Ctesibius invents a mechanical water clock with an alarm. This was the first example of a feedback mechanism.{{citation needed|date=October 2022}}

| Hero of Alexandria created mechanical men and other automatons.{{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|p=6}} He produced what may have been "the world's first practical programmable machine:"{{sfn|Schmidhuber|2022}} an automatic theatre.

| Porphyry wrote Isagogê which categorized knowledge and logic, including a drawing of what would later be called a "semantic net".{{sfn|Russell|Norvig|2021|p=341}}

| Jabir ibn Hayyan developed the Arabic alchemical theory of Takwin, the artificial creation of life in the laboratory, up to and including human life.{{Citation |author=O'Connor, Kathleen Malone |title=The alchemical creation of life (takwin) and other concepts of Genesis in medieval Islam |publisher=University of Pennsylvania |year=1994 |pages=1–435 |url=http://repository.upenn.edu/dissertations/AAI9503804 |access-date=10 January 2007 |postscript=. |archive-date=5 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191205222650/https://repository.upenn.edu/dissertations/AAI9503804/ |url-status=live }}

| The Banū Mūsā brothers created a programmable music automaton described in their Book of Ingenious Devices: a steam-driven flute controlled by a program represented by pins on a revolving cylinder.{{cite book |last1=|editor1-last=Hill |editor1-first=Donald R. |editor1-link = Donald Hill |title=The Book of Ingenious Devices |date=1979 |publisher=D. Reidel |location=Dortrecht, Netherlands; Boston; London |isbn=978-90277-0-833-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HSL2CAAAQBAJ |ref=none |chapter=|orig-year=9th century}} This was "perhaps the first machine with a stored program".{{sfn|Schmidhuber|2022}}

| Ismail al-Jazari created a programmable orchestra of mechanical human beings.[http://www.shef.ac.uk/marcoms/eview/articles58/robot.html A Thirteenth Century Programmable Robot] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071219095203/http://www.shef.ac.uk/marcoms/eview/articles58/robot.html |date=19 December 2007 }}

| Ramon Llull, Mallorcan theologian, invents the Ars Magna, a tool for combining concepts mechanically based on an Arabic astrological tool, the Zairja. Llull described his machines as mechanical entities that could combine basic truth and facts to produce advanced knowledge. The method would be developed further by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz in the 17th century.{{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=10–12, 37}}; {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2021|p=6}}

| Paracelsus claimed to have created an artificial man out of magnetism, sperm and alchemy.{{sfn|McCorduck|2004|pp=13–14}}

| Rabbi Judah Loew ben Bezalel of Prague is said to have invented the Golem, a clay man brought to life.{{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=14–15}}, {{Harvnb|Buchanan|2005|p=50}}

! Development

| Francis Bacon developed empirical theory of knowledge and introduced inductive logic in his work Novum Organum, a play on Aristotle's title Organon.{{Cite book|title=The New Organon: Novem Organum Scientiarum |year=1620 |author=Sir Francis Bacon}}{{Cite book|title=Francis Bacon: The New Organon (Cambridge Texts in the History of Philosophy) |year=2000 |author=Sir Francis Bacon |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}{{sfn|Russell|Norvig|2021|p=6}}

| Wilhelm Schickard drew a calculating clock on a letter to Kepler. This will be the first of five unsuccessful attempts at designing a direct entry calculating clock in the 17th century (including the designs of Tito Burattini, Samuel Morland and René Grillet).{{efn|Please see Mechanical calculator#Other calculating machines}}

| Thomas Hobbes published Leviathan and presented a mechanical, combinatorial theory of cognition. He wrote "...for reason is nothing but reckoning".{{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2021|p=6}}{{sfn|McCorduck|2004|p=42}}

| Blaise Pascal invented a mechanical calculator,{{efn|Please see: Pascal's calculator#Competing designs}} the first digital calculating machine.{{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2021|p=6}}; {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|p=26}}

| René Descartes proposed that bodies of animals are nothing more than complex machines (but that mental phenomena are of a different "substance").{{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2021|p=6}}; {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=36–40}}

| Blaise Pascal described how to find expected values in probability, in 1662 Antoine Arnauld published a formula to find the maximum expected value, and in 1663, Gerolamo Cardano's solution to the same problems is published 116 years after it was written. The theory of probability is further developed by Jacob Bernoulli and Pierre-Simon Laplace in the 18th century.{{sfn|Russell|Norvig|2021|p=8}} Probability theory would become central to AI and machine learning from the 1990s onward.

| Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz improved the earlier machines, making the Stepped Reckoner to do multiplication and division.{{sfn|McCorduck|2004|pp=41–42}}

| Leibniz derived the chain rule.{{Cite book|last=Leibniz|first=Gottfried Wilhelm Freiherr von|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bOIGAAAAYAAJ&q=leibniz+altered+manuscripts&pg=PA90|title=The Early Mathematical Manuscripts of Leibniz: Translated from the Latin Texts Published by Carl Immanuel Gerhardt with Critical and Historical Notes (Leibniz published the chain rule in a 1676 memoir)|date=1920|publisher=Open court publishing Company|isbn=9780598818461 |language=en}} The rule is used by AI to train neural networks, for example the backpropagation algorithm uses the chain rule.{{sfn|Schmidhuber|2022}}

| Leibniz developed a universal calculus of reasoning (alphabet of human thought) by which arguments could be decided mechanically. It assigned a specific number to each and every object in the world, as a prelude to an algebraic solution to all possible problems.{{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2021|p=6}}; {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=41–42}}

| Jonathan Swift published Gulliver's Travels, which includes this description of the Engine, a machine on the island of Laputa: "a Project for improving speculative Knowledge by practical and mechanical Operations" by using this "Contrivance", "the most ignorant Person at a reasonable Charge, and with a little bodily Labour, may write Books in Philosophy, Poetry, Politicks, Law, Mathematicks, and Theology, with the least Assistance from Genius or study."Quoted in {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|p=317}} The machine is a parody of Ars Magna, one of the inspirations of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz' mechanism.

| Daniel Bernoulli introduces the concept of "utility", a generalization of probability, the basis of economics and decision theory, and the mathematical foundation for the way AI represents the "goals" of intelligent agents.{{sfn|Russell|Norvig|2021|p=10}}

| David Hume described induction, the logical method of learning generalities from examples.{{sfn|Russell|Norvig|2021|p=6}}

| Julien Offray de La Mettrie published L'Homme Machine, which argued that human thought is strictly mechanical.{{sfn|McCorduck|2004|pp=43}}

|Thomas Bayes's work An Essay Towards Solving a Problem in the Doctrine of Chances, published two years after his death, laid the foundations of Bayes' theorem and used in modern AI in Bayesian networks.{{sfn|Russell|Norvig|2021|p=8}}

| Wolfgang von Kempelen built and toured with his chess-playing automaton, The Turk, which Kempelen claimed could defeat human players.{{sfn|McCorduck|2004|p=17}} The Turk was later shown to be a hoax, involving a human chess player.

| The simplest kind of artificial neural network is the linear network. It has been known for over two centuries as the method of least squares or linear regression. It was used as a means of finding a good rough linear fit to a set of points by Adrien-Marie Legendre (1805){{Cite book |last=Adrien-Marie Legendre |url=http://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FRcOAAAAQAAJ |title=Nouvelles méthodes pour la détermination des orbites des comètes |date=1805 |publisher=F. Didot |others=Ghent University |language=French}} and Carl Friedrich Gauss (1795){{cite journal |first=Stephen M. |last=Stigler |year=1981 |title=Gauss and the Invention of Least Squares |journal=Ann. Stat. |volume=9 |issue=3 |pages=465–474 |doi=10.1214/aos/1176345451 |doi-access=free }} for the prediction of planetary movement.{{sfn|Schmidhuber|2022}}

{{cite book |last = Stigler

|first = Stephen M.

|author-link = Stephen Stigler

|year = 1986

|title = The History of Statistics: The Measurement of Uncertainty before 1900

|location = Cambridge

|publisher = Harvard

|isbn = 0-674-40340-1

|url-access = registration

|url = https://archive.org/details/historyofstatist00stig

}}

|Joseph Marie Jacquard created a programmable loom, based on earlier inventions by Basile Bouchon (1725), Jean-Baptiste Falcon (1728) and Jacques Vaucanson (1740).{{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|p=15}}; Razy, C. (1913), p.120. Replaceable punched cards controlled sequences of operations in the process of manufacturing textiles. This may have been the first industrial software for commercial enterprises.{{sfn|Schmidhuber|2022}}

| Mary Shelley published the story of Frankenstein; or the Modern Prometheus, a fictional consideration of the ethics of creating sentient beings.{{sfn|McCorduck|2004|pp=19–25}}

| Charles Babbage & Ada Lovelace worked on programmable mechanical calculating machines.{{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2021|p=15}}; {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=26–34}}

|The mathematician Bernard Bolzano made the first modern attempt to formalize semantics.{{Cite journal|last=Cambier|first=Hubert|date=June 2016|title=The Evolutionary Meaning of World 3|journal=Philosophy of the Social Sciences|volume=46|issue=3|pages=242–264|doi=10.1177/0048393116641609|s2cid=148093595|issn=0048-3931}}

| George Boole set out to "investigate the fundamental laws of those operations of the mind by which reasoning is performed, to give expression to them in the symbolic language of a calculus", inventing Boolean algebra.{{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2021|p=8}}; {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=48–51}}

| Samuel Butler suggested that Darwinian evolution also applies to machines, and speculates that they will one day become conscious and eventually supplant humanity.Project Gutenberg eBook [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/1906 Erewhon by Samuel Butler.Poes.....] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210430114133/https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/1906 |date=30 April 2021 }}

! Development

| Bertrand Russell and Alfred North Whitehead published Principia Mathematica, which showed that all of elementary mathematics could be reduced to mechanical reasoning in formal logic.{{sfn|Linsky|Irvine|2022|p=2}}

| Leonardo Torres Quevedo built an automaton for chess endgames, El Ajedrecista. He was called "the 20th century's first AI pioneer".{{sfn|Schmidhuber|2022}} In his Essays on Automatics (1914), Torres published speculation about thinking and automata and introduced the idea of floating-point arithmetic.{{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=59–60}}{{ cite web|url=http://www.cs.ncl.ac.uk/publications/articles/papers/398.pdf |title=From Analytical Engine to Electronic Digital Computer: The Contributions of Ludgate, Torres, and Bush |last1=Randell |first1=Brian |author-link1=Brian Randell |access-date=9 September 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921055055/http://www.cs.ncl.ac.uk/publications/articles/papers/398.pdf |archive-date=21 September 2013 }}

| Karel Čapek's play R.U.R. (Rossum's Universal Robots) opened in London. This is the first use of the word "robot" in English.{{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|p=25}}

| Wilhelm Lenz and Ernst Ising created and analyzed the Ising model (1925){{cite journal |doi=10.1103/RevModPhys.39.883|title=History of the Lenz-Ising Model|year=1967|last1=Brush|first1=Stephen G.|journal=Reviews of Modern Physics|volume=39|issue=4|pages=883–893|bibcode=1967RvMP...39..883B}} which can be viewed as the first artificial recurrent neural network (RNN) consisting of neuron-like threshold elements.{{sfn|Schmidhuber|2022}} In 1972, Shun'ichi Amari made this architecture adaptive.{{cite journal |last1=Amari |first1=Shun-Ichi |title=Learning patterns and pattern sequences by self-organizing nets of threshold elements|journal= IEEE Transactions |date=1972 |volume=C |issue=21 |pages=1197–1206 }}{{sfn|Schmidhuber|2022}}

| Ludwig Wittgenstein's Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus (1921) inspires Rudolf Carnap and the logical positivists of the Vienna Circle to use formal logic as the foundation of philosophy. However, Wittgenstein's later work in the 1940s demonstrates that context free symbolic logic is incoherent without human interpretation.

| Kurt Gödel encoded mathematical statements and proofs as integers, and showed that there are true theorems that are unprovable by any consistent theorem-proving machine. Thus "he identified fundamental limits of algorithmic theorem proving, computing, and any type of computation-based AI,"{{sfn|Schmidhuber|2022}} laying foundations of theoretical computer science and AI theory.

|Alonzo Church extended Gödel's proof and showed that the decision problem of computer science does not have a general solution.{{cite journal |first=A. |last=Church |author-link=Alonzo Church |title=An unsolvable problem of elementary number theory (first presented on 19 April 1935 to the American Mathematical Society) |journal=American Journal of Mathematics |volume=58 |number=2 |year=1936 |pages=345–363 |doi=10.2307/2371045 |jstor=2371045 }} He developed the Lambda calculus, which will eventually be fundamental to the theory of computer languages.

| Konrad Zuse filed his patent application for a program-controlled computer.K. Zuse (1936). Verfahren zur selbsttätigen Durchführung von Rechnungen mit Hilfe von Rechenmaschinen. Patent application Z 23 139 / GMD Nr. 005/021, 1936.

|Alan Turing published "On Computable Numbers",{{cite journal |last1=Turing |first1=Alan Mathison |date=November 12, 1936 |title=On computable numbers, with an application to the Entscheidungsproblem |url=https://www.cs.virginia.edu/~robins/Turing_Paper_1936.pdf |journal=Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society |volume=58 |pages=230–265 |doi=10.1112/plms/s2-42.1.230 |s2cid=73712}} which laid the foundations of the modern theory of computation by introducing the Turing machine, a physical interpretation of "computability". He used it to confirm Gödel by proving that the halting problem is undecidable.

| Edward Condon displayed Nimatron, a digital machine that played Nim perfectly.

| Konrad Zuse built the first working program-controlled general-purpose computer.{{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=61–62}} and see also [https://web.archive.org/web/20100418164050/http://www.epemag.com/zuse The Life and Work of Konrad Zuse]

| Warren Sturgis McCulloch and Walter Pitts publish "A Logical Calculus of the Ideas Immanent in Nervous Activity", the first mathematical description of an artificial neural networks.{{Harvtxt|McCorduck|2004|pp=55–56}}; {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|p=17}}

| Game theory which would prove invaluable in the progress of AI was introduced with the 1944 paper "Theory of Games and Economic Behavior" by mathematician John von Neumann and economist Oskar Morgenstern.

| Alan Turing produces "Intelligent Machinery" report, regarded as the first manifesto of Artificial Intelligence. It introduces many concepts including the logic-based approach to problem solving, that intellectual activity consists mainly of various kinds of search, and a discussion of machine learning in which he anticipates the Connectionism AI approach.{{Cite book |last= Copeland|first= J (Ed.)|title= The Essential Turing: the ideas that gave birth to the computer age|publisher= Oxford: Clarendon Press|year=2004|isbn=0-19-825079-7}}

| Donald O. Hebb develops Hebbian theory, a possible algorithm for learning in neural networks.{{sfn|Russell|Norvig|2021|p=17}}

! Development

| Alan Turing published "Computing Machinery and Intelligence", which proposes the Turing test as a measure of machine intelligence and answered all of the most common objections to the proposal "machines can think".{{Harvtxt|Crevier| 1993|pp=22–25}}; {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|pp=18–19}}

| The first working AI programs were written in 1951 to run on the Ferranti Mark 1 machine of the University of Manchester: A checkers-playing program written by Christopher Strachey and a chess-playing program written by Dietrich Prinz.{{sfn|Russell|Norvig|2021|p=17}}

| Arthur Samuel (IBM) wrote the first game-playing program, for checkers (draughts), to achieve sufficient skill to challenge a respectable amateur.{{Harvtxt|Samuel|1959}}; {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|p=17}}

His first checkers-playing program was written in 1952, and in 1955 he created a version that learned to play.{{sfn|Russell|Norvig|2021|p=19}}

Schaeffer, Jonathan. One Jump Ahead:: Challenging Human Supremacy in Checkers, 1997, 2009, Springer, {{ISBN|978-0-387-76575-4}}. Chapter 6.

| The Dartmouth College summer AI conference is organized by John McCarthy, Marvin Minsky, Nathan Rochester of IBM and Claude Shannon. McCarthy coins the term artificial intelligence for the conference.

{{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|p=18}}

{{cite news|last1=Novet|first1=Jordan|title=Everyone keeps talking about A.I.—here's what it really is and why it's so hot now|url=https://www.cnbc.com/2017/06/17/what-is-artificial-intelligence.html|access-date=16 February 2018|work=CNBC|date=17 June 2017|archive-date=16 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180216204448/https://www.cnbc.com/2017/06/17/what-is-artificial-intelligence.html|url-status=live}}

| John McCarthy (Massachusetts Institute of Technology or MIT) invented the Lisp programming language.{{sfn|Russell|Norvig|2021|p=19}}

| The General Problem Solver (GPS) was created by Newell, Shaw and Simon while at CMU.{{sfn|Russell|Norvig|2021|p=19}}

| Margaret Masterman and colleagues at University of Cambridge design semantic nets for machine translation.{{citation needed|reason=notability, undue weight|date=August 2023}}

! Development

| Ray Solomonoff lays the foundations of a mathematical theory of AI, introducing universal Bayesian methods for inductive inference and prediction.

| "Man-Computer Symbiosis" by J.C.R. Licklider.

| James Slagle (PhD dissertation, MIT) wrote (in Lisp) the first symbolic integration program, SAINT, which solved calculus problems at the college freshman level.

| Thomas Evans' program, ANALOGY, written as part of his PhD work at MIT, demonstrated that computers can solve the same analogy problems as are given on IQ tests.

| Danny Bobrow's dissertation at MIT (technical report #1 from MIT's AI group, Project MAC), shows that computers can understand natural language well enough to solve algebra word problems correctly.

| Alexey Ivakhnenko and Valentin Lapa developed the first deep learning algorithm for multilayer perceptrons in Soviet Union.{{cite book|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=FhwVNQAACAAJ}}|title=Cybernetic Predicting Devices|last=Ivakhnenko|first=A. G.|publisher=CCM Information Corporation|year=1973}}{{cite book|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=rGFgAAAAMAAJ}}|title=Cybernetics and forecasting techniques|last2=Grigorʹevich Lapa|first2=Valentin|publisher=American Elsevier Pub. Co.|year=1967|first1=A. G.|last1=Ivakhnenko}}{{sfn|Schmidhuber|2022}}

| Ross Quillian (PhD dissertation, Carnegie Inst. of Technology, now CMU) demonstrated semantic nets.

| Shun'ichi Amari was the first to use stochastic gradient descent for deep learning in multilayer perceptrons.{{cite journal |last1=Amari |first1=Shun'ichi |author-link=Shun'ichi Amari|title=A theory of adaptive pattern classifier|journal= IEEE Transactions |date=1967 |volume=EC |issue=16 |pages=279–307}} In computer experiments conducted by his student Saito, a five layer MLP with two modifiable layers learned useful internal representations to classify non-linearily separable pattern classes.{{sfn|Schmidhuber|2022}}

| Joel Moses (PhD work at MIT) demonstrated the power of symbolic reasoning for integration problems in the Macsyma program. First successful knowledge-based program in mathematics.

| Stanford Research Institute (SRI): Shakey the robot, demonstrated combining animal locomotion, perception and problem solving.

! Development

| Jane Robinson and Don Walker established an influential Natural Language Processing group at SRI.{{Cite journal |url=https://direct.mit.edu/coli/article/41/4/723/1509/Jane-J-Robinson |access-date=2024-01-23 |journal=Computational Linguistics|doi=10.1162/COLI_a_00235 |title=Jane J. Robinson |date=2015 |last1=Grosz |first1=Barbara J. |last2=Hajicova |first2=Eva |last3=Joshi |first3=Aravind |volume=41 |issue=4 |pages=723–726 |doi-access=free }}

| Seppo Linnainmaa publishes the reverse mode of automatic differentiation. This method became later known as backpropagation, and is heavily used to train artificial neural networks.Linnainmaa, Seppo (1970). Algoritmin kumulatiivinen pyöristysvirhe yksittäisten pyöristysvirheiden Taylor-kehitelmänä [The representation of the cumulative rounding error of an algorithm as a Taylor expansion of the local rounding errors] (PDF) (Thesis) (in Finnish). pp. 6–7.

| Terry Winograd's PhD thesis (MIT) demonstrated the ability of computers to understand English sentences in a restricted world of children's blocks, in a coupling of his language understanding program, SHRDLU, with a robot arm that carried out instructions typed in English.

| Prolog programming language developed by Alain Colmerauer.

| The Assembly Robotics Group at University of Edinburgh builds Freddy Robot, capable of using visual perception to locate and assemble models. (See Edinburgh Freddy Assembly Robot: a versatile computer-controlled assembly system.)

| Ted Shortliffe's PhD dissertation on the MYCIN program (Stanford) demonstrated a very practical rule-based approach to medical diagnoses, even in the presence of uncertainty. While it borrowed from DENDRAL, its own contributions strongly influenced the future of expert system development, especially commercial systems.

| Earl Sacerdoti developed techniques of partial-order planning in his NOAH system, replacing the previous paradigm of search among state space descriptions. NOAH was applied at SRI International to interactively diagnose and repair electromechanical systems.

| Barbara Grosz (SRI) established limits to traditional AI approaches to discourse modeling. Subsequent work by Grosz, Bonnie Webber and Candace Sidner developed the notion of "centering", used in establishing focus of discourse and anaphoric references in Natural language processing.

| Douglas Lenat's AM program (Stanford PhD dissertation) demonstrated the discovery model (loosely guided search for interesting conjectures).

| Tom Mitchell, at Stanford, invented the concept of Version spaces for describing the search space of a concept formation program.

| Bill VanMelle's PhD dissertation at Stanford demonstrated the generality of MYCIN's representation of knowledge and style of reasoning in his EMYCIN program, the model for many commercial expert system "shells".

| Stanford's SUMEX-AIM resource, headed by Ed Feigenbaum and Joshua Lederberg, demonstrates the power of the ARPAnet for scientific collaboration.

! Development

| Lisp machines developed and marketed. First expert system shells and commercial applications.

| First National Conference of the American Association for Artificial Intelligence (AAAI) held at Stanford.

| Danny Hillis designs the connection machine, which utilizes parallel computing to bring new power to AI, and to computation in general. (Later founds Thinking Machines Corporation)

| The Fifth Generation Computer Systems project (FGCS), an initiative by Japan's Ministry of International Trade and Industry, begun in 1982, to create a "fifth generation computer" (see history of computing hardware) which was supposed to perform much calculation utilizing massive parallelism.

| John Laird and Paul Rosenbloom, working with Allen Newell, complete CMU dissertations on Soar (program).

| Neural Networks become widely used with the Backpropagation algorithm, also known as the reverse mode of automatic differentiation published by Seppo Linnainmaa in 1970 and applied to neural networks by Paul Werbos.

| The autonomous drawing program, AARON, created by Harold Cohen, is demonstrated at the AAAI National Conference (based on more than a decade of work, and with subsequent work showing major developments).

| The team of Ernst Dickmanns at Bundeswehr University of Munich builds the first robot cars, driving up to 55 mph on empty streets.

| Marvin Minsky published The Society of Mind, a theoretical description of the mind as a collection of cooperating agents. He had been lecturing on the idea for years before the book came out (cf. Doyle 1983).{{cite book |author=Harry Henderson |title=Artificial Intelligence: Mirrors for the Mind |year=2007 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |location=NY |isbn=978-1-60413-059-1 |chapter=Chronology |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vKmIiICDIwgC&pg=PA165 |access-date=11 April 2015 |archive-date=15 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230315174512/https://books.google.com/books?id=vKmIiICDIwgC&pg=PA165 |url-status=live }}

| The development of metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) Very-large-scale integration (VLSI), in the form of complementary MOS (CMOS) technology, enabled the development of practical artificial neural network (ANN) technology in the 1980s. A landmark publication in the field was the 1989 book Analog VLSI Implementation of Neural Systems by Carver A. Mead and Mohammed Ismail.{{cite book|url=http://fennetic.net/irc/Christopher%20R.%20Carroll%20Carver%20Mead%20Mohammed%20Ismail%20Analog%20VLSI%20Implementation%20of%20Neural%20Systems.pdf|title=Analog VLSI Implementation of Neural Systems|date=8 May 1989|publisher=Kluwer Academic Publishers|isbn=978-1-4613-1639-8|last1=Mead|first1=Carver A.|last2=Ismail|first2=Mohammed|series=The Kluwer International Series in Engineering and Computer Science|volume=80|location=Norwell, MA|doi=10.1007/978-1-4613-1639-8|access-date=24 January 2020|archive-date=6 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191106154442/http://fennetic.net/irc/Christopher%20R.%20Carroll%20Carver%20Mead%20Mohammed%20Ismail%20Analog%20VLSI%20Implementation%20of%20Neural%20Systems.pdf|url-status=live}}

! Development

| Major advances in all areas of AI, with significant demonstrations in machine learning, intelligent tutoring, case-based reasoning, multi-agent planning, scheduling, uncertain reasoning, data mining, natural language understanding and translation, vision, virtual reality, games, and other topics.

| TD-Gammon, a backgammon program written by Gerry Tesauro, demonstrates that reinforcement (learning) is powerful enough to create a championship-level game-playing program by competing favorably with world-class players.

| DART scheduling application deployed in the first Gulf War paid back DARPA's investment of 30 years in AI research.[https://doi.ieeecomputersociety.org/10.1109/MIS.2002.1005635 DART: Revolutionizing Logistics Planning]

| Carol Stoker and NASA Ames robotics team explore marine life in Antarctica with an undersea robot Telepresence ROV operated from the ice near McMurdo Bay, Antarctica and remotely via satellite link from Moffett Field, California.{{Cite journal |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1995SPIE.2352..288S |title=From Antarctica to space: use of telepresence and virtual reality in control of a remote underwater vehicle |bibcode=1995SPIE.2352..288S |access-date=17 July 2019 |archive-date=17 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190717054452/http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1995SPIE.2352..288S |url-status=live |last1=Stoker |first1=Carol R. |editor-first1=William J. |editor-first2=Wendell H. |editor-last1=Wolfe |editor-last2=Chun |journal=Mobile Robots IX |year=1995 |volume=2352 |page=288 |doi=10.1117/12.198976 |s2cid=128633069 }}

| Ian Horswill extended behavior-based robotics by creating Polly, the first robot to navigate using vision and operate at animal-like speeds (1 meter/second).

| Lotfi A. Zadeh at U.C. Berkeley creates "soft computing"Zadeh, Lotfi A., "Fuzzy Logic, Neural Networks, and Soft Computing," Communications of the ACM, March 1994, Vol. 37 No. 3, pages 77-84. and builds a world network of research with a fusion of neural science and neural net systems, fuzzy set theory and fuzzy systems, evolutionary algorithms, genetic programming, and chaos theory and chaotic systems ("Fuzzy Logic, Neural Networks, and Soft Computing", Communications of the ACM, March 1994, Vol. 37 No. 3, pages 77–84).

| Cindy Mason at NASA organizes the First International IJCAI Workshop on AI and the Environment.{{Cite web|url=http://www.aiandenvironment.org/ijcai-first-ai-env-workshop.html|title=Ijcai-first-ai-env-workshop|access-date=28 July 2019|archive-date=28 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190728221441/http://www.aiandenvironment.org/ijcai-first-ai-env-workshop.html|url-status=live}}

|Steve Grand, roboticist and computer scientist, develops and releases Creatures, a popular simulation of artificial life-forms with simulated biochemistry, neurology with learning algorithms and inheritable digital DNA.

| The Deep Blue chess machine (IBM) defeats the (then) world chess champion, Garry Kasparov.

| Tiger Electronics' Furby is released, and becomes the first successful attempt at producing a type of A.I to reach a domestic environment.

| Sony introduces an improved domestic robot similar to a Furby, the AIBO becomes one of the first artificially intelligent "pets" that is also autonomous.

| Web crawlers and other AI-based information extraction programs become essential in widespread use of the World Wide Web.

! Development

| Interactive robopets ("smart toys") become commercially available, realizing the vision of the 18th century novelty toy makers.

| iRobot's Roomba autonomously vacuums the floor while navigating and avoiding obstacles.

| OWL Web Ontology Language W3C Recommendation (10 February 2004).

| Honda's ASIMO robot, an artificially intelligent humanoid robot, is able to walk as fast as a human, delivering trays to customers in restaurant settings.

| The Dartmouth Artificial Intelligence Conference: The Next 50 Years (AI@50) AI@50 (14–16 July 2006)

| Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, B – Biology, one of the world's oldest scientific journals, puts out a special issue on using AI to understand biological intelligence, titled Models of Natural Action Selection{{cite web |url=http://www.pubs.royalsoc.ac.uk/index.cfm?page=1318 |title=Modelling natural action selection |publisher=Pubs.royalsoc.ac.uk |access-date=24 November 2008 |archive-date=30 September 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930183534/http://www.pubs.royalsoc.ac.uk/index.cfm?page=1318 |url-status=live }}

|Cynthia Mason at Stanford presents her idea on Artificial Compassionate Intelligence, in her paper on "Giving Robots Compassion".{{Cite web|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/260230014|title=Giving Robots Compassion, C. Mason, Conference on Science and Compassion, Poster Session, Telluride, Colorado, 2012.|website=ResearchGate|language=en|access-date=2019-07-17}}

| An LSTM trained by connectionist temporal classification{{Cite journal|last1=Graves|first1=Alex|author1-link=Alex Graves (computer scientist) | last2=Fernández|first2=Santiago|last3=Gomez|first3=Faustino|last4=Schmidhuber|first4=Juergen|author4-link=Juergen Schmidhuber| date=2006|title=Connectionist temporal classification: Labelling unsegmented sequence data with recurrent neural networks|journal=Proceedings of the International Conference on Machine Learning, ICML 2006|pages=369–376|citeseerx=10.1.1.75.6306}} was the first recurrent neural network to win pattern recognition contests, winning three competitions in connected handwriting recognition.Graves, Alex; and Schmidhuber, Jürgen; Offline Handwriting Recognition with Multidimensional Recurrent Neural Networks, in Bengio, Yoshua; Schuurmans, Dale; Lafferty, John; Williams, Chris K. I.; and Culotta, Aron (eds.), Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems 22 (NIPS'22), December 7th–10th, 2009, Vancouver, BC, Neural Information Processing Systems (NIPS) Foundation, 2009, pp. 545–552{{sfn|Schmidhuber|2022}}

| Google builds an autonomous car.{{cite web|last=Fisher|first=Adam|title=Inside Google's Quest To Popularize Self-Driving Cars|url=http://www.popsci.com/cars/article/2013-09/google-self-driving-car|work=Popular Science|date=18 September 2013 |access-date=10 October 2013|archive-date=22 September 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130922192206/http://www.popsci.com/cars/article/2013-09/google-self-driving-car|url-status=live}}

! Development

| Microsoft launched Kinect for Xbox 360, the first gaming device to track human body movement, using just a 3D camera and infra-red detection, enabling users to play their Xbox 360 wirelessly. The award-winning machine learning for human motion capture technology for this device was developed by the [http://research.microsoft.com/en-us/groups/vision/default.aspx Computer Vision group] at Microsoft Research, Cambridge.{{cite web|url=http://research.microsoft.com/en-us/people/jamiesho/|title=Jamie Shotton at Microsoft Research|website=Microsoft Research|access-date=3 February 2016|archive-date=3 February 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160203165349/http://research.microsoft.com/en-us/people/jamiesho/|url-status=live}}{{cite web|url=http://research.microsoft.com/en-us/projects/vrkinect/|title=Human Pose Estimation for Kinect – Microsoft Research|access-date=3 February 2016|archive-date=3 February 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160203224732/http://research.microsoft.com/en-us/projects/vrkinect/|url-status=live}}

| Mary Lou Maher and Doug Fisher organize the First AAAI Workshop on AI and Sustainability.{{Cite web|url=http://dts-web1.it.vanderbilt.edu/~fisherdh//AI-Design-Sustainability.html|title=AAAI Spring Symposium - AI and Design for Sustainability|access-date=29 July 2019|archive-date=29 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190729063022/http://dts-web1.it.vanderbilt.edu/~fisherdh//AI-Design-Sustainability.html|url-status=live}}

| Apple's Siri (2011), Google's Google Now (2012) and Microsoft's Cortana (2014) are smartphone apps that use natural language to answer questions, make recommendations and perform actions.

| AlexNet, a deep learning model developed by Alex Krizhevsky, wins the ImageNet Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge with half as many errors as the second-place winner.{{Harvtxt|Christian|2020|p=24}}; {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|p=26}} This is a turning point in the history of AI; over the next few years dozens of other approaches to image recognition were abandoned in favor of deep learning.{{sfnp|Wong|2023}} Krizhevsky is among the first to use GPU chips to train a deep learning network.{{sfn|Christian|2020|p=25}}

| Robot HRP-2 built by SCHAFT Inc of Japan, a subsidiary of Google, defeats 15 teams to win DARPA's Robotics Challenge Trials. HRP-2 scored 27 out of 32 points in eight tasks needed in disaster response. Tasks are drive a vehicle, walk over debris, climb a ladder, remove debris, walk through doors, cut through a wall, close valves and connect a hose.{{cite web|title=DARPA Robotics Challenge Trials|url=http://www.theroboticschallenge.org/|publisher=US Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency|access-date=25 December 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150611162358/http://theroboticschallenge.org/|archive-date=11 June 2015}}

|Two techniques were developed concurrently to train very deep networks: highway network,{{cite arXiv |eprint=1505.00387 |class=cs.LG |first1=Rupesh Kumar |last1=Srivastava |first2=Klaus |last2=Greff |title=Highway Networks |date=2 May 2015 |last3=Schmidhuber |first3=Jürgen}} and the residual neural network (ResNet).{{Cite conference |last1=He |first1=Kaiming |last2=Zhang |first2=Xiangyu |last3=Ren |first3=Shaoqing |last4=Sun |first4=Jian |date=2016 |title=Deep Residual Learning for Image Recognition |url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/7780459 |location=Las Vegas, NV, USA |publisher=IEEE |pages=770–778 |arxiv=1512.03385 |doi=10.1109/CVPR.2016.90 |isbn=978-1-4673-8851-1 |journal=2016 IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR)}} They allowed over 1000-layers-deep networks to be trained.

| Google DeepMind's AlphaGo (version: Lee) defeated Lee Sedol 4–1. Lee Sedol is a 9 dan professional Korean Go champion who won 27 major tournaments from 2002 to 2016.{{cite web|last1=Ormerod|first1=David|title=AlphaGo defeats Lee Sedol 4–1 in Google DeepMind Challenge Match|url=https://gogameguru.com/alphago-defeats-lee-sedol-4-1/|website=Go Game Guru|access-date=25 April 2016|archive-date=17 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160317095008/https://gogameguru.com/alphago-defeats-lee-sedol-4-1/|url-status=usurped}}

| Asilomar Conference on Beneficial AI was held, to discuss AI ethics and how to bring about beneficial AI while avoiding the existential risk from artificial general intelligence.

|Alibaba language processing AI outscores top humans at a Stanford University reading and comprehension test, scoring 82.44 against 82.304 on a set of 100,000 questions.[https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-01-15/alibaba-s-ai-outgunned-humans-in-key-stanford-reading-test Alibaba's AI Outguns Humans in Reading Test] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180117011914/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-01-15/alibaba-s-ai-outgunned-humans-in-key-stanford-reading-test |date=17 January 2018 }}. 15 January 2018

|DeepMind's AlphaStar reaches Grandmaster level at StarCraft II, outperforming 99.8 percent of human players.{{cite news|last1=Sample|first1=Ian|title=AI becomes grandmaster in 'fiendishly complex' StarCraft II|url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2019/oct/30/ai-becomes-grandmaster-in-fiendishly-complex-starcraft-ii|access-date=30 July 2021|work=The Guardian|date=2019|archive-date=29 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229185547/https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2019/oct/30/ai-becomes-grandmaster-in-fiendishly-complex-starcraft-ii|url-status=live}}

! Development

|In February 2020, Microsoft introduces its Turing Natural Language Generation (T-NLG), which is the "largest language model ever published at 17 billion parameters".{{Cite magazine| issn = 1059-1028| last = Sterling| first = Bruce| title = Web Semantics: Microsoft Project Turing introduces Turing Natural Language Generation (T-NLG)| magazine = Wired| access-date = July 31, 2020| date = February 13, 2020| url = https://www.wired.com/beyond-the-beyond/2020/02/web-semantics-microsoft-project-turing-introduces-turing-natural-language-generation-t-nlg/| archive-date = 4 November 2020| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20201104163637/https://www.wired.com/beyond-the-beyond/2020/02/web-semantics-microsoft-project-turing-introduces-turing-natural-language-generation-t-nlg/| url-status = live}}

| ChatGPT, an AI chatbot developed by OpenAI, debuts in November 2022. It is initially built on top of the {{nowrap|GPT-3.5}} large language model. While it gains considerable praise for the breadth of its knowledge base, deductive abilities, and the human-like fluidity of its natural language responses,{{Cite web |last=Thompson |first=Derek |date=December 8, 2022 |title=Breakthroughs of the Year |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/newsletters/archive/2022/12/technology-medicine-law-ai-10-breakthroughs-2022/672390/ |access-date=December 18, 2022 |website=The Atlantic |archive-date=January 15, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230115142130/https://www.theatlantic.com/newsletters/archive/2022/12/technology-medicine-law-ai-10-breakthroughs-2022/672390/ |url-status=live}}{{cite news |last1=Scharth |first1=Marcel |title=The ChatGPT chatbot is blowing people away with its writing skills. An expert explains why it's so impressive |url=https://theconversation.com/the-chatgpt-chatbot-is-blowing-people-away-with-its-writing-skills-an-expert-explains-why-its-so-impressive-195908 |date=December 5, 2022 |access-date=December 30, 2022 |work=The Conversation |language=en |archive-date=January 19, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230119175104/https://theconversation.com/the-chatgpt-chatbot-is-blowing-people-away-with-its-writing-skills-an-expert-explains-why-its-so-impressive-195908 |url-status=live}} it also garners criticism for, among other things, its tendency to "hallucinate",{{cite news |title=ChatGPT a 'landmark event' for AI, but what does it mean for the future of human labor and disinformation? |url=https://www.cbc.ca/radio/thecurrent/chatgpt-human-labour-and-fake-news-1.6686210 |access-date=December 18, 2022 |work=CBC |date=December 15, 2022 |first=Mouhamad |last=Rachini |archive-date=January 19, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230119175104/https://www.cbc.ca/radio/thecurrent/chatgpt-human-labour-and-fake-news-1.6686210 |url-status=live}}{{Cite web |last=Vincent |first=James |date=December 5, 2022 |title=AI-generated answers temporarily banned on coding Q&A site Stack Overflow |url=https://www.theverge.com/2022/12/5/23493932/chatgpt-ai-generated-answers-temporarily-banned-stack-overflow-llms-dangers |access-date=December 5, 2022 |work=The Verge |language=en-US |archive-date=January 17, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117153621/https://www.theverge.com/2022/12/5/23493932/chatgpt-ai-generated-answers-temporarily-banned-stack-overflow-llms-dangers |url-status=live}} a phenomenon in which an AI responds with factually incorrect answers with high confidence. The release triggers widespread public discussion on artificial intelligence and its potential impact on society.{{Cite web |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/opinion/articles/2022-12-06/chatgpt-ai-could-make-democracy-even-more-messy |title=ChatGPT Could Make Democracy Even More Messy |date= December 6, 2022 |last=Cowen |first=Tyler |author-link=Tyler Cowen |work=Bloomberg News |access-date=December 6, 2022 |archive-date=December 7, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221207105203/https://www.bloomberg.com/opinion/articles/2022-12-06/chatgpt-ai-could-make-democracy-even-more-messy |url-status=live}}{{cite news |title=The Guardian view on ChatGPT: an eerily good human impersonator |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2022/dec/08/the-guardian-view-on-chatgpt-an-eerily-good-human-impersonator |access-date=December 18, 2022 |work=The Guardian |date= December 8, 2022 |language=en |archive-date=January 16, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230116161202/https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2022/dec/08/the-guardian-view-on-chatgpt-an-eerily-good-human-impersonator |url-status=live}}

|By January 2023, ChatGPT has more than 100 million users, making it the fastest-growing consumer application to date.{{Cite news |last=Milmo |first=Dan |date=December 2, 2023 |title=ChatGPT reaches 100 million users two months after launch |language=en-GB |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2023/feb/02/chatgpt-100-million-users-open-ai-fastest-growing-app |access-date=February 3, 2023 |issn=0261-3077 |archive-date=February 3, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230203051356/https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2023/feb/02/chatgpt-100-million-users-open-ai-fastest-growing-app |url-status=live}}

|On February 15, 2024, Google releases Gemini 1.5 in limited beta, capable of context length up to 1 million tokens.

|On February 6, Mistral AI releases Le Chat, an AI assistant able to answer up to 1,000 words per second.{{Cite news|last=Dillet|first=Romain|date=6 February 2025|title=Mistral releases its AI assistant on iOS and Android|url=https://techcrunch.com/2025/02/06/mistral-releases-its-ai-assistant-on-ios-and-android/|access-date=February 11, 2025|work=TechCrunch|language=en-us}}