Pearl millet#Africa

File:Pennisetum glaucum MHNT.BOT.2013.22.56.jpg

Pearl millet has ovoid grains of {{ Convert |3 – 4|mm|frac=32}} length, the largest kernels of all varieties of millet (not including sorghum). These can be nearly white, pale yellow, brown, grey, slate blue or purple. The 1000-seed weight can be anything from 2.5 to 14 g with a mean of 8 g.

The height of the plant ranges from {{Convert|0.5 – 4|m}}.{{cite web|title=Sorghum and millet in human nutrition|publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)|year=1995|url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/T0818E/T0818E00.htm|access-date=2016-11-04|archive-date=2018-10-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181001231759/http://www.fao.org/docrep/T0818e/T0818E00.HTM|url-status=dead}}

Pearl millet is well adapted to growing areas characterized by drought, low soil fertility, low moisture, and high temperature. It performs well in soils with high salinity or low pH. Because of its tolerance to difficult growing conditions, it can be grown in areas where other cereal crops, such as maize or wheat, would not survive. Pearl millet is a summer annual crop well-suited for double cropping and rotations. The grain and forage are valuable as food and feed resources in Africa, Russia, India and China.

Today, pearl millet is grown on over {{ Convert |260,000|km2}} of land worldwide. It accounts for about 50% of the total world production of millets.{{cite web |url=http://www.cgiar.org/impact/research/millet.html |title=Millet |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070711031948/http://www.cgiar.org/impact/research/millet.html |archive-date=2007-07-11 |publisher=Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research}}

World production of millets has been stable during the 1980s. According to FAO, {{ Convert |39.4|e6ha|abbr=off}} of millet were planted in 1987 with an average production of only {{ Convert |704|kg/ha}}.{{Cite journal |date=1989 |title=FAO production yearbook, 1988, v. 42 |url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?q=FAO+production+yearbook%2C+1988%2C+v.+42 |journal=FAO Statistics Series |language=English |issn=0071-7118}}

File:Pearl millet grain.jpg

Pearl millet varieties from the world collection probably have more variation in physical characteristics than any other millet.{{Cite journal |last1=McDonough |first1=C. |last2=Rooney |first2=L. |date=1989-01-01 |title=Structural Characteristics of Pennisetum Americanum (Pearl Millet) Using Scanning Electron and Fluorescence Microscopy |url=https://digitalcommons.usu.edu/foodmicrostructure/vol8/iss1/16 |journal=Food Structure |volume=8 |issue=1}} Kernel shape has different classifications: obovate, hexagonal, lanceolate, globular and elliptical. In Africa, pearl millet is classified as either globular or lanceolate and hexagonal. Most of the millets are very similar to each other in basic structures, although there are some very specific differences.

The composition of variety Changara of pearl millet can be affected by both environment and genetics. Pearl millet usually has higher protein and fat contents than sorghum or other millets because the kernel is a naked caryopsis.{{cn|date=September 2023}}

Values are expressed on a dry matter basis.{{cn|date=September 2023}}

File:Bajhar ji maani.jpg, Sindh]]

Pearl millet is commonly used to make bhakri flatbread. It is also boiled to make a Tamil porridge called kamban choru or kamban koozh.

In Rajasthani cuisine {{lang|raj|bajre ki khatti rabdi|italic=yes}} is a traditional dish made with pearl millet flour and yogurt.

Flatbreads made of pearl millet flour are served with various types of kadhi and bhaaji in meals.

In Namibia, pearl millet flour is used to make oshifima, a staple food in the northern part of Namibia.

India is the largest producer of pearl millet. India began growing pearl millet between 1500 and 1100 BCE.{{Cite web|url=https://books.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/propylaeum/reader/download/180/180-30-76304-1-10-20161130.pdf|title=The origin and dispersal of millet cultivation in India|last=Singh|first=Purushottam|date=1996|access-date=October 9, 2017}} It is currently unknown how it made its way to India, but it likely arrived originally from across Africa, and via the Red Sea during Indus Valley Trade networks.{{Cite journal |last=Haaland |first=Randi |date=2012-06-20 |title=Crops and Culture: Dispersal of African Millets to the Indian Subcontinent and its Cultural Consequences |url=https://www.nepjol.info/index.php/DSAJ/article/view/6354 |journal=Dhaulagiri Journal of Sociology and Anthropology |volume=5 |pages=1–30 |doi=10.3126/dsaj.v5i0.6354 |issn=1994-2672|doi-access=free }} Rajasthan is the highest-producing state in India. The first hybrid of pearl millet developed in India in 1965 is called the HB1.

Sajje is the local name of the pearl millet in Karnataka and is mostly grown in the semiarid districts of North Karnataka. Sajje is milled and used for making flatbread called 'sajje rotti' and is eaten with yennegai (stuffed brinjal) and yogurt.

Kambu is the Tamil name of pearl millet and is a common food across the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. It is the second important food for Tamil people consumed predominantly in the hot humid summer months from February through May every year. It is made into a gruel and consumed along with buttermilk or consumed as dosa or idly.

Pearl millet is called bajra in Northern Indian states. There was a time when pearl millets along with finger millets and sorghum were the staple food crops in these states but it reduced to a mere cattle fodder crop after the Green Revolution in the 1960s.

The second largest producer of pearl millet and the first to start cultivation, Africa has been successful in bringing back this lost{{ CN |date=January 2023}} crop.

Pearl millet is an important food across the Sahel region of Africa. It is a main staple (along with sorghum) in a large region of northern Nigeria, Niger, Mali and Burkina Faso. In Nigeria it is usually grown as an intercrop with sorghum and cowpea, the different growth habits, growth period and drought vulnerability of the three crops maximising total productivity and minimising the risk of total crop failure. It is often ground into a flour, rolled into large balls, parboiled, liquefied into a watery paste using fermented milk, and then consumed as a beverage. This beverage, called "fura" in Hausa, is a popular drink in northern Nigeria and southern Niger. Pearl millet is a food widely used in Borno state and its surrounding states, it is the most widely grown and harvested crop. There are many products that are obtained from the processing of the crop.

In Namibia, pearl millet is locally known as "mahangu" and is grown mainly in the north of that country, where it is the staple food. In the dry, unpredictable climate of this area it grows better than alternatives such as maize. The regions in which this crop is produced are: Zambezi, Kavango East, Kavango West, Ohangwena, Omusati, Oshana, Oshikoto, and; in parts of the Otjozondjupa region, in the Tsumkwe area.{{Cite web |title=Mahangu {{!}} Agronomic Services|url=https://www.nab.com.na/agronomy/mahangu/ |access-date=2023-05-16 |website=Namibian Agronomic Board (NAB)|language=en-US}}

Mahangu is usually made into a porridge called "oshifima" (or "oshithima"), or fermented to make a drink called "ontaku" or "oshikundu".

Traditionally, the mahangu is pounded with heavy pieces of wood in a 'pounding area'. The floor of the pounding area is covered with a concrete-like coating made from the material of termite mounds. As a result, some sand and grit gets into the pounded mahangu, so products like oshifima are usually swallowed without chewing.{{cite web |url=http://www.holidaytravel.com.na/index.php?fArticleId=222 |title=Venture Publications - Namibia Holiday & Travel |access-date=2006-05-19 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130221062826/http://www.holidaytravel.com.na/index.php?fArticleId=222 |archive-date=2013-02-21 }}{{Failed verification|date=November 2007}} After pounding, winnowing may be used to remove the chaff.

Some industrial grain processing facilities now exist, such as those operated by Namib Mills. Efforts are also being made to develop smaller scale processing using food extrusion and other methods. In a food extruder, the mahangu is milled into a paste before being forced through metal die. Products made this way include breakfast cereals, including puffed grains and porridge, pasta shapes, and "rice".{{cite web|title=Enhancing food security in Namibia through value-added products|url=http://www.csir.co.za/biochemtek/newsletter/mar/food_security.html|publisher=Council for Scientific and Industrial Research|access-date=4 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051206060459/http://www.csir.co.za/biochemtek/newsletter/mar/food_security.html|archive-date=6 December 2005|date=March 2003}} Pearl millet is also a vital feedstock for cattle, goats and chickens which can also be explored as an enterprise.{{Cite web |title=Welcome to the Namibian Agronomic Board (NAB) |url=https://www.nab.com.na/ |access-date=2023-05-16 |website=NAB |language=en-US}}

Recently more productive varieties of pearl millet have been introduced, enabling farmers to increase production considerably.{{cite book |author=Board on Science and Technology for International Development|author2=Office of International Affairs |author3=National Research Council (United States) |title=Lost Crops of Africa: Volume I: Grains |url=http://books.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=2305 |access-date=2007-11-07 |volume=1 |date=1996-02-14 |publisher=National Academies Press|isbn=978-0-309-04990-0 |chapter=Pearl Millet: Subsistence Types |chapter-url=http://books.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=2305&page=93 |page=108 }}

To combat the problem of micronutrient malnutrition in Africa and Asia, a study of serving iron-biofortified pearl millets which is bred conventionally without genetic modification to a control group is proved to have higher level of iron absorbance by the group.{{cite news|last=Munyaradzi|first=Makoni|title=Biofortified pearl millet 'can combat iron deficiency'|url=http://www.scidev.net/sub-saharan-africa/nutrition/news/biofortified-pearl-millet-can-combat-iron-deficiency.html|access-date=29 August 2013|newspaper=SciDev Net|date=29 August 2013}}

Around 1000 pearl millet genotypes (including 31 wild genotypes) have been sequenced, identifying the genetic diversity of this staple crop and aiding breeding to select for particular characteristics. A reference genotype of pearl millet ({{Vanchor|Tift 23D2B1-P1-P5}}) has been fully sequenced, which holds around 38,579 genes. Some of these genes are for wax biosynthesis, which is known to be involved in tolerance to abiotic stresses in pearl millet.{{cite book | year=2020 | page = 270 | publication-place=Cham, Switzerland | publisher=Springer International Publishing | last=Kole | first=Chittaranjan | editor-first1 = Chittaranjan | editor-last1 = Kole | title=Genomic Designing of Climate-Smart Cereal Crops | doi=10.1007/978-3-319-93381-8| isbn = 978-3-319-93380-1 }}{{Cite journal|last1=K Varshney|first1=Rajeev|last2=Shi|first2=Chengcheng|last3=Thudi|first3=Mahendar|last4=Cedric|first4=Mariac|last5=Wallace|first5=Jason|last6=Qi|first6=Peng|last7=Zhang|first7=He|last8=Zhao|first8=Yusheng|last9=Wang|first9=Xiyin|display-authors=3|date=2018-04-05|title=Erratum: Pearl millet genome sequence provides a resource to improve agronomic traits in arid environments|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/324250226|journal=Nature Biotechnology|volume=36|issue=4|pages=368|doi=10.1038/nbt0418-368d|s2cid=4608024|doi-access=free}}

The International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics is evaluating crop wild relatives and will introgress abiotic tolerant traits into cultivated genotypes and make them available for pearl millet improvement.{{Cite journal|language=en|date=2021|publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.|display-authors=3 |last1=Sharma|first1=Shiv|issue=1ali|last2=Sharma|first2=Rajan|last3=Govindaraj|first3=Mahalingam|last4=Mahala|first4=Rajendra Singh|last5=Satyavathi|first5=C. Tara|last6=Srivastava|first6=Rakesh K.|last7=Gumma|first7=Murali Krishna|last8=Kilian|first8=Benjamin|volume=61|pages=177–200|title=Harnessing wild relatives of pearl millet for germplasm enhancement: Challenges and opportunities|s2cid=224875047|doi=10.1002/csc2.20343|journal=Crop Science|issn=1435-0653|id=Crop Science Society of America (CSSA)|doi-access=free}}

A 2015 study provided a genetic map.{{Cite journal|issue=2|year=2018|publisher=Taylor & Francis|volume=32|pages=221–240|first2=Yukihiro|first1=Hiroaki|last2=Sugimoto|last1=Samejima|journal=Biotechnology & Biotechnological Equipment|issn=1310-2818|doi=10.1080/13102818.2017.1420427|title=Recent research progress in combatting root parasitic weeds|doi-access=free}}{{Cite journal|issue=1|year=2015|first7=F.|first6=B.|first5=Y.|first4=C.|first3=M.|first2=B.|first1=K.|volume=35|last7=Belzile|last6=Haussmann|last5=Vigouroux|last4=Hash|last3=Jean|last2=Kountche|last1=Moumouni|journal=Molecular Breeding|issn=1380-3743|doi=10.1007/s11032-015-0212-x|id=National Key Laboratory of Crop Genetic Improvement at Huazhong Agricultural University|title=Construction of a genetic map for pearl millet, Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R. Br., using a genotyping-by-sequencing (GBS) approach|url=http://oar.icrisat.org/9112/1/MolBreeding_35_5_2015.pdf }}

{{See also|List of pearl millet diseases}}

Insect pests include Anoecia corni, An. cornicola, Anoecia fulviabdominalis, An. vagans, Aphis gossypii, Forda hirsuta, F. orientalis, Geoica utricularia, Hysteroneura setariae, Melanaphis sacchari, Protaphis middletonii, Rhopalosiphum maidis, R. rufiabdominale, Schizaphis graminum, Sipha elegans, Sipha maydis, Sitobion avenae, Sit. leelamaniae, Sit. pauliani, Tetraneura africana, Tetraneura basui, Tetraneura fusiformis, and T. yezoensis.{{ Cite book|year=2017|publication-place=London, United Kingdom San Diego, CA, USA|publisher=Academic Press|first4=J.|first3=V.|first2=P.|first1=A.|last4=Patil|pages=xiii+190|last3=Bhagwat|last2=Padmaja|last1=Kalaisekar|isbn=978-0-12-804285-4|oclc=967265246|title=Insect Pests of Millets: Systematics, Bionomics, and Management}}{{ RP |page=93}}

The larvae of several insect species, primarily belonging to the orders Coleoptera, Lepidoptera, Diptera, and Hemiptera, as well as Orthoptera adults, are persistent pearl millet pests in the Sahel.S. Krall, O. Youm, and S. A. Kogo. [http://ispi-lit.cirad.fr/text/Krall95a.htm Panicle insect pest damage and yield loss in pearl millet].Jago, N. D. 1993. Millet pests of the Sahel: biology, monitoring and control. Chatham, UK: Natural Resources Institute. 66 pp. {{ISBN|0-85954-349-8}}.Matthews, M. and N. D. Jago. 1993. Millet pests of the Sahel: an identification guide, Chatham, UK: Natural Resources Institute. (80 p.) {{ISBN|0-85954-331-5}}. The following pest species are reported for northern Mali.{{cite web| last=Heath |first=Jeffrey |author-link=Jeffrey Heath |title=Guide to insects, arthropods, and molluscs of northern Dogon country |url=https://dogonlanguages.org/sources/insectarthropodmolluscnotesmalijh|year=2009}}{{cite journal|last2=Reddy|last1=Gahukar|first2=Gadi V. P.|first1=Ruparao T.|title=Management of Economically Important Insect Pests of Millet|journal=Journal of Integrated Pest Management |year=2019 |volume=10 |issue=1:28 |pages=1–10 |doi=10.1093/jipm/pmz026|doi-access=free}}

• Coniesta ignefusalis (pearl millet stem-borer; Lepidoptera, Crambidae) attacks pearl millet, and also sorghum and maize, especially in the Sahel. It is the main pearl millet pest in Senegal.
• Heliocheilus albipunctella (pearl millet head-miner; Lepidoptera, Noctuidae) attacks pearl millet. The larvae bore in a spiral path, destroying florets or grain.
• Geromyia penniseti (millet grain midge): The larvae eat the developing grain and form white pupal cases attached to the tips of spikelets. Reported losses in Senegal are as high as 90 percent.
• Pachnoda interrupta (millet beetle)
• Psalydolytta fusca and Ps. vestita (pearl millet blister beetle; Coleoptera, Meloidae) attack pearl millet. They are major millet pests in Mali.
• Rhinyptia infuscata (Scarabaeidae, Rutelinae, Anomalini) is a nocturnal beetle, recorded as a locally important pest on millet flowers in Niger. Farmers in Niger often fight the species using fires set at night. It is also reported as sorghum pest in Senegal, and as a pest on maize, where the larvae attack the roots.
• Sesamia calamistis (pink stem borer), especially in lowland forests. This species and the sugarcane borer (Eldana saccharina) are the primary pests of the pearl millet in Ivory Coast.{{cn|date=September 2022}}
• gall midges (Diptera, Cecidomyiidae): millet grain midge (Geromyia penniseti), sorghum midge (Contarinia sorghicola), and African rice gall midge (Orseolia oryzivora).
• Dysdercus volkeri (cotton-stainer; Hemiptera, Pyrrhocoridae) attacks flowers.

Grasshoppers that frequently attack millets in the Dogon country of Mali are Oedaleus senegalensis, Kraussaria angulifera, Cataloipus cymbiferus, and Diabolocatantops axillaris.

In northern Ghana, Poophilus costalis (spittle bug) is reported as a millet pest, as well as Dysdercus volkeri, Heliocheilus albipunctella, Coniesta ignefusalis, and caterpillars of Amsacta moloneyi and Helicoverpa armigera.{{cite journal | doi=10.1080/096708797228825 | title=Insect pests of millet in Northern Ghana. 1. Farmers' perceptions and damage potential | year=1997 | last1=Tanzubil | first1=Paul B. | last2=Yakubu | first2=Emmanuel A. | journal=International Journal of Pest Management| volume=43 | issue=2 | pages=133–136 }}

In northern Nigeria, heavy infestations of Hycleus species, including Hycleus terminatus (syn. Mylabris afzelli), Hycleus fimbriatus (syn. Mylabris fimbriatus), Hycleus hermanniae (syn. Coryna hermanniae), and Hycleus chevrolati (syn. Coryna chevrolati), have affected early plantings of pearl millet crops.{{cite journal |vauthors=Lale N, Sastawa BM |year=2000 |title=Evaluation of host plant resistance, sowing date modification and intercropping as methods for the control of Mylabris and Coryna species (Coleoptera: Meloidae) infesting pearl millet in the Nigerian Sudan savanna |journal=J. Arid Environ.|volume=46 |issue=3 |pages=263–280 |issn=0140-1963 |doi=10.1006/jare.2000.0690|bibcode=2000JArEn..46..263L }}

In South India, pests include the shoot fly Atherigona approximata.{{cite journal |vauthors=Natarajan US, Raja V, Selvaraj S, Anavardham L |year=1973 |title=Extent of damage caused by shoot fly (Atherigona approximate) on bajra hybrid |journal=Madras Agric. J.|volume=60 |pages=584–585}}

In North America, regular pests include the chinch bug Blissus leucopterus.{{cite journal|vauthors=Starks KJ, Cassady AJ, Merkle OG, Boozaya-Angoon D |year=1982 |title=Chinch bug resistance in pearl millet |journal=Journal of Economic Entomology|volume=75|issue=2 |pages=337–339|doi=10.1093/jee/75.2.337}}

File:Checking pearl millet crop.jpg|alt=Agronomist, Zimbabwe checks the crop|Agronomist, Zimbabwe

File:Mahangu poundin.jpg|Mahangu pounding in Namibia

File:Mahangu pounding.jpg|Mahangu pounding in Namibia

File:Making dough from flour (10692692875).jpg|Flour mill, Tanzania

{{Reflist}}

• [http://books.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=2305&page=77 Lost Crops of Africa: Volume I: Grains, Chapters 4-6] - released by the National Research Council in 1996

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Category:Cenchrus

Category:Grasses of Africa

Category:Millets

Category:Crops originating from Africa

Category:Fodder

Category:Sahel

Category:Cereals