Tamils

Tamil is derived from the name of the language.{{cite web|title=Tamil, n. and adj.|url=https://www.oed.com/view/Entry/197399?redirectedFrom=tamil|work=Oxford University Press|access-date=24 January 2023|archive-date=31 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240331201359/https://www.oed.com/dictionary/tamil_n|url-status=live}} The people are referred to as {{transliteration|ta|ISO|Tamiḻar}} in Tamil language, which is etymologically linked to the name of the language.{{cite book|title=Bhutan: Ways of Knowing|date=December 2008|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q_snDwAAQBAJ&dq=Tamils+or+tamilians&pg=PA247|publisher=Information Age Publishing|editor=Frank Rennie, Robin Mason|page=247|isbn=978-1-60752-824-1|quote=Tamilians, a group living in the southern state of Tamil Nadu.|access-date=19 August 2023|archive-date=18 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230918041800/https://books.google.com/books?id=q_snDwAAQBAJ&dq=Tamils+or+tamilians&pg=PA247|url-status=live}} The origin and precise etymology of the word Tamil is unclear with multiple theories attested to it.{{cite book|first=Kamil|last=Zvelebil|author-link=Kamil Zvelebil|year=1973|title=The smile of Murugan: on Tamil literature of South India|publisher=Brill Publishers|location=Leiden|isbn=978-3-447-01582-0|pages=11–12}} Kamil Zvelebil suggests that the term tamiz might have been derived from tam meaning "self" and "-iz" having the connotation of "unfolding sound". Alternatively, he suggests a derivation of tamiz < tam-iz < *tav-iz < *tak-iz, meaning "the proper process (of speaking)".{{sfn|Zvelebil|1992|p=10-16}} Franklin Southworth suggests that the name comes from tam-miz > tam-iz meaning "self-speak", or "our own speech".{{cite journal|last=Southworth|first=Franklin|author-link=Franklin Southworth|title=On the Origin of the word tamiz|year=1998|journal=International Journal of Dravidial Linguistics|volume=27|issue=1|pages=129–32}}

It is unknown whether the term Tamila and its equivalents in Prakrit such as Damela, Damila, or Tamira was first used as a self designation or by outsiders. The Hathigumpha inscription from Udayagiri in Eastern India dated to the second century BCE,{{cite book |author=Alain Daniélou |title=A Brief History of India |url=https://archive.org/details/briefhistoryofin00dani|url-access=registration |date=11 February 2003 |publisher=Inner Traditions|isbn=978-1-59477-794-3 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/briefhistoryofin00dani/page/139 139]–141}}{{cite book |author=Rama Shankar Tripathi |title=History of Ancient India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rOVpOG6MPMcC&pg=PA199 |year=1942 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-8-12080-018-2 |pages=199–201}} describes a T[r]amira samghata (Confederacy of Tamil rulers), which was in existence for the previous 113 years.{{cite book |author1=K. P. Jayaswal |author2=R. D. Banerji |title=Epigraphia Indica Volume XX |year=1920 |url=https://archive.org/details/epigrahiaindicav014769mbp |publisher=Archaeological Survey of India|pages=86–89}} Epigraphical evidence from the second century BCE mentioning Damela or Dameda from ancient Sri Lanka have been found.{{sfn|Indarapala|2007|p=155-156}} In the Buddhist Jataka texts, there is a mention of a Damila-rattha (Tamil dynasty).{{cite book|title=The Pali Literature of Burma|author=Mabel Haynes Bode|year=1909|page=39}}{{cite book|title=The Jātaka: together with its commentary, being tales of the anterior births of Gotama Buddha|author=Dines Andersen|year=1992|publisher=University of California|page=66}} Greek historian Strabo (first century BCE) mentions that the Roman Emperor Augustus received an ambassador from Pandyan of Dramira.{{cite book|title=Jesus of Nazareth: The Deep State of Rome|author=Tomás Morales y Durán|year=2020|isbn=979-8-56272-624-7|publisher=Amazon Digital Services|page=27}} An inscription from Amaravati dated to third century CE refers to a Dhamila-vaniya (Tamil trader).{{cite book|title=Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature: Sasay to Zorgot|editor-first=Mohan|editor-last=Lal|page=4283|publisher=Sahitya Akademi|year=1992}}

{{See also|History of Tamil Nadu|Sources of ancient Tamil history}}

Archaeological evidence suggests the region was first inhabited by hominids over 400 millennia ago.{{cite news|url=https://www.sciencenews.org/article/sharp-stones-found-india-signal-surprisingly-early-toolmaking-advances|title=Science News : Archaeology – Anthropology : Sharp stones found in India signal surprisingly early toolmaking advances|access-date=9 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180209183736/https://www.sciencenews.org/article/sharp-stones-found-india-signal-surprisingly-early-toolmaking-advances|archive-date=9 February 2018|url-status=live|date=31 January 2018}}{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/speaking-of-science/wp/2018/02/01/very-old-very-sophisticated-tools-found-in-india-the-question-is-who-made-them/|title= Very old, very sophisticated tools found in India. The question is: Who made them?|newspaper=The Washington Post|access-date=9 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180210201237/https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/speaking-of-science/wp/2018/02/01/very-old-very-sophisticated-tools-found-in-india-the-question-is-who-made-them/|archive-date=10 February 2018|url-status=live}} Artifacts recovered in Adichanallur by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) indicate megalithic urn burials, dating from back to 1500 BCE.,{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/science/skeletons-dating-back-3800-years-throw-light-on-evolution/articleshow/1354201.cms|title=Skeletons dating back 3,800 years throw light on evolution|access-date=11 June 2008|newspaper=The Times of India|date=1 January 2006|archive-date=24 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181124105726/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/msid-1354201,prtpage-1.cms|url-status=live}}{{cite web|last=John|first=Vino|title=Reading the past in a more inclusive way: Interview with Dr. Sudharshan Seneviratne|work=Frontline|date=27 January 2006|url=http://www.flonnet.com/fl2301/stories/20060127003610200.htm|access-date=9 July 2008|quote=But Indian/south Indian history/archaeology has pushed the date back to 1500 B.C., and in Sri Lanka, there are definitely good radiometric dates coming from Anuradhapura that the non-Brahmi symbol-bearing black and red ware occur at least around 900 B.C. or 1000 B.C.|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090202174036/http://www.flonnet.com/fl2301/stories/20060127003610200.htm|archive-date=2 February 2009 }}{{sfn|Sastri|2002|p=67}} which are also described in early Tamil literature.{{cite journal|first=K. De B.|last=Codrington|date=October 1930|title=Indian Cairn- and Urn-Burials|journal=Man|volume=30|issue=30|pages=190–196|doi =10.2307/2790468|quote = It is necessary to draw attention to certain passages in early Tamil literature which throw a great deal of light upon this strange burial ceremonial ...|jstor=2790468}} Neolithic celts with the Indus script dated between 15th and 20th century BCE indicate the use of early Harappan language.{{cite news|last1=T|first1=Saravanan|date=22 February 2018|title=How a recent archaeological discovery throws light on the history of Tamil script|url=https://www.thehindu.com/society/10th-century-ce-oil-press-discovered-near-andipatti-with-a-tamil-script/article22814589.ece|access-date=26 February 2018|archive-date=9 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201109005047/https://www.thehindu.com/society/10th-century-ce-oil-press-discovered-near-andipatti-with-a-tamil-script/article22814589.ece|url-status=live }}{{cite news|title=the eternal harappan script|url=http://www.openthemagazine.com/article/india/the-eternal-harappan-script-tease|date=27 November 2014|work=Open magazine|access-date=24 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190324134658/http://www.openthemagazine.com/article/india/the-eternal-harappan-script-tease|archive-date=24 March 2019|url-status=live}} Excavations at Keezhadi have revealed a large urban settlement, with the earliest artefact dated to 580 BCE, during the time of urbanization in the Indo-Gangetic plain.{{cite web|date=21 August 2020|title=Keezhadi sixth phase: What do the findings so far tell us?|url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/keezhadi-sixth-phase-what-do-findings-so-far-tell-us-131269|access-date=31 January 2021|work=The News Minute|archive-date=24 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210124023909/https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/keezhadi-sixth-phase-what-do-findings-so-far-tell-us-131269|url-status=live|first=Anjana|last=Shekar }} Further epigraphical inscriptions found at Adichanallur use Tamil Brahmi, a rudimentary script dated to 5th century BCE.{{cite web|url=https://frontline.thehindu.com/other/article30205148.ece|title=A rare inscription|work=Frontline|date=1 July 2009|access-date=1 June 2023|archive-date=22 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230922154651/https://frontline.thehindu.com/other/article30205148.ece|url-status=live}} Potsherds uncovered from Keeladi indicate a script which might be a transition between the Indus Valley script and Tamil Brahmi script used later.{{cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/science/artefacts-with-tamil-brahmi-script-unearthed-at-keeladi-to-find-a-special-place-in-museum/article66529594.ece|title=Artifacts unearthed at Keeladi to find a special place in museum|date=19 February 2023|newspaper=The Hindu|access-date=1 December 2023|archive-date=14 November 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231114173611/https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/science/artefacts-with-tamil-brahmi-script-unearthed-at-keeladi-to-find-a-special-place-in-museum/article66529594.ece|url-status=live}}

{{Main|Sangam period}}

{{Further|Tamilakam|Sangam landscape|Economy of ancient Tamil country}}

File:South India in Sangam Period.jpg during Sangam period]]

The Sangam period lasted from 3rd century BCE to 3rd century CE with the main source of history during the period coming from the various Sangam literature.{{cite news|last=Jesudasan|first=Dennis S.|date=20 September 2019|title=Keezhadi excavations: Sangam era older than previously thought, finds study|newspaper=The Hindu|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/keeladi-findings-traceable-to-6th-century-bc-report/article29461583.ece|access-date=12 August 2021|issn=0971-751X|archive-date=3 June 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240603082058/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/keeladi-findings-traceable-to-6th-century-bce-report/article29461583.ece|url-status=live}}{{cite book|last=Joshi|first=Anjali|title=Social and Cultural History of Ancient India|publisher=Online Gatha|date=2017|pages=123–136|isbn=978-9-386-35269-9}} Ancient Tamilakam was ruled by a triumvirate of monarchical states, Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas.{{cite web|url=https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/three-crowned-kings-tamilakam/|title=Three Crowned Kings of Tamilakam|work=National Geographic Society|access-date=1 December 2023|archive-date=24 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231224093728/https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/three-crowned-kings-tamilakam/|url-status=live}} These kings are referred to as Vāṉpukaḻ Mūvar (Three glorified by heaven) in the Sangam literature.{{cite book|last=A. Kiruṭṭin̲an̲|title=Tamil culture: religion, culture, and literature|year=2000|publisher=Bharatiya Kala Prakashan|page=17}} The Cheras controlled the western part of Tamilkam, the Pandyas controlled the south, and the Cholas had their base in the Kaveri delta.{{sfn|Sastri|2002|p=109}}{{sfn|Singh|2008|p=425}} They are mentioned in the inscriptions from the Mauryan Empire dated to third century BCE.{{cite web|title=The Edicts of King Ashoka|url=https://www.cs.colostate.edu/~malaiya/ashoka.html|access-date=1 November 2023|work=Colorado State University|quote=Everywhere within Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi's domain, and among the people beyond the borders, the Cholas, the Pandyas, the Satyaputras, the Keralaputras, as far as Tamraparni|archive-date=11 May 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511083821/http://www.cs.colostate.edu/~malaiya/ashoka.html|url-status=live}} Kalinga inscriptions from the second century BCE refers to a confederacy of the Tamil kingdoms.{{cite web|title=Hathigumpha Inscription|work=Epigraphia Indica, Vol. XX (1929–1930). Delhi, 1933, pp. 86–89|url=http://www.mssu.edu/projectsouthasia/HISTORY/PRIMARYDOCS/EPIGRAPHY/HathigumphaInscription.htm|publisher=Missouri Southern State University|access-date=15 November 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061117151339/http://www.mssu.edu/projectsouthasia/HISTORY/PRIMARYDOCS/EPIGRAPHY/HathigumphaInscription.htm|archive-date=17 November 2006|url-status=dead}} The three kings called Vendhar ruled over several hill tribes headed by the Velir chiefs and settlements headed by clan chiefs called Kizhar.{{cite book|title=Perspectives on Kerala History|editor=P.J. Cherian|url=http://www.keralahistory.ac.in/historicalantecedents.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060826094724/http://www.keralahistory.ac.in/historicalantecedents.htm|archive-date=26 August 2006|publisher=Kerala Council for Historical Research|access-date=15 November 2006|quote=There were three levels of redistribution corresponding to the three categories of chieftains, namely: the Ventar, Velir and Kilar in descending order. Ventar were the chieftains of the three major lineages, viz Cera, Cola and Pandya. Velir were mostly hill chieftains, while Kilar were the headmen of settlements ...}} The rulers of smaller territories were referred to as Kurunilamannar, with Purananuru mentioning the names of many such chieftains.{{cite journal|first=K.|last=Sivathamby|date=December 1974|title=Early South Indian Society and Economy: The Tinai Concept|journal=Social Scientist|volume=3|issue=5|pages=20–37|quote=Those who ruled over small territories were called Kurunilamannar. The area ruled by such a small ruler usually corresponded to a geographical unit. In Purananuru a number of such chieftains are mentioned;..|doi=10.2307/3516448|jstor=3516448}}

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|image2=Souttoukeny, sarcofago da una sepoltura megalitica, II sec. ac..JPG| burial from Tamil Nadu

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The Sangam period rulers patronized multiple religions including vedic religion, Buddhism and Jainism and sponsored some of the earliest Tamil literature with the oldest surviving work being Tolkāppiyam, a book of Tamil grammar.{{cite journal|author= Kamil Zvelebil|title=Comments on the Tolkappiyam Theory of Literature|journal=Archiv Orientální|volume=59|year=1991|pages= 345–359}} Purananuru describes the public life and various unique cultural practices that existed during the period. The text talks about the Vedic Sacrifices performed by the kings as described in the Vedas and the rituals performed for the dead.{{cite web|url=https://www.poetrynook.com/poem/purananuru-part-224|title=Poem: Purananuru - Part 224 by George L. III Hart|work=Poetrynook|access-date=1 June 2024|archive-date=14 September 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240914125839/https://www.poetrynook.com/poem/purananuru-part-224|url-status=live}}{{cite web|url=https://www.poetrynook.com/poem/purananuru-part-231|title=Poem: Purananuru - Part 231 by George L. III Hart|work=Poetrynook|access-date=1 June 2024|archive-date=27 February 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240227150131/https://www.poetrynook.com/poem/purananuru-part-231|url-status=live}}

File:Periplous_of_the_Erythraean_Sea.svg]]

Agriculture was an important occupation during the period, and there is evidence that networks of irrigation channels were built as early as the 3rd century BCE. The Sangam literature describe fertile lands and people organised into various occupational groups. The governance of the land was through hereditary monarchies, although the sphere of the state's activities and the extent of the ruler's powers were limited through the adherence to an established order.{{cite journal|first=M. G. S.|last=Narayanan|date=September 1988|title=The Role of Peasants in the Early History of Tamilakam in South India|journal=Social Scientist|volume=16|issue=9|pages=17–34|doi=10.2307/3517170|jstor=3517170}}{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9021884/Cauvery-River|title=Grand Anaicut|encyclopedia=Britannica|access-date=3 May 2006|archive-date=26 July 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080726171728/http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9021884/Cauvery-River|url-status=live}}

The kingdoms had significant diplomatic and trade contacts with other kingdoms to the north and with the Romans. Roman coins and other epigraphical evidence from South India and potsherds with Tamil writing found in excavations along the Red Sea indicate the presence of Roman commerce with the ancient Tamilakam.{{cite web|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/explained-history/william-dalrymple-maritime-trade-route-india-europe-silk-road-8935580/|title=The ancient history behind the maritime trade route between India and Europe|author=William Dalrymple|date=23 September 2023|access-date=1 June 2024|work=The Indian Express|archive-date=15 February 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240215134525/https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/explained-history/william-dalrymple-maritime-trade-route-india-europe-silk-road-8935580/|url-status=live}}{{cite web|title=On the Roman Trail |url=http://www.hindu.com/mp/2008/01/21/stories/2008012150370500.htm |access-date=9 June 2010 |work=The Hindu |date=21 January 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121110160411/http://www.hindu.com/mp/2008/01/21/stories/2008012150370500.htm |archive-date=10 November 2012 }} Much of the commerce from the Romans and Han China were facilitated via seaports including Muziris and Korkai with spices being the most prized goods along with pearls and silk.{{sfn|Sastri|2002|p=125-127}}{{cite journal|url=https://online.ucpress.edu/gastronomica/issue/7/2|title=The Medieval Spice Trade and the Diffusion of the Chile|date=26 October 2021|journal=Gastronomica|volume=7|access-date=31 January 2021|archive-date=26 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211026111301/https://online.ucpress.edu/gastronomica/issue/7/2|url-status=live}} There is evidence of emissaries sent to the Roman Emperor Augustus by the Pandya kings. An anonymous Greek traveler's account from first century CE, Periplus Maris Erytraei, describes the ports of the Pandya and Chera kingdoms in Damirica and their commercial activity in detail. It also describes that the chief exports of the ancient Tamils were pepper, malabathrum, pearls, ivory, silk, spikenard, diamonds, sapphires, and tortoiseshell.{{cite book|url=http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/periplus.html|title=The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea: Travel and Trade in the Indian Ocean by a Merchant of the First Century|author=W.H. Schoff|year=1912|access-date=7 December 2006|archive-date=14 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140814160845/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/periplus.html|url-status=live}}

File:Five Rathas - Mahabalipuram.jpg monuments in Mahabalipuram built by the Pallavas]]

From the fourth century CE, the region was ruled by the Kalabhras, warriors belonging to the Vellalar community, who were once feudatories of the three ancient Tamil kingdoms.{{cite book|last=Chakrabarty|first=D.K.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EIAyDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT84|title=The Geopolitical Orbits of Ancient India: The Geographical Frames of the Ancient Indian Dynasties|publisher=Oxford|year=2010|isbn=978-0-199-08832-4|page=84|access-date=23 December 2023|archive-date=4 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231004104153/https://books.google.com/books?id=EIAyDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT84|url-status=live}} The Kalabhra era is referred to as the "dark period" of Tamil history, and information about it is generally inferred from any mentions in the literature and inscriptions that are dated many centuries after their era ended.{{cite book|author=T.V. Mahalingam|title= Proceedings of the Second Annual Conference|year=1981|publisher= South Indian History Congress|pages=28–34}} Around the seventh century CE, the Kalabhras were overthrown by the Pandyas and Cholas.{{sfn|Sastri|2002|p=333}}{{cite journal|first=Marilyn|last=Hirsh|year=1987|title=Mahendravarman I Pallava: Artist and Patron of Mamallapuram|journal=Artibus Asiae|volume=48|issue=1/2|pages=109–130|doi=10.2307/3249854|jstor=3249854}} Though they existed previously, the period saw the rise of the Pallavas in the sixth century CE under Mahendravarman I, who ruled parts of South India with Kanchipuram as their capital.{{cite journal|last=Francis|first=Emmanuel|date=28 October 2021|title=Pallavas|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9781119399919.eahaa00499|journal=The Encyclopedia of Ancient History|pages=1–4|doi=10.1002/9781119399919.eahaa00499|isbn=978-1-119-39991-9|s2cid=240189630|access-date=23 December 2023|archive-date=28 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328171504/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781119399919.eahaa00499|url-status=live}} The Pallavas were noted for their patronage of architecture. Throughout their reign, the Pallavas remained in constant conflict with the Cholas, the Pandyas and other kingdoms of Chalukyas of Badami and the Rashtrakutas.{{sfn|Sastri|2002|p=135-140}} The Pandyas were revived by Kadungon towards the end of the sixth century CE and with the Cholas in obscurity in Uraiyur, the Tamil country was divided between the Pallavas and the Pandyas.{{cite encyclopedia|title=Pandya dynasty|encyclopedia=Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Pandya-dynasty|access-date=1 December 2023|archive-date=5 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201005225758/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Pandya-dynasty/|url-status=live}} The area west of the Western Ghats became increasingly distinct from the eastern parts.{{cite journal|last=Freeman|first=Rich|date=February 1998|title=Rubies and Coral: The Lapidary Crafting of Language in Kerala|journal=The Journal of Asian Studies|volume=57|issue=1|pages=38–65|doi=10.2307/2659023|jstor=2659023|s2cid=162294036|doi-access=free}} A new language Malayalam evolved from Tamil in the region and the socio-cultural transformation was altered further by the migration of Sanskrit-speaking Indo-Aryans from Northern India in the eighth century CE.{{cite book|title=Social and cultural history of Tamilnad|last=Subrahmanian|first=N.|date=1993|publisher=Ennes|page=209}}{{cite book|title=Medieval Indian Literature: Surveys and selections|last=Paniker|first=K. Ayyappa|date=1997|publisher=Sahitya Akademi|isbn=978-8-12600-365-5|pages=299–300}}

File:Rajendra map new.svg at its greatest extent, during the reign of Rajendra Chola I in 1030]]

The Cholas were revived in the ninth century CE by Vijayalaya Chola and the last Pallavas ruler Aparajitavarman was defeated by the Chola prince Aditya I.{{cite journal|title=The Pallavas|first=Gabriel|last=Jouveau-Dubreuil|journal=Asian Educational Services|year=1995|page=83}} After the defeat of the Pallavas, the Cholas became the dominant kingdom with the capital at Thanjavur. The Chola influence expanded subsequently with Rajaraja I conquering the entire Southern India and parts of present-day Sri Lanka and Maldives, and increased Chola influence across the Indian Ocean in the eleventh century CE.{{cite book|title=Coins of the Cholas|publisher=Numismatic Society of India|first=Charles Hubert|last=Biddulph|year=1964|page=34}}{{cite book|title=Atlas of the year 1000|publisher=Harvard University Press|author=John Man|year=1999|page=104|isbn=978-0-674-54187-0}} Rajaraja brought in administrative reforms including the reorganisation of Tamil country into individual administrative units.{{sfn|Singh|2008|p=590}} Under his son Rajendra Chola I, the Chola empire reached its zenith and stretched as far as Bengal in the north and across the Indian Ocean.{{cite book|last=Thapar|first=Romila|author-link=Romila Thapar|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gyiqZKDlSBMC|title=The Penguin History of Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300|publisher=Penguin Books|year=2003|isbn=978-0-143-02989-2|pages=364–365|orig-year=2002|access-date=23 December 2023|archive-date=28 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328171526/https://books.google.com/books?id=gyiqZKDlSBMC|url-status=live}} He defeated the Eastern Chalukyas and the Chola navy invaded the Srivijaya Empire in South East Asia.{{cite book|last = Smith|first= Vincent Arthur|title=The Early History of India|year=1904|publisher= Clarendon Press|pages = 336–358|isbn = 978-8-17156-618-1}} The Cholas had trade links with the Chinese Song Dynasty and across Southeast Asia.{{cite book|last = Srivastava|first=Balram|title=Rajendra Chola|year=1973|publisher=National Book Trust|page=80|quote=The mission which Rajendra sent to China was essentially a trade mission, ...}}{{cite book|last = Curtin|first= Philip D.|title=Cross-Cultural Trade in World History|year=1984|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=101|isbn=978-0-521-26931-5}} The Cholas built many temples with the most notable being the Brihadisvara Temple at Thanjavur.{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/250/|title=Great Living Chola Temples|publisher=UNESCO|access-date=1 December 2023|archive-date=12 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150912082313/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/250/|url-status=live}} The latter half of the eleventh century saw the union of Chola and Vengi kingdoms under Kulottunga I.{{cite book|title=The Cambridge Shorter History of India|author1=John Allan|author2=Wolseley Haig|author3=Henry Dodwell|year=1934|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=191|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.283073}} The Cholas repulsed attacks from the Western Chalukyas and maintained its influence over the various kingdoms of Southeast Asia.{{sfn|Sen|1999|p=485}}{{cite book|title=Nagapattinam to Suvarnadwipa: Reflections on the Chola Naval Expeditions to Southeast Asia|editor-last1=Kulke|editor-first1=Hermann|editor-last2=Kesavapany|editor-first2=K.|editor-last3=Sakhuja|editor-first3=Vijay|publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies|year=2009|pages=11–12}} According to historian Nilakanta Sastri, Kulottunga avoided unnecessary wars and had a long and prosperous reign characterized by unparalleled success that laid the foundations of the empire for the next 150 years.{{cite book|author=Nilakanta Sastri|author-link=Nilakanta Sastri|title=The Cōḷas|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eg9uAAAAMAAJ|year=1955|publisher=University of Madras|page=301|access-date=9 May 2019|archive-date=14 September 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240914124121/https://books.google.com.tr/books?id=eg9uAAAAMAAJ&redir_esc=y|url-status=live}}

File:Pandya Kingdom (south India).png (13th century CE)]]

The eventual decline of Chola power began towards the end of Kulottunga III's reign in the thirteenth century CE. The Pandyas again reigned supreme under Maravarman Sundara I and defeated the Cholas under Rajaraja III.{{cite book|last=Aiyangar|first=Sakkottai Krishnaswami|title=South India and her Muhammadan Invaders|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1921|page=44}} Though the Cholas were revived briefly with the aid of Hoysalas, civil war between Rajaraja and Rajendra III weakened them further.{{cite book|title=The Land, Peasantry, and Peasant Life in India New Direction, Renewed Debate|editor=S. Jeyaseela Stephen|publisher=Manak Publications|page=87|year=2008}} With the Hoysalas later siding with the Pandyas, the Pandyas consolidated control over the region.{{sfn|Sen|1999|p=487}} The Pandya empire reached its zenith in the thirteenth century CE under Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan I after he defeated the Hoysalas, the Kakatiyas and captured parts of Sri Lanka. The Pandyas ruled from their capital of Madurai and expanded trade links with other maritime empires.{{sfn|Sen|1999|p=459}} Venetian explorer Marco Polo mentioned the Pandyas as the richest empire in existence.{{cite book|title=The Millennium Maritime Trade Revolution, 700–1700: How Asia Lost Maritime Supremacy|author=Nick Collins|year=2024|isbn=978-1-39906-016-5|publisher=Pen and Sword}} The Pandyas also built a number of temples including the Meenakshi Amman Temple at Madurai.{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Meenaskshi-Amman-Temple|title=Meenakshi Amman Temple|date=30 November 2023|access-date=1 December 2023|encyclopedia=Britannica|archive-date=23 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231223062718/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Meenaskshi-Amman-Temple|url-status=live}} In the fourteenth century CE, the Pandyan empire was engulfed in a civil war and also faced repeated invasions by the Delhi Sultanate.{{cite book|author=Cynthia Talbot|title=Precolonial India in Practice: Society, Region, and Identity in Medieval Andhra|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pfAKljlCJq0C&pg=PA281|year=2001|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-198-03123-9|pages=281–282}} In 1335, the Pandyan capital was conquered by Jalaluddin Ahsan Khan and the short-lived Madurai Sultanate was established.{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=XQ6Z1pvFGx0C&dq=madurai+sultanate+indian+muslim&pg=PA14 |title= 'How Best Do We Survive?' A Modern Political History of the Tamil Muslims |author= Kenneth McPherson · |page= 14 |date= 2012 |publisher= Routledge |isbn= 978-1-13619-833-5 |access-date= 14 September 2024 |archive-date= 14 September 2024 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20240914124120/https://books.google.com/books?id=XQ6Z1pvFGx0C&dq=madurai+sultanate+indian+muslim&pg=PA14 |url-status= live }}{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JB-B7Hk_35AC&dq=kaithal+sayyids&pg=PA82 |author=Raj Kumar |title=Essays on Medieval India |page=82 |date=2003 |publisher=Discovery Publishing House |isbn=978-8-17141-683-7 |access-date=14 September 2024 |archive-date=26 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230526104425/https://books.google.com/books?id=JB-B7Hk_35AC&dq=kaithal+sayyids&pg=PA82 |url-status=live }}

The Vijayanagara kingdom was founded in {{CE|1336}}.{{cite book|first1=David|last1=Gilmartin|first2=Bruce B.|last2=Lawrence|title=Beyond Turk and Hindu: Rethinking Religious Identities in Islamicate South Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9ZhT5Ilq5kAC&pg=PA321|year=2000|publisher=University Press of Florida|isbn=978-0-813-03099-9|pages=300–306, 321–322}} The Vijayanagara empire eventually conquered the entire Tamil country by {{circa|1370}} and ruled for almost two centuries.{{cite book|first=Kanhaiya L|last=Srivastava|title=The position of Hindus under the Delhi Sultanate, 1206–1526|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-cMgAAAAMAAJ|year=1980|publisher=Munshiram Manoharlal|page=202|isbn=978-8-12150-224-5}} In the sixteenth century, Vijaynagara king Krishnadeva Raya was forced to intervene in the conflict between their vassals, the Cholas and the Pandyas.{{cite book|title=The New Cambridge History of India Vijayanagara Volume 1|author=Burton Stein|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=57|year=1990}}{{cite book|title=Sri Brihadisvara, the Great Temple of Thanjavur|author=Ē. Kē Cēṣāttiri|publisher=Nile Books|page=24|year=1998}} The Nayak governor under Raya briefly took control of Madurai before it was restored to the empire.{{cite book|title=Mediaeval Kerala|author=P. K. S. Raja|publisher=Navakerala Co-op Publishing House|page=47|year=1966}} The Vijayanagara empire was defeated in the Battle of Talikota in 1565 by a confederacy of Deccan sultanates.{{cite book|doi=10.1017/CHOL9780521254847.006|chapter=Rama Raya (1484–1565): élite mobility in a Persianized world|title=A Social History of the Deccan, 1300–1761|year=2005|pages=78–104|isbn=978-0-52125-484-7}} The Nayaks, who were the military governors in the Vijaynagara empire, took control of the region amongst whom the Nayaks of Madurai and Nayaks of Thanjavur were the most prominent.{{cite book|author=Eugene F. Irschick|title=Politics and Social Conflict in South India|publisher=University of California Press|year=1969|page=8|isbn=978-0-520-00596-9}}{{cite book|last=Balendu Sekaram|first=Kandavalli|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/4910527|title=The Nayaks of Madurai|date=1975|publisher=Andhra Pradesh Sahithya Akademi|oclc=4910527|access-date=23 December 2023|archive-date=28 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328171506/https://search.worldcat.org/title/4910527|url-status=live}}{{cite book|title=Hinduism and the Religious Arts|author=Heather Elgood|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing|page=162|year=2000}} They introduced the palayakkararar system and re-constructed some of the temples in Tamil Nadu including the Meenakshi Temple in Madurai.{{cite book|last=Bayly|first=Susan|title=Saints, Goddesses and Kings: Muslims and Christians in South Indian Society, 1700–1900|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2004|isbn=978-0-52189-103-5|edition=Reprinted|page=48}}

In the 18th century, the Mughal empire administered the region through the Nawab of the Carnatic with his seat at Arcot, who defeated the Madurai Nayaks.{{cite book|last=Naravane|first=M.S.|title=Battles of the Honourable East India Company|publisher=A.P.H. Publishing Corporation|year=2014|isbn=978-8-131-30034-3|pages=151, 154–158}} The Marathas attacked several times and defeated the Nawab after the Siege of Trichinopoly (1751-1752).{{cite book|last=Ramaswami|first=N. S.|title=Political history of Carnatic under the Nawabs|publisher=Abhinav Publications|year=1984|isbn= 978-0-836-41262-8|pages=43–79}}{{cite book|author=Tony Jaques|title=Dictionary of Battles and Sieges: F-O|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Dh6jydKXikoC|year=2007|publisher=Greenwood|isbn=978-0-313-33538-9|pages=1034–1035|access-date=23 December 2023|archive-date=16 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230116054856/https://books.google.com/books?id=Dh6jydKXikoC|url-status=live}}{{cite book|last=Subramanian|first=K. R.|title=The Maratha Rajas of Tanjore|year=1928|publisher=K. R. Subramanian|place=Madras|pages=52–53}} This led to a short-lived Thanjavur Maratha kingdom.{{cite book|title=Contributions of Thanjavur Maratha Kings|first=Pratap Sinh Serfoji Raje|last=Bhosle|year=2017|isbn=978-1-948-23095-7|publisher=Notion press|page=3}} Europeans started to establish trade centres from the 16th century along the eastern coast. The Portuguese arrived in 1522 followed by the Dutch and the Danes.{{cite web|url=https://www.iias.asia/the-newsletter/article/rhythms-portuguese-presence-bay-bengal|title=Rhythms of the Portuguese presence in the Bay of Bengal|publisher=Indian Institute of Asian Studies|access-date=1 December 2023|archive-date=7 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231207042633/https://www.iias.asia/the-newsletter/article/rhythms-portuguese-presence-bay-bengal|url-status=live}}{{cite web|url=https://chennaicorporation.gov.in/gcc/about-GCC/about-chennai/origin-and-growth/|title=Origin of the Name Madras|work=Corporation of Madras|access-date=25 January 2023|archive-date=6 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230406202458/https://chennaicorporation.gov.in/gcc/about-GCC/about-chennai/origin-and-growth/|url-status=live}}{{cite web|title=Danish flavour|url=http://www.frontline.in/static/html/fl2622/stories/20091106262211800.htm|access-date=5 August 2013|work=Frontline|date=6 November 2009|location=India|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921060423/http://www.frontline.in/static/html/fl2622/stories/20091106262211800.htm|archive-date=21 September 2013|url-status=live}} In 1639, the British East India Company obtained a grant for land from the Vijayanager emperor and the French established trading posts at Pondichéry in 1693.{{cite book|title=Symbols of substance : court and state in Nayaka period Tamilnadu|publisher=Oxford University Press, Delhi|year=1998|first1=Velcheru Narayana|last1=Rao|first2=David|last2=Shulman|first3=Sanjay|last3=Subrahmanyam|isbn=978-0-195-64399-2|page=xix, 349 p., [16] p. of plates : ill., maps; 22 cm}}{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3HCbDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA583|title=Facets of Contemporary history|last1=Thilakavathy|first1=M.|last2=Maya|first2=R. K.|date=5 June 2019|publisher=MJP Publisher|pages=583|access-date=23 December 2023|archive-date=3 June 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240603082111/https://books.google.com/books?id=3HCbDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA583#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mXgSDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA180|title=Christianity in India: From Beginnings to the Present|last=Frykenberg|first=Robert Eric|date=26 June 2008|publisher=OUP Oxford|isbn=978-0-198-26377-7|access-date=23 December 2023|archive-date=3 June 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240603082100/https://books.google.com/books?id=mXgSDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA180#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}} After several conflicts between the British and the French, the British established themselves as the major power in the eighteenth century CE.{{cite book |last=Keay |first= John |title=The Honourable Company: A History of the English East India Company |publisher=Harper Collins|year=1993|pages=31–36}} The British regained control of Madras in 1749 through the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle and resisted a French siege attempt in 1759.{{cite web|title=Madras Miscellany: When Pondy was wasted|url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/history-and-culture/Madras-Miscellany-When-Pondy-was-wasted/article15719768.ece|work=The Hindu|date=21 November 2010|last=S.|first=Muthiah|access-date=28 December 2022|archive-date=1 May 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230501074741/https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/history-and-culture/Madras-Miscellany-When-Pondy-was-wasted/article15719768.ece|url-status=live}}{{cite book|title=A global chronology of conflict|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h5_tSnygvbIC&pg=PA756|publisher=ABC—CLIO|page=756|year=2010|first=Spencer C.|last=Tucker|isbn=978-1-851-09667-1|access-date=23 December 2023|archive-date=3 June 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240603082105/https://books.google.com/books?id=h5_tSnygvbIC&pg=PA756|url-status=live}}{{cite web|url=http://www.historynet.com/seven-years-war-battle-of-wandiwash.htm|title=Seven Years' War: Battle of Wandiwash|work=History Net: Where History Comes Alive – World & US History Online|access-date=16 May 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518102613/http://www.historynet.com/seven-years-war-battle-of-wandiwash.htm|archive-date=18 May 2015|url-status=live|date=21 August 2006}}

The British East India Company demanded tax collection rights, which led to constant conflicts with the local Palaiyakkarars and resulted in the Polygar Wars. Puli Thevar was one of the earliest opponents, joined later by Rani Velu Nachiyar and Kattabomman in the first series of Polygar wars.{{cite press release|url=https://pib.gov.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=108691|title=Velu Nachiyar, India's Joan of Arc|publisher=Government of India|access-date=1 January 2024|archive-date=27 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220727120955/https://pib.gov.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=108691|url-status=live}}{{cite journal|last=Yang|first=Anand A|title=Bandits and Kings:Moral Authority and Resistance in Early Colonial India|doi=10.1017/S0021911807001234|jstor=20203235|journal=The Journal of Asian Studies|volume=66|issue=4|pages=881–896|year=2007 | issn = 0021-9118 }} The Maruthu brothers along with Oomaithurai, formed a coalition with Dheeran Chinnamalai and Kerala Varma Pazhassi Raja, which fought the British in the Second Polygar War.{{cite book|last=Caldwell|first=Robert|title=A Political and General History of the District of Tinnevelly, in the Presidency of Madras|publisher=Government Press|date=1881|pages=195–222}} In the later 18th century, the Mysore kingdom captured parts of the region and engaged in constant fighting with the British which culminated in the four Anglo-Mysore Wars.{{cite book|title=History of Modern India:1707 A.D. to 2000 A.D|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MS_jrForJOoC&pg=PA94|publisher=Atlantic Publishers and Distributors|page=94|year=2002|author=Radhey Shyam Chaurasia|isbn=978-8-126-90085-5|access-date=23 December 2023|archive-date=3 June 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240603082104/https://books.google.com/books?id=MS_jrForJOoC&pg=PA94#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}} By the late eighteenth century CE, the British had conquered most of the region and established the Madras Presidency with Madras as the capital.{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Madras-Presidency|title=Madras Presidency|encyclopedia=Britannica|access-date=12 October 2015|archive-date=17 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171017071545/https://www.britannica.com/place/Madras-Presidency|url-status=live}}{{cite book|last=Naravane|first=M. S.|title=Battles of the Honourable East India Company: Making of the Raj|place=New Delhi|publisher=A.P.H. Publishing Corporation|year=2014|isbn=978-8-131-30034-3|pages=172–181}} On 10 July 1806, the Vellore mutiny, which was the first instance of a large-scale mutiny by Indian sepoys against the British East India Company, took place in Vellore Fort.{{cite news|url=http://www.outlookindia.com/article/july-1806-vellore/231918|title=July, 1806 Vellore|date=17 July 2006|work=Outlook|access-date=16 May 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150904023012/http://www.outlookindia.com/article/july-1806-vellore/231918|archive-date=4 September 2015|url-status=live}} After the Indian Rebellion of 1857, the British Parliament passed the Government of India Act 1858, which transferred the governance of India from the East India Company to the British crown, forming the British Raj.{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/624875/Vellore-Mutiny|first=Kenneth|last=Pletcher|title=Vellore Mutiny|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=16 May 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150501053701/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/624875/Vellore-Mutiny|archive-date=1 May 2015|url-status=live}}{{cite book|last=Adcock|first=C.S.|title=The Limits of Tolerance: Indian Secularism and the Politics of Religious Freedom|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DvMVDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA23|pages=23–25|year=2013|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-199-99543-1}}

Failure of the summer monsoons and administrative shortcomings of the Ryotwari system resulted in two severe famines in the Madras Presidency, the Great Famine of 1876–78 and the Indian famine of 1896–97 which killed millions and the migration of many Tamils as bonded laborers to other British countries eventually forming the present Tamil diaspora.{{cite web|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/chennai/the-great-famine-of-madras-and-the-men-who-made-it/article5045883.ece|title=The great famine of Madras and the men who made it|first=B.|last=Kolappan|work=The Hindu|date=22 August 2013|access-date=9 May 2021|archive-date=9 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210509042855/https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/chennai/the-great-famine-of-madras-and-the-men-who-made-it/article5045883.ece|url-status=live }} The Indian Independence movement gathered momentum in the early 20th century with the formation of the Indian National Congress, which was based on an idea propagated by the members of the Theosophical Society movement after a Theosophical convention held in Madras in December 1884.{{cite book|last=Sitaramayya|first=Pattabhi|year=1935|title=The History of the Indian National Congress|publisher=Working Committee of the Congress|page=11}}{{cite journal|url=http://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/73b4862g?display=all|title=Theosophy and the Origins of the Indian National Congress|last=Bevir|first=Mark|journal=International Journal of Hindu Studies|publisher=University of California|year=2003|volume=7|issue=1–3|pages=14–18|doi=10.1007/s11407-003-0005-4|s2cid=54542458|quote="Theosophical Society provided the framework for action within which some of its Indian and British members worked to form the Indian National Congress."|access-date=23 December 2023|archive-date=30 June 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170630205548/http://escholarship.org/uc/item/73b4862g?display=all|url-status=live}} Various Tamils were contributors to the Independence movement including V. O. Chidambaram Pillai, Subramaniya Siva and Bharatiyar.{{cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/society/history-and-culture/subramania-bharati-the-poet-and-the-patriot/article37912151.ece|title=Subramania Bharati: The poet and the patriot|date=9 December 2019|access-date=1 December 2023|newspaper=The Hindu|archive-date=14 June 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230614110344/https://www.thehindu.com/society/history-and-culture/subramania-bharati-the-poet-and-the-patriot/article37912151.ece|url-status=live}} The Tamils formed a significant percentage of the members of the Indian National Army (INA), founded by Subhas Chandra Bose.{{cite web|date=7 November 2023|title=An inspiring saga of the Tamil diaspora's contribution to India's freedom struggle|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/an-inspiring-saga-of-the-tamil-diasporas-contribution-to-indias-freedom-struggle/article67510190.ece|work=The Hindu|access-date=15 November 2023|archive-date=31 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240331152818/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/an-inspiring-saga-of-the-tamil-diasporas-contribution-to-indias-freedom-struggle/article67510190.ece|url-status=live}}

After the Independence of India in 1947, the Madras Presidency became Madras state, comprising present-day Tamil Nadu and parts of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Kerala. The state was further re-organised as a state for Tamils when the boundaries were redrawn linguistically in 1956 into the current shape.{{cite act|url=https://lddashboard.legislative.gov.in/sites/default/files/A1953-30_0.pdf|title=Andhra State Act, 1953|date=14 September 1953|legislature=Madras Legislative Assembly|access-date=1 December 2023}}{{cite act|url=https://interstatecouncil.gov.in/wp-content/uploads/2016/08/states_reorganisation_act.pdf|title=States Reorganisation Act, 1956|date=14 September 1953|legislature=Parliament of India|access-date=1 May 2024}} On 14 January 1969, Madras state was renamed Tamil Nadu, meaning "Tamil country".{{cite web|date=6 July 2023 |title=Tracing the demand to rename Madras State as Tamil Nadu |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/tracing-the-demand-to-rename-madras-state-as-tamil-nadu/article66347708.ece |access-date=1 December 2023 |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228032145/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/tracing-the-demand-to-rename-madras-state-as-tamil-nadu/article66347708.ece |url-status=live }}{{cite book|last1=Sundari|first1=S.|year=2007|title=Migrant women and urban labour market: concepts and case studies|page=105|publisher=Deep & Deep Publications|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uMlVGtjbcSIC&q=madras+state+became+Tamilnadu&pg=PA105|isbn=978-8-176-29966-4|access-date=20 October 2020|archive-date=22 August 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230822035218/https://books.google.com/books?id=uMlVGtjbcSIC&q=madras+state+became+Tamilnadu&pg=PA105|url-status=live}} In 1965, Tamils agitated against the imposition of Hindi and in support of continuing English as a medium of communication which eventually led to English being retained as an official language of India alongside Hindi.{{cite web|title=Chennai says it in Hindi|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/news-archive/web/chennai-says-it-in-hindi/|work=The Indian Express|date=14 August 2011|author=V. Shoba|access-date=28 December 2022|archive-date=30 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230430174614/https://indianexpress.com/article/news-archive/web/chennai-says-it-in-hindi/|url-status=live}} After experiencing fluctuations in the decades immediately after Indian independence, the Human Development Index of the Tamils have consistently improved due to reform-oriented economic policies and in the 2000s, the region has become one of the most urbanized states in the country.{{cite report|url=http://tnenvis.nic.in/Database/Demography_1168.aspx?format=Print|title=Demography of Tamil Nadu|work=Government of India|access-date=1 December 2023|archive-date=9 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231209234142/https://tnenvis.nic.in/Database/Demography_1168.aspx?format=Print|url-status=live}}{{cite report|url=https://www.icrier.org/pdf/wp144.pdf|title=Economic Growth in Indian States|publisher=Indian Council for Research on International Economic Relations|first=K.L.|last=Krishna|date=September 2004|access-date=22 July 2015|archive-date=24 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924032647/http://www.icrier.org/pdf/wp144.pdf|url-status=live}}

{{Main|Sri Lankan Tamils}}

File:Megalithic burial jar.jpg.{{cite book|last=de Silva|first=K. M.|author-link=K. M. de Silva|title=A History of Sri Lanka|publisher=Vijitha Yapa|year=2005|isbn=978-9-55809-592-8|page=129}}]]

There are various theories from scholars over the presence of Tamil people in Sri Lanka. Historian K. Indrapala states that Tamil replaced a previous language of an indigenous mesolithic population, who later became the Eelam Tamils and the cultural diffusion happened well before the arrival of Sinhalese people in Sri Lanka.{{sfn|Indrapala|2007|p=53–54}} Eelam Tamils consider themselves lineal descendants of the aboriginal Naga and Yaksha people of Sri Lanka. A cobra totem known as Nakam in the Tamil language is still part of the Tamil tradition in Sri Lanka.{{cite book|title=South Asia Bulletin: Volumes 7–8|year=1987|publisher=University of California|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W9kuAQAAIAAJ&q=%22According+to+tradition%2C+the+Tamils+of+India+and+Sri+Lanka+are+the+lineal+descendants+of+the+Naga+and+Yaksha+people.+The+aboriginal+Nagas%2C+called+Nakar+in+Tamil+had+the+cobra+%28Nakam+in+Tamil%29+as+their+totem.%22|access-date=29 October 2020|archive-date=14 September 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240914124138/https://books.google.com/books?id=W9kuAQAAIAAJ&q=%22According+to+tradition%2C+the+Tamils+of+India+and+Sri+Lanka+are+the+lineal+descendants+of+the+Naga+and+Yaksha+people.+The+aboriginal+Nagas%2C+called+Nakar+in+Tamil+had+the+cobra+%28Nakam+in+Tamil%29+as+their+totem.%22|url-status=live}} Remains of settlements and megalithic burial sites of people culturally similar to those of present-day Sri Lanka and Tamil Nadu in modern India have been excavated at Pomparippu on the west coast and in Kathiraveli on the east coast of the island. These epigraphical evidence have been dated to a period between fifth century BCE and second century CE.{{sfn|de Silva|1997|p=129}}{{sfn|Indrapala|2007|p=91}} Cultural similarities in burial practices in South India and Sri Lanka were dated by archeologists to the beginning of the Iron Age in the region around twelfth century BCE. There were specific migration routes that extended from South India to the island. These people moved further to the South of the island, and intermingled with the existent people.{{cite web|last=Subramanian|first=T.S.|title=Reading the past in a more inclusive way: Interview with Dr. Sudharshan Seneviratne|work=Frontline|date=27 January 2006|url=http://www.flonnet.com/fl2301/stories/20060127003610200.htm|access-date=9 July 2008|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080612085446/http://www.flonnet.com/fl2301/stories/20060127003610200.htm|archive-date=12 June 2008}}

Black and red ware potsherds found in Sri Lanka from the early reign of Anuradhapura kingdom, indicate a similar cultural connection with the people of South India.{{cite book|title=Sri Lanka: Ethnic Fratricide and the Dismantling of Democracy|last=Tambiah|first=Stanley Jeyaraja|date=1986|publisher=I.B.Tauris|isbn=978-1-85043-026-1|page=90}} The Tamil Brahmi inscriptions on them indicate Tamil clan names such as Parumakal, Ay, Vel, Utiyan, Ticaiyan, Cuda and Naka, which points to the presence of Tamils in the region.{{cite book|title=Early Settlements in Jaffna: An Archaeological Survey|last=Ragupathy|first=Ponnampalam|date=1987|publisher=University of Jaffna|page=223}} Excavations in Poonakari in the north of the island have yielded several inscriptions including the mention of vela, a name related to velirs of the ancient Tamil country. Epigraphical evidence of people identified as Damelas (the Prakrit word for Tamil people) from the second century CE have been found in Anuradhapura, the capital city of the northern Rajarata region.{{sfn|Indrapala|2007|p=157}}

Historical records mention that the three Tamil kingdoms were involved in the island's affairs from second century BCE.{{sfn|de Silva|1997|pp=30–32}}{{cite book|author=Mendis, G.C.|title=Ceylon Today and Yesterday|pages=24–25|publisher=Associated Newspapers of Ceylon}} Chola king Ellalan captured the Anuradhapura Kingdom from 205 BCE to 161 BCE.{{cite book|last=Allen|first=C.|title=Coromandel: A Personal History of South India|publisher=Little, Brown Book Group|year=2017|isbn=978-1-40870-540-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qutzDQAAQBAJ|access-date=10 June 2022|page=154|quote=A later chapter of the 'Great Chronicle' describes how the Chola prince Elara (Ellalan) of Thiruvarur invaded and captured the throne of Lanka in about 205 BCE but was later killed in battle by the Sinhala prince Dutugamunu in about 161|archive-date=14 September 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240914125955/https://books.google.com/books?id=qutzDQAAQBAJ|url-status=live}} Tamil soldiers from Tamilakam came to Anuradhapura in large numbers in the seventh century CE with the local chiefs and kings relying on them.{{cite journal|last=Spencer|first=George W|title=The politics of plunder: The Cholas in eleventh century Ceylon|journal=The Journal of Asian Studies|volume=35|issue=3|pages=405–419|doi=10.2307/2053272|jstor=2053272|year=1976|s2cid=154741845}} In the eighth century CE, various Tamil villages collectively known as Demel-kaballa (Tamil allotment), Demelat-valademin (Tamil villages), and Demel-gam-bim (Tamil villages and lands) were established.{{sfn|Indrapala|2007|p=214–215}} In the ninth and tenth centuries CE, Pandya and Chola incursions started in the island which culminated with the Chola annexation of the island.

File:Jaffna_Kingdom.svg]]

The Chola influence lasted until the latter half of the eleventh century CE and the Chola decline was followed by the restoration of the Polonnaruwa monarchy.{{sfn|de Silva|1997|p=76}} In 1215, following Pandya invasions, the Tamil-dominant Aryacakravarti dynasty established the Jaffna Kingdom on the Jaffna peninsula and in parts of northern Sri Lanka.{{sfn|de Silva|1997|p=100–102}} In the fourteenth century CE, the Aryacakaravarthi expansion into the south of the island was halted by Alagakkonara, who belonged to a feudal family from Kanchipuram that migrated to Sri Lanka in the previous century and converted to Buddhism.{{sfn|de Silva|1997|p=102–04}} He served as the chief minister of the Sinhalese king Parakramabahu V (1344–59 CE) and his descendant Vira Alakeshwara briefly became the king later before the Ming admiral Zheng He overthrew him in 1409 CE after which the influence of his family declined.{{sfn|de Silva|1997|p=104}} The caste structure of the Sinhalese also accommodated Hindu immigrants from South India, which led to the emergence of new Sinhalese caste groups such as the Radala, the Salagama, the Durava and the Karava.{{sfn|de Silva|1997|p=121}}{{sfn|Indrapala|2007|p=275}}

{{See also|Portuguese Ceylon|Dutch Ceylon|British Ceylon}}

The Aryachakaravarthi dynasty continued to rule over large parts of northeast Sri Lanka until arrival of the Europeans on the island in the sixteenth century CE. Portuguese traders reached Sri Lanka by 1505 CE and the Jaffna kingdom came to the attention of Portuguese due to its presence as a logistical and strategic base for accessing the interior ruled by the Kandyan kingdom.{{cite book|first=Tikiri|last=Abeysinghe|title=Jaffna Under the Portuguese|publisher=Lake House Investments|year=1986|isbn=978-9-55552-000-3|pages=2–3}} King Cankili I resisted contacts with the Portuguese and repelled Parava Catholics who were brought from India to the Mannar Island to take over the lucrative pearl fisheries from the Jaffna kings.{{cite book|first=Kantaiya|last=Kunaraca|title=The Jaffna Dynasty: Vijayakalingan to Narasinghan|publisher=Dynasty of Jaffna Kings' Historical Society|year=2003|isbn=978-9-55845-500-5|pages=82–84}}{{cite book|last=Gnanaprakasar|first=S.|title=A critical history of Jaffna: the Tamil era|year=2020|publisher=Gyan|isbn=978-8-12122-063-7|pages=113–117}} The wrested Mannar during the first invasion in 1560 and killed king Puvirasa Pandaram during the second expedition in 1591.{{sfn|de Silva|1997|p=166}} After the conflicts, the Portuguese secured the kingdom in 1619 from the unpopular Cankili II, who was helped by the Thanjavur Nayaks.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GD_6ka-aYuQC|title=The Nayaks of Tanjore|last=Vriddhagirisan|first=V.|publisher=Annamalai University|year=1942|isbn=978-8-12060-996-9|pages=80}}{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DUEKAQAAIAAJ|title=The Portuguese in Ceylon, 1617–1638|last=de Silva|first=Chandra|date=1972|publisher=University of London|page=96|access-date=14 September 2024|archive-date=14 September 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240914125958/https://books.google.com/books?id=DUEKAQAAIAAJ|url-status=live}} English sailor Robert Knox arrived in the island in 1669 and described the Tamil settlements in the An Historical Relation of the Island Ceylon published in 1681.{{cite book|last=Knox|first=Robert|title=An Historical Relation of the Island Ceylon|page=166|url=http://gateway.proquest.com/openurl?ctx_ver=Z39.88-2003&res_id=xri:eebo&rft_id=xri:eebo:image:58692:2|publisher=Robert Chiswell|year=1681|id=2596825|isbn=978-1-40691-141-1}}

The Dutch captured the island later and ruled for more than a century. Following the 1795 invasion of the British and the Kandyan Wars, the island came to the control of the British in the early nineteenth century CE.{{cite book|last=Christie|first=Nikki|year=2016|title=Britain: losing and gaining an empire, 1763–1914|publisher=Pearson Education|page=53}} Upon arrival in June 1799, Hugh Cleghorn, the island's first British colonial secretary, wrote to the British government: "Two different nations from a very ancient period have divided between them the possession of the island. First the Sinhalese, inhabiting the interior in its Southern and Western parts, and secondly the Tamils who possess the Northern and Eastern districts. These two nations differ entirely in their religion, language, and manners."{{cite book|title=Sri Lanka: National Conflict and the Tamil Liberation Struggle|first=Satchi|last=Ponnambalam|year=1983|publisher=Tamil Information Centre|isbn=978-0-86232-198-7}} Irrespective of the ethnic differences, the British imposed a unitary state structure in British Ceylon for better administration.{{cite book|first=Donald|last=Horowitz|title=Ethnic Groups in Conflict|year=2001|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-52092-631-8|page=224}} During the British colonial rule, Tamils held higher positions in the government and were favoured by the British for their qualification in English education. In the northern highlands, the lands of the Sinhalese were seized by the British and Indian Tamils were settled there as plantation workers.{{cite book|title=Sri Lanka: Current Issues and Historical Background|year=2002|first=Walter|last=Nubin|publisher=Nova Publishers|isbn=978-1-59033-573-4|page=87}} Tamils who migrated in the nineteenth century CE to work on tea plantations were later termed as the Indian Tamils.{{sfn|de Silva|1997|pp=177, 181}}

File:Sri Lanka North Eastern Province locator map.svg

Sri Lanka gained independence in 1948 and after the colonial rule ended, ethnic tension rose between the Sinhalese, who constituted a majority, and the Tamils. In 1956, the Sinhala Only Act designated Sinhala as the only official language of Sri Lanka, which forced many Tamils to resign as civil servants because they were not fluent in the language. The Tamils saw the act as linguistic, cultural and economic discrimination against them. Anti-Tamil pogroms in 1956 and 1958 resulted in deaths of many Tamils and further escalated the conflict.{{cite web|url=http://www.ptsrilanka.org/images/documents/massacres_pogroms_en.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160428050130/http://www.ptsrilanka.org/images/documents/massacres_pogroms_en.pdf|archive-date=2016-04-28|title=Genocide Against Tamil People: Massacres, Pogroms, Destruction of Property, Sexual Violence and Assassinations of Civil Society Leaders|publisher=People's Tribunal on Sri Lanka (PTSL)|access-date=8 May 2015}}{{cite book|title=Narratives of Gendered Dissent in South Asian Cinemas|publisher=Routledge|year=2012|page=126|isbn=978-0-41596-117-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g0vyvO2NGFMC&dq=anti+tamil+pogrom+1958&pg=PA126|access-date=14 September 2024|archive-date=9 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231009144243/https://books.google.com/books?id=g0vyvO2NGFMC&dq=anti+tamil+pogrom+1958&pg=PA126|url-status=live}}{{cite journal|last=Sivanandan|first=A.|date=July 1984|title=Sri Lanka: racism and the politics of underdevelopment|url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/030639688402600102|journal=Race & Class|language=en|volume=26|issue=1|pages=1–37|doi=10.1177/030639688402600102|s2cid=143870163|issn=0306-3968|access-date=14 September 2024|archive-date=14 September 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240914125842/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/030639688402600102|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}} More than a million Indian Tamil plantation workers were made stateless after Sri Lanka refused citizenship to them. In 1964, the Sri Lankan and Indian governments entered into an agreement, based on which, about 300,000 would be granted Sri Lankan citizenship and about 975,000 Tamils would be repatriated to India over a period of fifteen years.{{sfn|de Silva|1997|p=262}}

A new Constitution enacted in the 1970s further discriminated against the Tamils and various state-sponsored schemes led Sinhalese settlers into Tamil populated areas. The 1977 anti-Tamil pogrom was followed by a crackdown against the Tamils, which curtailed their rights. Following the declaration of state of emergency in 1981, state-backed Sinhalese mobs turned on Tamils, which led many Tamils to leave the country as refugees resulting in an exodus more than half a million to India and other countries. By the 1970s, initial non-violent political struggle for an independent Tamil state in the north and east of Sri Lanka, developed into a violent secessionist insurgency.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BlCXRQo__6oC|title=The Political Economy of Armed Conflict: Beyond Greed and Grievance|publisher=Lynne Rienner Publishers|last=Sherman|first=Jake|year=2003|location=New York|page=198|isbn=978-1-58826-172-4|access-date=14 September 2024|archive-date=14 September 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240914124757/https://books.google.com/books?id=BlCXRQo__6oC|url-status=live}}{{cite book|title=Security And Development: Investing in Peace And Prosperity|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YXHRX20ibVAC|publisher=Routledge|last1=Picciotto|first1=Robert|last2=Weaving|first2=Rachel|year=2006|location=London|page=171|isbn=978-0-415-35364-9|access-date=14 September 2024|archive-date=14 September 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240914124655/https://books.google.com/books?id=YXHRX20ibVAC|url-status=live}} This led to the bloody Sri Lankan Civil War for more than three decades.{{cite journal|last=Stokke|first=K.|year=2006|title=Building the Tamil Eelam State: emerging state institutions and forms of governance in LTTE-controlled areas in Sri Lanka|journal=Third World Quarterly|volume=27|issue=6|pages=1021–40|doi=10.1080/01436590600850434|citeseerx=10.1.1.466.5940|s2cid=45544298}}{{cite journal|last=McConnell|first=D.|year=2008|title=The Tamil people's right to self-determination|journal=Cambridge Review of International Affairs|volume=21|issue=1|pages=59–76|doi=10.1080/09557570701828592|s2cid=154770852}} The conflict resulted in the deaths of at least 100,000 Tamils in the island and led to the flight of over 800,000 refugees.{{cite news|title=Sri Lanka's war 10 years on: Finding Father Francis|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-48300279|access-date=22 March 2021|work=BBC News|date=18 May 2019|archive-date=10 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201210234516/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-48300279|url-status=live}}{{cite news|title=UN rights chief seeks sanctions against Sri Lanka generals|url=https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20210127-un-rights-chief-seeks-sanctions-against-sri-lanka-generals-1|access-date=22 March 2021|work=France 24|agency=Agence France-Presse|date=27 January 2021|archive-date=27 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210127223120/https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20210127-un-rights-chief-seeks-sanctions-against-sri-lanka-generals-1|url-status=live}}{{cite web|title=Open Wounds and Mounting Dangers|url=https://www.hrw.org/report/2021/02/01/open-wounds-and-mounting-dangers/blocking-accountability-grave-abuses-sri-lanka|work=Human Rights Watch|access-date=22 March 2021|date=1 February 2021|archive-date=22 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210322035936/https://www.hrw.org/report/2021/02/01/open-wounds-and-mounting-dangers/blocking-accountability-grave-abuses-sri-lanka|url-status=live}}{{cite web|url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2009-05-20/up-to-100000-killed-in-sri-lankas-civil-war-un/1689524|title=Up to 100,000 killed in Sri Lanka's civil war: UN|work=ABC News|access-date=1 March 2016|date=20 May 2009|archive-date=23 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180923153656/http://www.abc.net.au/news/2009-05-20/up-to-100000-killed-in-sri-lankas-civil-war-un/1689524|url-status=live}} The war ended after the Sri Lankan military offensive in 2009.{{cite news|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2009/WORLD/asiapcf/05/19/sri.lanka.conflict/|title=Sri Lankan president declares war 'victory'|work=CNN|access-date=8 February 2022|archive-date=12 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211112160735/http://edition.cnn.com/2009/WORLD/asiapcf/05/19/sri.lanka.conflict/|url-status=live}} Since the end of the civil war, the Sri Lankan state has been subject to much global criticism for violating human rights as a result of committing war crimes through bombing civilian targets, usage of heavy weaponry, the abduction and massacres of Sri Lankan Tamils and sexual violence.{{cite journal|date=19 February 2009|title=War on the Displaced|url=https://www.hrw.org/report/2009/02/19/war-displaced/sri-lankan-army-and-ltte-abuses-against-civilians-vanni|journal=Human Rights Watch|access-date=14 September 2024|archive-date=11 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210411165610/https://www.hrw.org/report/2009/02/19/war-displaced/sri-lankan-army-and-ltte-abuses-against-civilians-vanni|url-status=live}}{{cite web|date=31 August 2020|title=The Sri Lankan Civil War and Its History, Revisited in 2020|url=https://hir.harvard.edu/sri-lankan-civil-war/|access-date=1 June 2024|work=Harvard International Review|language=en|archive-date=28 June 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240628153741/https://hir.harvard.edu/sri-lankan-civil-war/|url-status=live}}{{cite web|title=The Sri Lankan Conflict|url=https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/sri-lankan-conflict|access-date=1 June 2024|work=Council on Foreign Relations|archive-date=27 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240327173217/https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/sri-lankan-conflict|url-status=live}}{{cite web|url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2010/05/20/sri-lanka-new-evidence-wartime-abuses|title=Sri Lanka: New Evidence of Wartime Abuses|work=Human Rights Watch|access-date=9 March 2016|date=20 May 2010|archive-date=9 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210509095213/https://www.hrw.org/news/2010/05/20/sri-lanka-new-evidence-wartime-abuses|url-status=live}}

File:Tamil distribution.png speakers in South India and Sri Lanka (1981)]]

As per the 2011 Census, there were 69 million Tamil speakers, constituting about 5.7% of the Indian population. Tamils formed the majority in the South Indian state of Tamil Nadu (63.8 million) and the union territory of Puducherry (1.1 million). There were also significant Tamil population in other states of India such as Karnataka (2.1 million), Andhra Pradesh and Telangana (0.7 million), Maharashtra (0.5 million), and Kerala (0.5 million).{{cite report|url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/42458/download/46089/C-16_25062018.pdf|title=Census of India: Language (Table C-16)|work=Government of India|access-date=1 July 2024|archive-date=24 August 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230824120826/https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/42458/download/46089/C-16_25062018.pdf|url-status=live}}

{{Further|Sri Lankan Tamils|Indian Tamils of Sri Lanka|Sri Lankan Moors}}

Tamils in Sri Lanka are classified into two ethnic groups by the Sri Lankan government: Sri Lankan Tamils, also known as Eelam Tamils, and Indian Origin Tamils, who accounted for 11.2%, and 4.1% of the country's population, respectively, in 2011. The Sri Lankan Tamils (or Ceylon Tamils) are the descendants of the Tamils of the old Jaffna Kingdom and east coast chieftainships called Vannimais. The Indian Tamils (or Hill Country Tamils) are descendants of laborers who migrated from Tamil Nadu to Sri Lanka in the 19th century to work on tea plantations.{{sfn|de Silva|1997|pp=177, 181}} Most Sri Lankan Tamils live in the Northern and Eastern provinces and around Colombo, whereas most Indian Tamils live in the central highlands.{{cite report|title=Population by Ethnicity according to District|url=http://www.statistics.gov.lk/PopHouSat/PDF/Population/p9p8%20Ethnicity.pdf|work=Government of Sri Lanka|access-date=3 May 2007|archive-date=13 July 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713101148/http://www.statistics.gov.lk/PopHouSat/PDF/Population/p9p8%20Ethnicity.pdf|url-status=dead}} Historically, both the Tamil ethnic groups have identified themselves as separate communities, although there has been a greater sense of unity since the 1980s.{{cite web|author=V. Suryanarayan|title=In search of a new identity|work=Frontline|year=2001|url=http://www.flonnet.com/fl1816/18160950.htm|access-date=2 July 2008|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080529221016/http://www.flonnet.com/fl1816/18160950.htm|archive-date=29 May 2008}}

There also exists a significant Tamil Muslim population in Sri Lanka. However, they are listed as a separate entity under the Moors by the government.{{sfn|de Silva|1987|pp=3–5, 9}} However, genealogical evidence suggests that most of the Sri Lankan Moor community are of Tamil ethnicity, and that the majority of their ancestors were also Tamils who had lived in the country for generations, and had converted to Islam from other faiths.

{{Main|Tamil diaspora|Sri Lankan Tamil diaspora}}

{{See also|Tamil Malaysians|Tamil South Africans|Tamil Canadians|Tamil British|Tamil Americans|Tamil Indonesian|Myanmar Tamils|Tamils in Réunion|Malbars}}

File:Tamil Community - Worldwide.PNG

Significant emigration from Indian subcontinent began in the late 18th century, when the Tamils went as indentured labourers and established businesses in other territories under the control of the British empire such as Malaya, Burma, South Africa, Fiji, Mauritius, and the Caribbean.{{cite journal|title=The Tamil Migration Cycle 1830–1950|author=Christophe Z Guilmoto|journal=Economic and Political Weekly|jstor=4399307|pages=111–20|volume=28|issue=3|year=1993}} The descendants of these Tamils continued to live in these countries, and practice their original culture, tradition and language. They form significant proportion of the population in Malaysia (7%) and Singapore (5%). A significant population also exists in South Africa, Mauritius, Fiji, as well as other regions such as the Southeast Asia and the Caribbean.{{cite web|url=https://www.instituteofasianstudies.com/tamil_diaspora.html|title=Tamil Diaspora|publisher=Institute of Asian Studies|access-date=1 June 2024|archive-date=2 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231002122209/http://instituteofasianstudies.com/tamil_diaspora.html|url-status=live}} However, subsequent generations might not speak the language as a mother tongue, but instead as a second or third language.{{citation|title=Tamil diaspora – a trans state nation|url=http://searchko.in/literature/ta-cached.jsp?id=82&idx=0|work=Tamilnation|access-date=4 December 2006|archive-date=21 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721181236/http://searchko.in/literature/ta-cached.jsp?id=82&idx=0|url-status=dead }}

There is a small Tamil community in Pakistan, notably settled since the partition in 1947.{{cite news|url=http://www.thenews.com.pk/Todays-News-4-98530-Strangers-to-their-roots-and-those-around-them|title=Strangers to their roots, and those around them|work=The News|date=20 March 2012|access-date=8 September 2014|first=Ammar|last=Shahbazi|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130617043012/http://www.thenews.com.pk/Todays-News-4-98530-Strangers-to-their-roots-and-those-around-them|archive-date=17 June 2013 }} Since the 20th century, Tamils have migrated to other regions such as Middle East and the Western World for employment.{{cite web|url=https://www.unodc.org/southasia/frontpage/2010/may/irregular-migration.html|title=Irregular migration|work=United Nations|date=May 2010|access-date=1 June 2023|archive-date=26 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230426075519/https://www.unodc.org/southasia/frontpage/2010/may/irregular-migration.html|url-status=live}}{{cite web|url=https://digitalassets.lib.berkeley.edu/anthpubs/ucb/text/kas065_066-009.pdf|title=Image and Identity: Tamil Migration to the United States|author=Kelsey Clark Underwood|publisher=University of California|access-date=1 June 2024|archive-date=24 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240324061732/https://digitalassets.lib.berkeley.edu/anthpubs/ucb/text/kas065_066-009.pdf|url-status=live}} A large emigration of Sri Lankan Tamils began in the 1980s, as they sought to escape the ethnic conflict there.{{cite journal|url=https://minorityrights.org/communities/tamils/|title=Tamils|journal=Minority Rights|date=16 October 2023|access-date=1 June 2024|archive-date=4 June 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240604034412/https://minorityrights.org/communities/tamils/|url-status=live}} The largest concentration of Eelam Tamils outside Sri Lanka is found in Canada.{{cite web|url=http://heritagetoronto.org/new-beginnings-tamil-heritage-in-toronto/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305191149/http://heritagetoronto.org/new-beginnings-tamil-heritage-in-toronto/|url-status=dead|archive-date=5 March 2016|title=New Beginnings: Tamil Heritage in Toronto|work=Heritage Toronto|access-date=15 December 2017}}

{{main|Tamil culture}}

{{Main|Tamil language|Sri Lankan Tamil dialects}}

File:Word_Tamil.svg]]

Tamil people speak Tamil, which belongs to the Dravidian languages and is one of the oldest classical languages.{{cite book|last=Krishnamurti|first=Bhadriraju|title=The Dravidian Languages|publisher=Cambridge University Press|series=Cambridge Language Surveys|year=2003|isbn=978-0-52177-111-5|page=480}}{{cite report|url=https://www.tamilvu.org/library/kulothungan/pdf/Tamil_Among_the_Classical_Languages_of_the_World.pdf|title=Tamil among the classical languages of the world|work=Tamil Virtual University|access-date=1 June 2024|archive-date=22 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230122074115/http://www.tamilvu.org/library/kulothungan/pdf/Tamil_Among_the_Classical_Languages_of_the_World.pdf|url-status=live}}{{cite encyclopedia|title=Tamil language|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Tamil-language|encyclopedia=Britannica|access-date=1 December 2023|archive-date=7 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231007012008/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Tamil-language|url-status=live}} According to epigraphist Iravatham Mahadevan, the rudimentary Tamil Brahmi script originated in South India in the 3rd century BCE.{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/iravatham-mahadevan-early-tamil-epigraphy-from-the-earliest-times-to-the-sixth-century-a.-d./page/n5/mode/2up|author-link=Iravatham Mahadevan|first=Iravatham|last=Mahadevan|title=Early Tamil Epigraphy From The Earliest Times To The Sixth Century A. D.|date=2003 |publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-67401-227-1|page=48}}{{cite web|url=https://frontline.thehindu.com/other/article30205148.ece|title=A rare inscription|work=The Hindu|date=1 July 2009|access-date=1 June 2023|archive-date=22 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230922154651/https://frontline.thehindu.com/other/article30205148.ece|url-status=live}} Though the old Tamil preserved features of Proto-Dravidian language,{{cite journal|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41599-021-00868-w|title=Ancestral Dravidian languages in Indus Civilization|author=Bahata Ansumali Mukhopadhyay|journal=Humanities and Social Sciences Communications|date=3 August 2021|volume=8|issue=1|pages=1–14|doi=10.1057/s41599-021-00868-w|access-date=15 July 2024|archive-date=29 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211229161550/https://www.nature.com/articles/s41599-021-00868-w|url-status=live}} modern-day spoken Tamil uses loanwords from other languages such as English.{{cite book|url=https://ia801303.us.archive.org/24/items/ColloquialTamil_201512/Colloquial%20Tamil.pdf|page=157|title=Colloquial Tamil|author1=R.E.Asher|author2=E.Annamalai|date=2002|isbn=978-0-41518-788-6|publisher=Routledge}}{{cite book|last=Southworth|first=Franklin C.|title=Linguistic archaeology of South Asia|publisher=Routledge|year=2005|isbn=978-0-41533-323-8|pages=129–132}} The existent Tamil grammar is largely based on the grammar book Naṉṉūl which incorporates facets from the old Tamil literary work Tolkāppiyam.{{cite report|url=https://www.tamiluniversity.ac.in/english/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/paper_01-PDF.pdf|title=Pre-history of Tamil literature|year=2010|author=Kamil Zvelebil|page=16|access-date=15 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716133216/https://www.tamiluniversity.ac.in/english/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/paper_01-PDF.pdf|url-status=live}} Since the later part of the 19th century, Tamils made the language as a key part of the Tamil identity and the language is personified in the form of Tamil̲taay ("Tamil mother").{{cite book|first=Sumathi|last=Ramasamy|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/jj.5973093|title=Passions of the Tongue: Language Devotion in Tamil India, 1891-1970|chapter=Feminizing Language: Tamil as Goddess, Mother, Maiden|date=1997|volume=29|publisher=University of California|pages=79–134|isbn=978-0-520-20804-9|access-date=8 February 2024}} Various varieties of Tamil is spoken by the Tamils across regions such as Madras Bashai, Kongu Tamil, Madurai Tamil, Nellai Tamil, Kumari Tamil and various Sri Lankan Tamil dialects such as Batticaloa Tamil, Jaffna Tamil and Negombo Tamil in Sri Lanka.{{cite journal|last1=Smirnitskaya|first1=Anna|title=Diglossia and Tamil varieties in Chennai|journal=Acta Linguistica Petropolitana|date=March 2019|issue=3|pages=318–334|doi=10.30842/alp2306573714317|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/331772782|access-date=4 November 2022|doi-access=free|archive-date=28 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328173206/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/331772782_Diglossia_and_Tamil_varieties_in_Chennai|url-status=live}}{{cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/several-dialects-of-tamil-and-10-mother-tongues-of-the-dravidian-family/article67481730.ece|title=Several dialects of Tamil|date=31 October 2023|newspaper=The Hindu|access-date=1 December 2023|archive-date=5 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231205083033/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/several-dialects-of-tamil-and-10-mother-tongues-of-the-dravidian-family/article67481730.ece|url-status=live}}

{{Main|Tamil literature|Sri Lankan Tamil literature}}

File:WLA_lacma_12th_century_Maharishi_Agastya.jpg, poet from the first Sangam period]]

Tamil literature is of considerable antiquity compared to the contemporary literature from other Indian languages and represents one of the oldest bodies of literature in South Asia.{{cite report|url=https://www.tamiluniversity.ac.in/english/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/paper_16-PDF.pdf|title=Credentials of Tamil as a classical language|author=George L. Hart|publisher=Tamil Virtual University|date=August 2018|access-date=1 June 2024|archive-date=15 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240715173029/https://www.tamiluniversity.ac.in/english/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/paper_16-PDF.pdf|url-status=live}}{{cite journal|last=Maloney|first=C.|title=The Beginnings of Civilization in South India|journal=The Journal of Asian Studies|volume=29|issue=3|pages=603–616|year=1970|jstor=2943246|doi=10.2307/2943246|s2cid=162291987}} The earliest epigraphic records have been dated to around the 3rd century BCE.{{cite news|last=Subramaniam|first=T.S.|title=Palani excavation triggers fresh debate|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/states/tamil-nadu/article2408091.ece|newspaper=The Hindu|location=Chennai, India|date=29 August 2011|access-date=1 December 2023|archive-date=8 September 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110908080611/http://www.thehindu.com/news/states/tamil-nadu/article2408091.ece|url-status=live}} Early Tamil literature was composed in three successive poetic assemblies known as Tamil Sangams, the earliest of which destroyed by floods.{{cite journal|doi=10.1353/asi.2003.0031|title=Chera, Chola, Pandya: Using Archaeological Evidence to Identify the Tamil Kingdoms of Early Historic South India|journal=Asian Perspectives|volume=42|issue=2|page=207|year=2003|last1=Abraham|first1=S. A.|s2cid=153420843|hdl=10125/17189|url=http://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/bitstream/10125/17189/1/AP-v42n2-207-223.pdf|access-date=6 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190903211259/https://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/bitstream/10125/17189/1/AP-v42n2-207-223.pdf|archive-date=3 September 2019|url-status=live|hdl-access=free}}{{cite book|last=Nadarajah|first=Devapoopathy|title=Love in Sanskrit and Tamil Literature: A Study of Characters and Nature, 200 B.C.-A.D. 500|date=1994|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-8-12081-215-4}}{{sfn|Zvelebil|1992|p=12-13}} The Sangam literature was broadly classified into three divisions: iyal (poetry), isai (music) and nadagam (drama).{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QIeqvcai5XQC|page=2|title=Tamil Literature|author=M. S. Purnalingam Pillai|year=1994|isbn=978-8-12060-955-6|publisher=Asian Educational Services|access-date=15 July 2024|archive-date=15 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240715173543/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Tamil_Literature/QIeqvcai5XQC|url-status=live}}{{cite web|url=https://sangam.org/an-overview-of-sangam-literature-%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%99%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95-%E0%AE%87%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D/|title=Overview of Sangam literature|publisher=Tamil Sangam|access-date=1 June 2024|archive-date=27 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231227021527/https://sangam.org/an-overview-of-sangam-literature-%e0%ae%9a%e0%ae%99%e0%af%8d%e0%ae%95-%e0%ae%87%e0%ae%b2%e0%ae%95%e0%af%8d%e0%ae%95%e0%ae%bf%e0%ae%af%e0%ae%ae%e0%af%8d/|url-status=live}} The early Tamil literature was compiled and classified into two categories: Patinenmelkanakku ("Eighteen Greater Texts") consisting of the Ettuttokai ("Eight Anthologies") and the Pattuppattu ("Ten Idylls"), and the Patinenkilkanakku ("Eighteen Lesser Texts").{{cite book|first=Takanobu|last=Takahashi|title=Tamil Love Poetry and Poetics|year=1995|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wgCHuVGyZoEC&pg=PA1|publisher=Brill Publishers|isbn=90-04-10042-3|pages=1–3|access-date=15 July 2024|archive-date=15 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240715173544/https://books.google.co.in/books?id=wgCHuVGyZoEC&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}{{cite report|url=https://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/22251/5/Unit-10.pdf|title=Early Tamil society|page=2|publisher=Indira Gandhi National Open University|access-date=15 July 2024|archive-date=20 November 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231120154928/https://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/22251/5/Unit-10.pdf|url-status=live}}

The Tamil literature that followed in the next 300 years after the Sangam period is generally called the "post-Sangam" literature which included the Five Great Epics.{{sfn|Zvelebil|1992|p=12-13}}{{cite book|author=T.V. Mahalingam|title=Proceedings of the Second Annual Conference of the South Indian History Congress|year=1981|publisher=University of Michigan|pages=28–34}}{{cite book|title=Ancient Tamil Country: Its Social and Economic Structure|author=S. Sundararajan|publisher=Navrang|year=1991|page=233}} Another book of the post Sangam era is the Tirukkural, a book on ethics, by Thiruvalluvar.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aPpv2F2RRgcC|title=The Kural|author=P.S.Sundaram|publisher=Penguin Books|year=2005|isbn=978-9-35118-015-9|access-date=15 July 2024|archive-date=15 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240715173546/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Kural/aPpv2F2RRgcC|url-status=live}} In the beginning of the middle age, Vaishnava and Saiva literature became prominent following the Bhakti movement in 7th century CE with hymns composed by Alwars and Nayanmars.{{cite book|last=Pillai|first=P. Govinda|title=The Bhakti Movement: Renaissance or Revivalism?|date=4 October 2022|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-00078-039-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sep5EAAAQBAJ&pg=PT46|page=46|access-date=15 July 2024|archive-date=15 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240715173546/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/The_Bhakti_Movement/sep5EAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PT46|url-status=live}}{{cite book|last=Padmaja|first=T.|title=Temples of Kr̥ṣṇa in South India: History, Art, and Traditions in Tamil nāḍu|year=2002|publisher=Abhinav Publications|isbn=978-8-17017-398-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pzgaS1wRnl8C|page=47|access-date=15 July 2024|archive-date=30 June 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240630001437/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Temples_of_Kr%CC%A5%E1%B9%A3%E1%B9%87a_in_South_India/pzgaS1wRnl8C|url-status=live}}{{cite book|last1=Nair|first1=Rukmini Bhaya|title=Keywords for India: A Conceptual Lexicon for the 21st Century|last2=de Souza|first2=Peter Ronald|year=2020|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing|isbn=978-1-35003-925-4}} Notable work from the post-Bhakti period included Ramavataram by Kambar in 12th century CE and Tiruppugal by Arunagirinathar in 15th century CE.{{cite book|author=P.S.Sundaram|title=Kamba Ramayana|date=3 May 2002|publisher=Penguin Books|isbn=978-9-351-18100-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EPTcCd32pJIC|pages=18–|access-date=15 July 2024|archive-date=15 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240715173549/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Kamba_Ramayana/EPTcCd32pJIC|url-status=live}}{{cite book|last1=Bergunder|first1=Michael|title=Ritual, Caste, and Religion in Colonial South India|last2=Frese|first2=Heiko|last3=Schröder|first3=Ulrike|date=2011|publisher=Primus Books|isbn=978-9-380-60721-4|page=107|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OcEM2IsnA1AC|access-date=15 July 2024|archive-date=15 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240715173548/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Ritual_Caste_and_Religion_in_Colonial_So/OcEM2IsnA1AC|url-status=live}} In 1578, the Portuguese published a Tamil book in old Tamil script named Thambiraan Vanakkam, thus making Tamil the first Indian language to be printed and published.{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/tamil-saw-its-first-book-in-1578/article476102.ece|title=Tamil saw its first book in 1578|author=Karthik Madhavan|newspaper=The Hindu|access-date=8 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101181012/http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/tamil-saw-its-first-book-in-1578/article476102.ece|archive-date=1 January 2016|url-status=live|date=21 June 2010}} Tamil Lexicon, published by the University of Madras between 1924 and 1939, was amongst the first comprehensive dictionaries published in the language.{{cite news|last=Kolappan|first=B.|title=Delay, howlers in Tamil Lexicon embarrass scholars|newspaper=The Hindu|date=22 June 2014|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/delay-howlers-in-tamil-lexicon-embarrass-scholars/article6138747.ece|access-date=25 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140704063848/http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/delay-howlers-in-tamil-lexicon-embarrass-scholars/article6138747.ece|archive-date=4 July 2014|url-status=live}}{{cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/Madras-Miscellany-The-Tamil-Lexicon/article14964046.ece|title=The Tamil Lexicon|date=27 March 2011|access-date=1 December 2023|newspaper=The Hindu|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716133220/https://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/Madras-Miscellany-The-Tamil-Lexicon/article14964046.ece|url-status=live}} The 19th century gave rise to Tamil Renaissance and writings and poems by authors such as Meenakshi Sundaram Pillai, U.V.Swaminatha Iyer, Damodaram Pillai, V. Kanakasabhai and others.{{cite book|title=The embodiment of bhakti|author=Karen Prechilis|pages=8|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19512-813-0|year=1999|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vu95WgeUBfEC|access-date=15 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716133221/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/The_Embodiment_of_Bhakti/Vu95WgeUBfEC|url-status=live}}{{cite book|title=Tamil Renaissance and the Dravidian Movement, 1905-1944|first=K. Nambi|last=Arooran|publisher=University of Michigan|year=1980|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WxluAAAAMAAJ|access-date=15 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716133221/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Tamil_Renaissance_and_Dravidian_National/WxluAAAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}{{cite web|url=https://frontline.thehindu.com/books/seeds-of-tamil-renaissance/article5787804.ece|title=Seeds of Tamil Renaissance|author=Theodore Baskaran|date=19 March 2014|work=Frontline|access-date=1 June 2024|archive-date=21 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231021193425/https://frontline.thehindu.com/books/seeds-of-tamil-renaissance/article5787804.ece|url-status=live}} During the Indian Independence Movement, many Tamil poets and writers sought to provoke national spirit, notably Bharathiar and Bharathidasan.{{cite journal|url=https://www.jlls.org/index.php/jlls/article/download/5312/1872|title=Bharathiyar Who Impressed Bharatidasan|journal=Journal of Language and Linguistic Studies|access-date=1 December 2023|issn=1305-578X|archive-date=24 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231224200602/https://www.jlls.org/index.php/jlls/article/download/5312/1872|url-status=live}}{{cite book|title=Indian Literature: An Introduction|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mivv3p-msd8C&pg=PA125|publisher=Pearson Education|year=2005|isbn=978-8-13170-520-9|page=125|access-date=6 October 2016|archive-date=28 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228174600/https://books.google.com/books?id=mivv3p-msd8C&pg=PA125|url-status=live}}

According to Tamil literature, there are 64 art forms called aayakalaigal.{{cite book|title=Āya kalaikaḷ ar̲upattunān̲ku|author=Centur̲aimuttu|year=1978|page=2|publisher=University of Michigan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r88zAAAAMAAJ|access-date=15 July 2024|archive-date=15 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240715175323/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/%C4%80ya_kalaika%E1%B8%B7_ar%CC%B2upattun%C4%81n%CC%B2ku/r88zAAAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}{{cite book|title=Heritage of the Tamils: Siddha Medicine|year=1983|publisher=International Institute of Tamil Studies|first=Ca. Vē|last=Cuppiramaṇiyan̲|page=554}} The art is classified into two broad categories: kavin kalaigal (beautiful art forms) which include architecture, sculpture, painting and poetry and nun kalaigal (fine art forms) which include dance, music and drama.{{cite book|title=Communication as Mission|year=2007|isbn=978-8-18458-006-8|publisher=Indian Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge|editor1=Jose Joseph|editor2=L. Stanislaus|page=123|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oBCBgO0chcMC|access-date=15 July 2024|archive-date=15 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240715175324/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Communication_as_Mission/oBCBgO0chcMC|url-status=live}}

File:Andal Temple.jpg is a hallmark of Dravidian architecture]]

Dravidian architecture is the distinct style of architecture of the Tamils. The large gopurams, which are monumental ornate towers at the entrance of the temples form a prominent feature of Hindu temples of the Dravidian style.{{cite book|last=Fergusson|first=James|title=History of Indian and Eastern Architecture: Volume 1|publisher=John Murray|location=London|page=309|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofindiana030585mbp/page/308/mode/2up|year=1910|author-link=James Fergusson (architect)}}{{cite book|author=Francis Ching|year=1995|title=A Visual Dictionary of Architecture|publisher=John Wiley and Sons|location=New York|isbn=978-0-4712-8451-2|page=253|url=https://ia802804.us.archive.org/18/items/avisualdictionaryofarchitecture/A%20Visual%20Dictionary%20of%20Architecture.pdf}}{{cite book|author1=Francis Ching|author2=Mark Jarzombek|author3=Vikramaditya Prakash|year=2017|title=A Global History of Architecture|publisher=John Wiley and Sons|location=New York|isbn=978-1-11898-161-0|page=320|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BtuHDgAAQBAJ|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716133737/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/A_Global_History_of_Architecture/BtuHDgAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HINqPkgNr2MC&pg=PA6|page=6|title=Hinduism|author=David Rose|year=1995|isbn=978-1-85276-770-9|publisher=Folens|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716133729/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Hinduism/HINqPkgNr2MC?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PA6|url-status=live}} They are topped by kalasams (finials) and function as gateways through the walls that surround the temple complex.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mgPXEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA224|page=224|title=History of Interior Design|author=Jeannie Ireland|year=2018|isbn=978-1-50131-989-1|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716133737/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/History_of_Interior_Design/mgPXEAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PA224|url-status=live}} There are a number of early rock-cut cave-temples established by the various Tamil kingdoms.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9g_uDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA313|page=313|title=The Art of Ancient India: Buddhist, Hindu, Jain|author1=Susan L. Huntington|author2=John C. Huntington|year=2014|isbn=978-8-12083-617-4|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716133737/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/The_Art_of_Ancient_India/9g_uDwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PA313|url-status=live}}{{cite book|title=Cave-temples in the Regions of the Pāṇdya, Muttaraiya, Atiyamān̤ and Āy Dynasties in Tamil Nadu and Kerala|first=D.|last=Dayalan|year=2014|publisher=Archaeological Survey of India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HnPOAQAACAAJ|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716062055/https://books.google.co.in/books/about/Cave_temples_in_the_Regions_of_the_P%C4%81.html?id=HnPOAQAACAAJ|url-status=live}}{{cite book|title=Cave-temples of the Pallavas|author=K. R. Srinivasan|year=1964|publisher=Archaeological Survey of India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZNdOAAAAYAAJ|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716133730/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Cave_temples_of_the_Pallavas/ZNdOAAAAYAAJ|url-status=live}} The Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram, built by the Pallavas in the 7th and 8th centuries has more than forty rock-cut temples, monoliths and rock reliefs.{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/249|title=Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram|publisher=UNESCO|access-date=3 April 2022|archive-date=2 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191202145914/http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/249|url-status=live}}{{cite book|author=James G. Lochtefeld|title=The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: A-M|url=https://archive.org/details/illustratedencyc0000loch|url-access=registration|year=2002|publisher=Rosen Publishing|isbn=978-0-82393-179-8|page=399}}{{cite book|title=Sacred Places of a Lifetime: 500 of the World's Most Peaceful and Powerful Destinations|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jNqDFSxR8-MC&pg=PA154|year=2008|publisher=National Geographic Society|isbn=978-1-42620-336-7|page=154}} The Pallavas, who built the group of monuments in Mahabalipuram and Kanchipuram, were one of the earliest patronisers of the Dravidian architectural style.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nzpYb5UOeiwC|page=15|title=Cultural History of India|author=Om Prakash|year=2005|isbn=978-8-12241-5-872|publisher=New Age International|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716133738/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Cultural_History_of_India/nzpYb5UOeiwC|url-status=live}} These gateways became regular features in the Cholas and the Pandya architecture, was later expanded by the Vijayanagara and the Nayaks and spread to other parts such as Sri Lanka.{{cite journal|url=https://quod.lib.umich.edu/a/ars/13441566.0045.004/--tamil-gopura-from-temple-gateway-to-global-icon?rgn=main;view=fulltext|title=The Tamil Gopura From Temple Gateway to Global Icon|author=Crispin Branfoot|journal=Ars Orientalis|date=2015|volume=45|publisher=University of Michigan|doi=10.3998/ars.13441566.0045.004|access-date=1 June 2024|archive-date=4 June 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240604025548/https://quod.lib.umich.edu/a/ars/13441566.0045.004/--tamil-gopura-from-temple-gateway-to-global-icon?rgn=main;view=fulltext|url-status=live}}{{cite book|last=Michell|first=George|title=The Hindu Temple|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1988|location=Chicago|pages=151–153|isbn=978-0-22653-230-1|url=https://archive.org/details/hindutempleintro0000mich/page/8/mode/2up}}{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9037402/gopura|title=Gopuram|encyclopedia=Britannica|access-date=20 January 2008|archive-date=19 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200819003114/https://www.britannica.com/technology/gopura|url-status=live}} There are more than 34,000 temples in Tamil Nadu built across various periods some of which are several centuries old.{{cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chennai/Tamil-Nadu-Andhra-Pradesh-build-temple-ties-to-boost-tourism/articleshow/6284409.cms|title=Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh build temple ties to boost tourism|newspaper=The Times of India|date=10 August 2010|access-date=1 December 2023|archive-date=18 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230418203859/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chennai/Tamil-Nadu-Andhra-Pradesh-build-temple-ties-to-boost-tourism/articleshow/6284409.cms|url-status=live}} The influence of Tamil culture had led to the construction of various temples outside India by the Tamil dispora.{{cite news|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/nri/web-stories/10-hindu-temples-to-visit-outside-india/slideshow/104720622.cms?from=mdr|title=Ten Hindu temples to visit outside India|date=23 October 2021|access-date=1 June 2024|newspaper=The Economic Times|archive-date=2 August 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240802114059/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/nri/web-stories/10-hindu-temples-to-visit-outside-india/slideshow/104720622.cms?from=mdr|url-status=live}}{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/travel/destinations/5-hindu-temples-outside-india-that-are-worth-a-visit/photostory/87366618.cms?picid=87366637|title=Five Hindu temples to visit outside India that are worth a visit|date=29 October 2021|access-date=1 June 2024|newspaper=The Times of India|archive-date=2 August 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240802114059/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/travel/destinations/5-hindu-temples-outside-india-that-are-worth-a-visit/photostory/87366618.cms?picid=87366637|url-status=live}} The Mugal influence in medieval times and the British influence later gave rise to a blend of Hindu, Islamic and Gothic revival styles, resulting in the distinct Indo-Saracenic architecture with several institutions during the British era following the style.{{cite journal|last=Metcalfe|first=Thomas R.|title=A Tradition Created: Indo-Saracenic Architecture under the Raj|journal=History Today|volume=32|issue=9|url=http://www.historytoday.com/thomas-r-metcalfe/tradition-created-indo-saracenic-architecture-under-raj|access-date=28 December 2012|archive-date=18 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180618230153/https://www.historytoday.com/thomas-r-metcalfe/tradition-created-indo-saracenic-architecture-under-raj|url-status=live}}{{cite web|title=Indo-saracenic Architecture|work=Henry Irwin, Architect in India, 1841–1922|publisher=higman.de|url=http://www.higman.de/Henry%20Irwin/indo-saracenic.htm|access-date=28 December 2012|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200730131008/http://www.higman.de/Henry%20Irwin/indo-saracenic.htm|archive-date=30 July 2020}}{{cite report|last=Jeyaraj|first=George J.|title=Indo Saracenic Architecture in Channai|work=Chennai Metropolitan Development Authority|url=http://www.cmdachennai.gov.in/pdfs/seminar_heritage_buildings/Indo_Saracenic_Architecture_in_Chennai.pdf|access-date=28 December 2012|archive-date=25 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210725063408/http://www.cmdachennai.gov.in/pdfs/seminar_heritage_buildings/Indo_Saracenic_Architecture_in_Chennai.pdf|url-status=live}} By the early 20th century, the art deco made its entry upon in the urban landscape.{{cite web|title=Art Deco Style Remains, But Elements Missing|date=2 September 2014|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/chennai/2014/sep/02/art-deco-style-remains-but-elements-missing-655242.html|work=The New Indian Express|access-date=28 December 2022|archive-date=8 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231208132502/https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/chennai/2014/sep/02/Art-Deco-Style-Remains-But-Elements-Missing-655242.html|url-status=live}} In the later part of the century, the architecture witnessed a rise in the modern concrete buildings.{{cite web|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/chennai-a-rich-amalgamation-of-various-architectural-styles/article32451353.ece|title=Chennai, a rich amalgamation of various architectural styles|date=27 August 2020|access-date=1 June 2024|work=The Hindu|archive-date=17 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230717174553/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/chennai-a-rich-amalgamation-of-various-architectural-styles/article32451353.ece|url-status=live}}{{cite web|title=Chennai looks to the skies|date=31 October 2014|url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/homes-and-gardens/Five-years-after-the-CMDA-allowed-buildings-to-go-above-60-metres-Chennai%E2%80%99s-skyline-finally-begins-to-look-up-finds-Vishal-Menon/article60348870.ece|work=The Hindu|access-date=28 December 2022|archive-date=8 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231208132503/https://www.thehindu.com/features/homes-and-gardens/Five-years-after-the-CMDA-allowed-buildings-to-go-above-60-metres-Chennai%E2%80%99s-skyline-finally-begins-to-look-up-finds-Vishal-Menon/article60348870.ece|url-status=live}}

File:Krishna Rukmini Satyabhama Garuda.jpg with Rukmini and Satyabhama and his mount Garuda (12th–13th century CE){{cite web|url=http://collections.lacma.org/node/203163|title=Krishna Rajamannar with His Wives, Rukmini and Satyabhama, and His Mount, Garuda | LACMA Collections|publisher=collections.lacma.org|access-date=23 September 2014|archive-date=16 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140716040855/http://collections.lacma.org/node/203163|url-status=dead}}]]

Tamil sculpture ranges from stone sculptures in temples, to detailed bronze icons.{{cite web|title=Shilpaic literature of the tamils|first=V.|last=Ganapathi|url=http://www.intamm.com/arts/ancient.htm|publisher=INTAMM|access-date=4 December 2006|archive-date=16 October 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061016163149/http://www.intamm.com/arts/ancient.htm|url-status=live}} The bronze statues of the Cholas are considered to be one of the greatest contributions of Tamil art.{{cite journal|first=Aschwin|last=Lippe|date=December 1971|title=Divine Images in Stone and Bronze: South India, Chola Dynasty (c. 850–1280)|journal=Metropolitan Museum Journal|volume=4|pages=29–79|quote=The bronze icons of the Early Chola period are one of India's greatest contributions to world art...|doi=10.2307/1512615|publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art|jstor=1512615|s2cid=192943206}} Models made of a special mixture of beeswax and sal tree resin were encased in clay and fired to melt the wax leaving a hollow mould, which would then be filled with molten metal and cooled to produce bronze statues.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=23F7vTn3hBMC|page=8|title=Art of the Imperial Cholas|author=Vidya Dehejia|year=1990|isbn=978-0-23151-524-5|publisher=Columbia University Press|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716133749/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Art_of_the_Imperial_Cholas/23F7vTn3hBMC|url-status=live}} Tamil paintings are usually centered around natural, religious or aesthetic themes.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lD47AAAAMAAJ|page=459|title=Heritage of the Tamils: Art & Architecture|year=1983|publisher=International Institute of Tamil Studies|editor=Ca. Vē Cuppiramaṇiyan̲|author=Ē. En̲ Perumāḷ|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716134237/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Heritage_of_the_Tamils/lD47AAAAMAAJ?|url-status=live}} Sittanavasal is a rock-cut monastery and temple attributed to Pandyas and Pallavas which consist of frescoes and murals from the 7th century CE, painted with vegetable and mineral dyes in over a thin wet surface of lime plaster.{{cite book|url=http://www.indian-heritage.org/swaminathan/sittannavasal/Sittannavasal%20-%20a%20booklet.pdf|author=Sudharsanam|title=A centre for Arts and Culture|access-date=26 October 2012|publisher=Indian Heritage Organization|archive-date=25 August 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130825144451/http://www.indian-heritage.org/swaminathan/sittannavasal/Sittannavasal%20-%20a%20booklet.pdf|url-status=live}}{{cite web|url=http://puratattva.in/2011/05/02/sittanavasal-the-legacy-of-chitrasutra-13.html|title=Sittanavasal – A passage to the Indian History and Monuments|access-date=26 October 2012|publisher=Puratattva|date=2 May 2011|archive-date=14 August 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120814174527/http://puratattva.in/2011/05/02/sittanavasal-the-legacy-of-chitrasutra-13.html|url-status=dead}}{{cite news|title=The Ajanta of TamilNadu|url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/2005/20051127/spectrum/main3.htm|newspaper=The Tribune|date=27 November 2005|access-date=1 December 2023|archive-date=5 April 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240405133236/https://www.tribuneindia.com/2005/20051127/spectrum/main3.htm|url-status=live}} Similar murals are found in temple walls, the most notable examples are the murals on the Ranganathaswamy Temple at Srirangam and the Brihadeeswarar temple at Thanjavur.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wnVuAAAAMAAJ|page=188|title=Tamil Nadu, a Real History|author=K. Rajayyan|year=2005|publisher=University of Michigan|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716134239/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Tamil_Nadu_a_Real_History/wnVuAAAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rI1DEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT141|page=141|title=Rajaraja Chola: Interplay Between an Imperial Regime and Productive Forces of Society|author=Raghavan Srinivasan|isbn=978-9-35458-2-233|publisher=Leadstart Publishing|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716134241/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Rajaraja_Chola_Interplay_Between_an_Impe/rI1DEAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PT141|url-status=live}}{{cite book|last=Nayanthara|first=S.|title=The World of Indian murals and paintings|publisher=Chillbreeze|year=2006|isbn=978-8-19040-551-5|pages=55–57|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FbVe7pZ6GEIC|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716134240/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Indian_Murals_and_Paintings/FbVe7pZ6GEIC|url-status=live}} One of the major forms of Tamil painting is Thanjavur painting, which originated in the 16th century CE where a base made of cloth and coated with zinc oxide is painted using dyes and then decorated with semi-precious stones, as well as silver or gold threads.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jv_VAAAAMAAJ|page=14|title=Thanjavur Paintings: Materials, Techniques & Conservation|author1=C. B. Gupta|author2=Mrinalini Mani|year=2005|isbn=978-8-18583-223-4|publisher=National Museum|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716134243/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Thanjavur_Paintings/jv_VAAAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}{{cite book|title=Tanjavur Painting of the Maratha Period: Volume 1|first=Jaya|last=Appasamy|isbn=978-8-17017-127-0|year=1980|publisher=Abhinav Publications|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GtqKd5a-t4oC|page=9|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716134243/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Tanjavur_Painting_of_the_Maratha_Period/GtqKd5a-t4oC|url-status=live}}

{{See also|Music of Tamil Nadu|Ancient Tamil music}}

File:Thaarai_Thappattai.jpeg and Thappattai, traditional music instruments]]

The ancient Tamil country had its own system of music called Tamil Pannisai.{{cite book|last=Rajagopal|first=Geetha|title=Music rituals in the temples of South India, Volume 1|year=2009|publisher=Dorling Kindersley|isbn=978-8-12460-538-7|pages=111–112|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SgVPAQAAIAAJ&q=pannisai}} Sangam literature such as the Silappatikaram from 2nd century CE describes music notes and instruments.{{cite book|last=Nijenhuis|first=Emmie te|title=Indian Music: History and Structure|publisher=Brill Publishers|year=1974|isbn=978-9-00403-978-0|pages=4–5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NrgfAAAAIAAJ|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=10 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231010005745/https://books.google.com/books?id=NrgfAAAAIAAJ|url-status=live}}{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lsctDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA241|page=241|title=Tamil Pozhil|publisher=Karanthai Tamil Sangam|year=1976|language=ta|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716145142/https://books.google.com/books?id=lsctDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA241#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}} A Pallava inscription dated to the 7th century CE has one of the earliest surviving examples of Indian music in notation.{{cite journal|title=Orality, writing and music in South Asia|date=December 2019|doi=10.13140/RG.2.2.31623.96169|author=Richard Widdess|journal=School of Oriental and African Studies|url=https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Kudumiyamalai-Music-Inscription-detail-South-India-7-th-century_fig1_338108595}}{{cite book|last=Widdess|first=D. R.|contribution=The Kudumiyamalai inscription: a source of early Indian music in notation|editor-last=Picken|editor-first=Laurence|title=Musica Asiatica|volume=2|place=London|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1979|pages=115–150}} The Pallava inscriptions from the period describe the playing of string instrument veena as a form of exercise for the fingers and the practice of singing musical hymns (Thirupadigam) in temples. From the 9th century CE, Shaivite hymns Thevaram and Vaishnavite hymns (Tiruvaymoli) were sung along with playing of musical instruments. Carnatic music originated later which included rhythmic and structured music by composers such Thyagaraja, Muthuswami Dikshitar, and Shyama Shastri.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pzurjfF3AE4C|page=ix-xvi|title=Music as a history in Tamil Nadu|author=T. K. Venkatasubramanian|year=2010|isbn=978-9-38060-7-061|publisher=Primus Books|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716134755/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Music_as_History_in_Tamilnadu/pzurjfF3AE4C|url-status=live}}{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/art/Karnatak-music|title=Karnatak music|encyclopedia=Britannica|access-date=1 March 2023|archive-date=7 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307064333/https://www.britannica.com/art/Karnatak-music|url-status=live}} Villu Paatu is an ancient form of musical story-telling method where narration is interspersed with music played from a string bow and accompanying instruments.{{cite book|editor-last=Sadie|editor-first=Stanley|author=Alastair Dick|title=The New Grove Dictionary of Musical Instruments|publisher=Macmillan Press|year=1984|volume=3|page=727|isbn=978-0-943818-05-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hLTWAAAAMAAJ|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716134755/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/The_New_Grove_Dictionary_of_Musical_Inst/hLTWAAAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zB4n3MVozbUC&pg=PA1314|page=1314|title=Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature|year=1988|isbn=978-8-12601-194-0|publisher=Sahitya Akademi|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716134756/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Encyclopaedia_of_Indian_Literature/zB4n3MVozbUC?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PA1314|url-status=live}} Gaana, a combination of various folk musics is sung mainly in Chennai.{{cite news|title=Torching prejudice through gumption and Gaana|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/entertainment/music/101019/torching-prejudice-through-gumption-and-gaana.html|last=G|first=Ezekiel Majello|date=10 October 2019|newspaper=Deccan Chronicle|access-date=12 May 2020|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201206015436/https://www.deccanchronicle.com/entertainment/music/101019/torching-prejudice-through-gumption-and-gaana.html|archive-date=6 December 2020}}

There are many traditional instruments from the region dating back to the Sangam period such as parai,{{cite book|title=The Oxford Handbook of Applied Ethnomusicology|year=2015|isbn=978-0-199-35171-8|publisher=Oxford University Press|page=370|editor1=Jeff Todd Titon|editor2=Svanibor Pettan}} tharai,{{cite book|title=Harihara the Legacy of the Scroll|first=Nithyau|last=Ramkumar|year=2016|isbn=978-9-352-01769-0|publisher=Frog in well|quote=..Thaarai and thappattai, native instruments of Tamil people..}} yazh,{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7kc1DwAAQBAJ&q=yazh|title=Musical Instruments of India|author=S.Krishnaswami|year=2017|isbn=978-8-12302-494-3|publisher=Ministry of Information & Broadcasting, Government of India|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716134817/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Musical_Instruments_of_India/7kc1DwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=yazh|url-status=live}} and murasu.{{cite web|url=http://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/music/secular-and-sacred/article4268995.ece|title=Secular and sacred|work=The Hindu|date=3 January 2013|access-date=10 September 2016|archive-date=7 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107170943/http://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/music/secular-and-sacred/article4268995.ece|url-status=live}}{{cite book|title=When the Kurinji Blooms|first=Rājam|last=Kiruṣṇan̲|year=2002|page=124|isbn=978-8-12501-619-9|publisher=Orient BlackSwan}} Nadaswaram, a reed instrument that is often accompanied by the thavil, a type of drum instrument are the major musical instruments used in temples and weddings.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v875EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA43|pages=38, 43|title=Problems and prospects of handicraft artisans in Thanjavur district|author=K.Leelavathy|isbn=978-8-11965-350-8|publisher=Archers & Elevators Publishing House|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716145143/https://books.google.com/books?id=v875EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA43#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}} Melam is from a group of percussion instruments from the ancient Tamilakam which are played during events and functions.{{cite web|url=http://www.shaivam.org/siddhanta/isaikkaruvi/mis-thi-isai-karuvi-mathalam.htm|title=Mathalam - Ancient music instruments mentioned in Thirumurai|publisher=Shaivam.org|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130119053719/http://www.shaivam.org/siddhanta/isaikkaruvi/mis-thi-isai-karuvi-mathalam.htm|archive-date=19 January 2013|language=ta}}{{cite web|url=http://www.projectmadurai.org/pm_etexts/utf8/pmuni0127_01.html|title=11th TirumuRai Paurams|publisher=Project Madurai|access-date=1 June 2024|language=ta|archive-date=27 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210627210421/https://www.projectmadurai.org/pm_etexts/utf8/pmuni0127_01.html|url-status=live}}

{{Main|Dance forms of Tamil Nadu}}

File:Thanjavur,_Brihadishwara_Temple,_dance_(6851706080).jpg performance]]

Bharatanatyam is a major genre of Indian classical dance that originated from the Tamils.{{cite book|first=James|last=Lochtefeld|title=The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: A-M|year=2002|publisher=Rosen Publishing|isbn=978-0-82393-179-8|pages=103–104|url=https://ia802901.us.archive.org/15/items/JamesLochtefeldTheIllustratedEncyclopediaOfHinduism/James%20Lochtefeld%20The%20Illustrated%20Encyclopedia%20of%20Hinduism.pdf}}{{cite web|url=https://www.indiaculture.gov.in/dance|title=Bhartanatyam|publisher=Government of India|access-date=1 June 2024|archive-date=30 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240730074450/https://www.indiaculture.gov.in/dance|url-status=live}}{{cite book|last=Banerjee|first=Projesh|title=Indian Ballet Dancing|year=1983|publisher=Abhinav Publications|pages=42–43|isbn=978-0-391-02716-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5fXZKe3xHQAC|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716135259/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Indian_Ballet_Dancing/5fXZKe3xHQAC|url-status=live}}{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/art/bharata-natyam|title=Bharata-natyam|encyclopedia=Britannica|access-date=1 December 2023|archive-date=28 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211028175552/https://www.britannica.com/art/bharata-natyam|url-status=live}} It is one of the oldest classical dance forms of India.{{cite web|url=https://indianexpress.com/photos/lifestyle-gallery/in-pictures-on-international-dance-day-a-look-at-indias-famous-dance-forms-and-their-exponents-8580737/8/|title=On International Dance Day, a look at some of India's famous dance forms and their exponents|date=29 April 2023|access-date=1 June 2024|work=The Indian Express|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716135308/https://indianexpress.com/just-now-breaking-scroll/?current_story_id=8580737§ion_name=null|url-status=live}}{{cite book|author=Richard Schechner|title=Between Theater and Anthropology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DoEaulAxbu8C|year=2010|publisher=University of Pennsylvania|isbn=978-0-81227-929-0|page=65}} There are many folk dance forms that originated and are practiced in the region. Major folk dance forms include Karakattam and Kavadiattam which involve dancers balancing decorated pot(s) on their heads and arch shaped wooden sticks on their shoulders respectively while making dance movements with the body.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zQFlAAAAMAAJ|page=344|title=Kaṭṭaikkūttu: The Flexibility of a South Indian Theatre Tradition|author=Hanne M. de Bruin|year=1999|isbn=978-9-06980-103-2|publisher=University of Michigan|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716135302/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Ka%E1%B9%AD%E1%B9%ADaikk%C5%ABttu/zQFlAAAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}{{cite book|title=Ritual, State, and History in South Asia|first=J. C.|last=Heesterman|year=1992|page=465|isbn=978-9-00409-467-3|publisher=Brill Publishers|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EtwtSZwyWpgC&pg=PA465|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716135303/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Ritual_State_and_History_in_South_Asia/EtwtSZwyWpgC?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PA465|url-status=live}}{{cite book|title=Ethical Life in South Asia|year=2010|isbn=978-0-25335-528-7|publisher=Indiana University Press|page=105|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7R_nwe6r5R0C|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716135304/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Ethical_Life_in_South_Asia/7R_nwe6r5R0C|url-status=live}}{{cite book|title=Portals: Opening Doorways to Other Realities Through the Senses|first=Lynne|last=Hume|year=2020|isbn=978-1-00018-987-2|publisher=Taylor & Francis|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JWGtAwAAQBAJ|page=88|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716135305/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Portals/JWGtAwAAQBAJ|url-status=live}} Kolattam and Kummi are usually performed by women while singing songs.{{cite book|title=Dances Of India|year=2010|pages=60–65|isbn=978-8-12411-337-0|publisher=Har-Anand Publications|author=Shobana Gupta|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7KeAES9dsUcC|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716135305/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Dances_of_India/7KeAES9dsUcC|url-status=live}}{{cite web|url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/kolattam|title=Kolattam|publisher=Merriam Webster|access-date=1 June 2024|archive-date=1 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230201052339/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/kolattam|url-status=live}}{{cite book|title=Tamil Culture in Ceylon: A General Introduction|first=M. D.|last=Raghavan|year=1971|publisher=University of Michigan|pages=274–275|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Fb4LAAAAIAAJ|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316094022/https://books.google.co.in/books/about/Tamil_culture_in_Ceylon.html?id=Fb4LAAAAIAAJ|url-status=live}}{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Hh03DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA919|page=990|title=The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music|year=2017|publisher=Taylor & Francis|editor=Allison Arnold|isbn=978-1-35154-438-2|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716135307/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/The_Garland_Encyclopedia_of_World_Music/Hh03DwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PA919|url-status=live}} In dances like Mayilattam, Puravaiattam, and Puliyattam, dancers dress like peacocks, horses and tigers respectively and headdresses perform movements imitating the animals.{{cite book|last=Madhavan|first=Arya|title=Kudiyattam Theatre and the Actor's Consciousness|year=2010|publisher=Brill Publishers|isbn=978-9-04202-799-2|page=113|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jfl5DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA113|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716135816/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Kudiyattam_Theatre_and_the_Actor_s_Consc/jfl5DwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PA113|url-status=live}}{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O3H8EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA207|page=207|title=Jhal Muri: Embracing Life's Unpredictable Flavours|author=Gaurab Dasgupta|year=2024|publisher=Blue Rose|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716135816/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Jhal_Muri_Embracing_Life_s_Unpredictable/O3H8EAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PA207|url-status=live}}{{cite book|title=Spirit of the Tiger|year=2012|isbn=978-1-44545-472-6|publisher=Parragon Publishing|page=206|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ixb0rUW0wV0C|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716135820/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Spirit_of_the_Tiger/Ixb0rUW0wV0C|url-status=live}}{{cite book|last=Snodgrass|first=Mary Ellen|title=The Encyclopedia of World Folk Dance|year=2016|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-1-44225-749-8|pages=26–27|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DMGpDAAAQBAJ|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716135820/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/The_Encyclopedia_of_World_Folk_Dance/DMGpDAAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zh6z0nuIjAgC&pg=PA224|page=224|title=History, Religion and Culture of India|year=2004|publisher=Isha books|isbn=978-8-18205-061-7|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716135822/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/History_Religion_and_Culture_of_India/zh6z0nuIjAgC?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PA224|url-status=live}}{{cite book|title=Traditions of Indian Folk Dance|first=Kapila|last=Vatsyayan|year=1987|page=337|isbn=978-8-18512-022-5|publisher=Clarion Books|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I2K1AAAAIAAJ|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716140331/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Traditions_of_Indian_Folk_Dance/I2K1AAAAIAAJ|url-status=live}} Other traditional dance forms include the war dance Oyilattam and Paraiattam.{{cite book|title=Reinventing the Arts in Modern South India|year=2008|isbn=978-0-19569-084-2|publisher=Oxford University Press|first1=Devesh|last1=Soneji|first2=Indira|last2=Viswanathan Peterson|pages=334–335|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_LImAQAAIAAJ&q=Oyilattam|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716135817/https://books.google.co.in/books?redir_esc=y&id=_LImAQAAIAAJ&focus=searchwithinvolume&q=Oyilattam|url-status=live}}{{cite web|url=http://www.szcc.tn.nic.in/states/taminadu/folk/oyilattam.html|title=Oyilattam|publisher=Government of Tamil Nadu, South Zone Cultural Center|access-date=3 August 2009|archive-date=19 June 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090619070144/http://www.szcc.tn.nic.in/states/taminadu/folk/oyilattam.html|url-status=dead}}{{cite web|url=https://www.nathalaya.co.uk/classical-and-carnatic-instruments/percussion-instruments/parai|title=Parai|publisher=Nathalaya|access-date=1 December 2023|archive-date=8 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231208162122/https://www.nathalaya.co.uk/classical-and-carnatic-instruments/percussion-instruments/parai|url-status=live}}

Koothu is a form of street theater that consists of a play performance which consists of dance along with music, narration and singing.{{cite book|title=Images of the Body in India: South Asian and European Perspectives on Rituals and Performativity|year=2012|isbn=978-1-13670-392-8|publisher=Taylor & Francis|editor1=Axel Michaels|editor2=Christoph Wulf|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ui2pAgAAQBAJ&q=koothu|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716140334/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Images_of_the_Body_in_India/ui2pAgAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=koothu|url-status=live}}{{cite book|title=Masks and Performance with Everyday Materials|first1=Gita|last1=Wolf|first2=V.|last2=Geetha|first3=Anushka|last3=Ravishankar|year=2003|isbn=978-8-18621-147-2|publisher=Tara Publishing|pages=37–38|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c4XWU6kr1_UC&pg=PA37|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716140337/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Masks_and_Performance_with_Everyday_Mate/c4XWU6kr1_UC?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PA37|url-status=live}} Bommalattam is a type of puppetry that uses various doll marionettes manipulated by rods and strings attached to them.{{cite book|title=Routledge Handbook of Asian Theatre|year=2016|isbn=978-1-317-27886-3|publisher=Taylor & Francis|first=Siyuan|last=Liu|page=182|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H1iFCwAAQBAJ|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716140340/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Routledge_Handbook_of_Asian_Theatre/H1iFCwAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}{{cite book|title=Theatres of India: A Concise Companion|year=2009|pages=71, 433|isbn=978-0-19569-917-3|publisher=Oxford University Press|first=Ananda|last=Lal|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DftkAAAAMAAJ|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716140347/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/The_Oxford_Companion_to_Indian_Theatre/DftkAAAAMAAJ?|url-status=live}}{{cite book|title=The Cambridge Guide to Asian Theatre|year=1997|isbn=978-0-521-58822-5|page=84|publisher=Cambridge University Press|first1=James|last1=Brandon|first2=Martin|last2=Banham|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ttnH5W9qoBAC}}

File:Indian katar push dagger.jpg, a dagger that originated in South India]]

Silambattam is a martial dance using a silambam, a long staff of about {{cvt|168|cm}} in length, often made of wood such as bamboo.{{cite web|title=Martial Arts (Silambam & Kalaripayattu)|url=https://fitindia.gov.in/events/martial-arts-sillambam-kalaripayattu/|publisher=Government of India|access-date=27 November 2020|archive-date=5 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201205090742/https://fitindia.gov.in/events/martial-arts-sillambam-kalaripayattu/|url-status=live}}{{cite news|last=Nainar|first=Nahla|date=20 January 2017|title=A stick in time …|newspaper=The Hindu|url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/art/A-stick-in-time-%E2%80%A6/article17067195.ece|access-date=11 February 2023|issn=0971-751X|archive-date=2 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230902212850/https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/art/A-stick-in-time-%E2%80%A6/article17067195.ece|url-status=live}} It was used for self-defense and to ward off animals and later evolved into a martial art and dance form.{{cite web|last=Sarkar|first=John|title=Dravidian martial art on a comeback mode|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/dravidian-martial-art-on-a-comeback-mode/articleshow/2788821.cms|access-date=5 December 2020|work=The Economic Times|date=17 February 2008|archive-date=31 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210731104255/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/dravidian-martial-art-on-a-comeback-mode/articleshow/2788821.cms|url-status=live}} Adimurai (or Kuttu varisai) is a martial art specializing in empty-hand techniques and application on vital points of the body.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QlI0fxSm1vgC&pg=PA36|page=36|title=The Way of the Warrior|author=Chris Crudelli|year=2008|isbn=978-1-40533-750-2|publisher=Dorling Kindersley|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716140848/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/The_Way_of_the_Warrior/QlI0fxSm1vgC?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PA36|url-status=live}}{{cite web|url=https://www.thehansindia.com/life-style/adimurai-oldest-form-of-martial-arts-in-the-world-783629|title=Adimurai|date=18 February 2023|work=The Hans India|access-date=1 June 2024|archive-date=29 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230329181645/https://www.thehansindia.com/life-style/adimurai-oldest-form-of-martial-arts-in-the-world-783629|url-status=live}}{{cite book|last=Luijendijk|first=D.H.|title=Kalarippayat: India's Ancient Martial Art|year=2005|publisher=Paladin Press|isbn=978-1-40922-626-0}} Varma kalai is a Tamil traditional art of vital points which combines alternative medicine and martial arts, attributed to sage Agastiyar and might form part of the training of other martial arts such as silambattam, adimurai or kalari.{{cite journal|author=Zarrilli, Phillip B.|year=1992|title=To Heal and/or To Harm: The Vital Spots (Marmmam/Varmam) in Two South Indian Martial Traditions Part I: Focus on Kerala's Kalarippayattu|url=https://spa.exeter.ac.uk/drama/staff/kalari/healharm.html|journal=Journal of Asian Martial Arts|volume=1|issue=1|access-date=23 February 2023|archive-date=1 June 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230601082829/https://spa.exeter.ac.uk/drama/staff/kalari/healharm.html|url-status=live}} Malyutham is the traditional form of combat-wrestling.{{cite journal|first=Joseph S.|last=Alter|author-link=Joseph Alter|date=May 1992|title=The sannyasi and the Indian wrestler: the anatomy of a relationship|journal=American Ethnologist|volume=19|issue=2|pages=317–336|issn=0094-0496|doi=10.1525/ae.1992.19.2.02a00070|jstor=645039|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/645039|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=9 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210309133400/https://www.jstor.org/stable/645039|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}}

Tamil martial arts uses various types of weapons such as valari (iron sickle), maduvu (deer horns), vaal (sword) and kedayam (shield), surul vaal (curling blade), itti or vel (spear), savuku (whip), kattari (fist blade), aruval (machete), silambam (bamboo staff), kuttu katai (spiked knuckleduster), kathi (dagger), vil ambu (bow and arrow), tantayutam (mace), soolam (trident), valari (boomerang), chakaram (discus) and theepandam (flaming baton).{{cite web|url=https://silambam.org.in/silambam-education-weapons.html|title=Silambam weapons|work=World Silambam Association|date=17 November 2023 |access-date=1 June 2024}}{{cite web|url=https://www.dailynews.lk/2024/05/13/featured/535362/hidden-dance-of-the-deadly-staff/|title=Hidden Dance of the Deadly Staff|date=13 May 2024|access-date=1 June 2024|work=Daily News}} Wootz steel used to make weapons, originated in the mid-1st millennium BCE in South India.{{cite journal|first=Sharada|last=Srinivasan|date=15 November 1994|title=Wootz crucible steel: a newly discovered production site in India|journal=Papers from the Institute of Archaeology|volume=5|pages=49–59|doi=10.5334/pia.60|doi-access=free }}{{Cite journal|last1=Wijepala|first1=W. M. T. B.|last2=Young|first2=Sansfica M.|last3=Ishiga|first3=Hiroaki|date=2022-04-01|title=Reading the archaeometallurgical findings of Yodhawewa site, Sri Lanka: contextualizing with South Asian metal history|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s41826-022-00046-0|journal=Asian Archaeology|language=en|volume=5|issue=1|pages=21–39|doi=10.1007/s41826-022-00046-0|s2cid=247355036|issn=2520-8101|access-date=13 September 2024|archive-date=13 September 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240913061300/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s41826-022-00046-0|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}}{{cite book|first=Herbert Henery|last=Coghlan|year=1977|title=Notes on prehistoric and early iron in the Old World|pages=99–100|edition=2nd|publisher=Pitt Rivers Museum}}{{cite journal|first=B.|last=Sasisekharan|year=1999|url=http://www.new1.dli.ernet.in/data1/upload/insa/INSA_1/20005b66_263.pdf|title=Technology of Iron and Steel in Kodumanal|journal=Indian Journal of History of Science|volume=34|number=4|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150724033115/http://www.new1.dli.ernet.in/data1/upload/insa/INSA_1/20005b66_263.pdf|archive-date=24 July 2015}} Locals in Sri Lanka adopted the production methods of creating wootz steel from the Cheras and the later trade introduced it to other parts of the world.{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Charlotte Speir|title=Ancient and Medieval India|volume=2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nmESJR3a0RYC&pg=PA365|isbn=978-0-543-92943-3|page=365|access-date=15 November 2015|archive-date=14 September 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240914124800/https://books.google.com/books?id=nmESJR3a0RYC&pg=PA365|url-status=live}}{{cite journal|first1=Sharada|last1=Srinivasan|first2=Srinivasa|last2=Ranganathan|title=India's Legendary Wootz Steel: An Advanced Material of the Ancient World|url=http://materials.iisc.ernet.in/~wootz/heritage/WOOTZ.htm|year=2004|journal=Iron & Steel Heritage of India|pages=69–82|oclc=82439861|access-date=23 July 2015|archive-date=11 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190211082829/http://materials.iisc.ernet.in/~wootz/heritage/WOOTZ.htm|url-status=live}} Since the early Sangam age, war was regarded as an honourable sacrifice and fallen heroes and kings were worshipped with hero stones and heroic martyrdom was glorified in ancient Tamil literature.{{cite book|author1=Peter J. Claus|author2=Sarah Diamond|author3=Margaret Ann Mills|title=South Asian Folklore: An Encyclopedia|year=2003|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-93919-5|pages=21, 386|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ienxrTPHzzwC|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=29 May 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220529095237/https://books.google.co.in/books?id=ienxrTPHzzwC&redir_esc=y|url-status=live}} Defeated kings committed Vatakkiruttal, a form of ritual suicide.{{cite book|title=The Four Hundred Songs of War and Wisdom: An Anthology of Poems from Classical Tamil, the Purananuru|year=2002|isbn=978-0-23151-252-7|publisher=Columbia University Press|author1=George L. Hart|author2=Hank Heifet|page=217}}

{{main|Tamil cinema|Tamil television soap opera}}

The Tamil film industry nicknamed as Kollywood and is one of the largest industries of film production in India.{{cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/hyderabad/Tamil-leads-as-India-tops-film-production/articleshow/21967065.cms|title=Tamil Nadu leads in film production|newspaper=The Times of India|date=22 August 2013|access-date=25 March 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141116192759/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/hyderabad/Tamil-leads-as-India-tops-film-production/articleshow/21967065.cms|archive-date=16 November 2014|url-status=live}}{{cite web|work=Business Standard|url=http://www.business-standard.com/india/news/tamil-telugu-film-industries-outshine-bollywood/238821/|title=Tamil, Telugu film industries outshine Bollywood|date=25 January 2006|access-date=19 February 2012|archive-date=25 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210325024848/https://www.business-standard.com/article/Companies/Tamil-Telugu-film-industries-outshine-Bollywood-106012501034_1.html|url-status=live}} Independent Tamil film production have also originated outside India in Sri Lanka, Singapore, Canada, and western Europe.{{cite book|last=Hiro|first=Dilip|title=After Empire: The Birth of a Multipolar World|year=2010|isbn=978-1-56858-427-0|page=248|publisher=Public Affairs|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Zlivv_pQWnAC&q=Kollywood&pg=PA248|access-date=20 October 2020|archive-date=22 August 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230822035814/https://books.google.com/books?id=Zlivv_pQWnAC&q=Kollywood&pg=PA248|url-status=live }} The concept of "Tent Cinema" was introduced in the early 1900s, in which a tent was erected on a stretch of open land close to a town or village to screen the films.{{cite web|date=18 October 2013|title=A way of life|work=Frontline|url=https://www.frontline.in/arts-and-culture/cinema/a-way-of-life/article5189219.ece|access-date=19 June 2018|archive-date=6 February 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140206150806/https://www.frontline.in/arts-and-culture/cinema/a-way-of-life/article5189219.ece|url-status=live}}{{cite web|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Coimbatore/Cinema-and-the-city/article15513259.ece|title=Cinema and the city|date=9 January 2009|newspaper=The Hindu|access-date=1 March 2023|archive-date=23 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221023234933/https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Coimbatore/Cinema-and-the-city/article15513259.ece|url-status=live}}{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/coimbatore/farewell-to-old-cinema-halls/articleshow/8202426.cms|title=Farewell to old cinema halls|date=9 May 2011|work=Times of India|access-date=19 June 2018|archive-date=5 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151005001958/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/coimbatore/Farewell-to-old-cinema-halls/articleshow/8202426.cms|url-status=live}} The first silent film in South India was produced in Tamil in 1916 and the first Tamil talkie film was Kalidas, which released on 31 October 1931, barely seven months after the release of India's first talking picture Alam Ara.{{cite book|last=Velayutham|first=Selvaraj|title=Tamil cinema: the cultural politics of India's other film industry|page=2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=65Aqrna4o5oC&q=Tamil+cinema+industry|isbn=978-0-415-39680-6|year=2008|publisher=Routledge|access-date=20 October 2020|archive-date=22 August 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230822035817/https://books.google.com/books?id=65Aqrna4o5oC&q=Tamil+cinema+industry|url-status=live }}{{cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/chennai/from-silent-films-to-the-digital-era-madras-tryst-with-cinema/article32476615.ece|title=From silent films to the digital era — Madras' tryst with cinema|newspaper=The Hindu|date=30 August 2020|access-date=29 June 2021|archive-date=8 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201108035615/https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/chennai/from-silent-films-to-the-digital-era-madras-tryst-with-cinema/article32476615.ece|url-status=live}}

File:Kanchipuram sarees (7642282200).jpgs worn by women on special occasions.{{cite news|title=Weaving through the threads|work=The Hindu|date=30 March 2012 |url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-editorialfeatures/weaving-through-threads-of-kancheepurams-history/article3264339.ece|access-date=7 March 2015|archive-date=14 June 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140614090426/http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-editorialfeatures/weaving-through-threads-of-kancheepurams-history/article3264339.ece|url-status=live}}]]

Ancient literature and epigraphical records describe the various types of dresses worn by Tamil people.{{cite book|last=Parthasarathy|first=R.|year=1993|title=The Tale of an Anklet: An Epic of South India – The Cilappatikaram of Ilanko Atikal, Translations from the Asian Classics|publisher=Columbia University Press|location=New York|isbn=978-0-23107-849-8}}{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ALUvDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA34|page=34|title=Historical Dictionary of the Tamils|author=Vijaya Ramaswamy|year=2017|isbn=978-1-53810-686-0|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716140850/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Historical_Dictionary_of_the_Tamils/ALUvDwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PA34|url-status=live}} Tamil women traditionally wear a sari, a garment that consists of a drape varying from {{cvt|15|ft|order=flip}} to {{cvt|27|ft|order=flip}} in length and {{cvt|2|ft|order=flip}} to {{cvt|4|ft|order=flip}} in breadth that is typically wrapped around the waist, with one end draped over the shoulder, baring the midriff.{{cite book|last=Boulanger|first=Chantal|title=Saris: An Illustrated Guide to the Indian Art of Draping|year=1997|publisher=Shakti Press International|location=New York|isbn=978-0-96614-961-6|page=6,15|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_1pEAAAAYAAJ|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716140902/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Saris/_1pEAAAAYAAJ|url-status=live}}{{cite book|last=Lynton|first=Linda|title=The Sari|year=1995|publisher=Harry N. Abrams|location=New York|isbn=978-0-50028-378-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v4dlQgAACAAJ|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716140858/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/The_Sari/v4dlQgAACAAJ|url-status=live}}{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ohvzDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA196|page=196|title=Indian Art & Culture|author=Anurag Kumar|year=2016|isbn=978-9-35094-484-4|publisher=Arihant Publication|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716140858/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Indian_Art_Culture/ohvzDwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PA196|url-status=live}} Women wear colourful silk sarees on traditional occasions.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V5P_EAAAQBAJ&pg=PT47|page=47|title=Exploring The Riches Of India|author=Nick Huyes|date=10 May 2024|publisher=Nicky Huys Books|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716150217/https://books.google.com/books?id=V5P_EAAAQBAJ&pg=PT47#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}{{cite book|title=Sociology of Religion|first1=Susanne|last1=C. Monahan|first2=William|last2=Andrew Mirola|first3=Michael|last3=O. Emerson|publisher=Prentice Hall|year=2001|isbn=978-0-13025-380-4|page=83}} Young girls wear a long skirt called pavaadai along with a shorter length sari called dhavani. The men wear a dhoti, a {{cvt|1.9|m}} long, white rectangular piece of non-stitched cloth often bordered in brightly coloured stripes which is usually wrapped around the waist and the legs and knotted at the waist.{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/dhoti|title=About Dhoti|encyclopedia=Britannica|access-date=12 January 2016|archive-date=13 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160313150055/http://www.britannica.com/topic/dhoti|url-status=live}} A colourful lungi with typical batik patterns is the most common form of male attire in the countryside.{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/India/Clothing|title=Clothing in India|encyclopedia=Britannica|access-date=12 January 2016|archive-date=17 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160317074255/http://www.britannica.com/place/India/Clothing|url-status=live}} People in urban areas generally wear tailored clothing, and western dress is popular. Western-style school uniforms are worn by both boys and girls in schools, even in rural areas.

{{main|Tamil calendar}}

The Tamil calendar is a sidereal solar calendar.{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/indiancalendarwi00sewerich/page/12/mode/2up?q=tamil|pages=11–12|author1=Robert Sewell|author2=Sankara Dikshit|title=The Indian Calendar|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|year=1995}} The Tamil Panchangam is based on the same and is generally used in contemporary times to check auspicious times for cultural and religious events.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y4RIDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA226|page=226|title=Singapore Ethnic Mosaic, The: Many Cultures, One People|year=2017|isbn=978-9-81323-475-8|publisher=World Scientific Publishing Company|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716150230/https://books.google.com/books?id=Y4RIDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA226#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}} The calendar follows a 60-year cycle.{{cite web|url=https://www.saveca.ca/Sixty%20year%20cycle.pdf|title=Sixty year cycle|publisher=Sankara Vedic Culture and Arts|access-date=1 June 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716143712/https://www.saveca.ca/Sixty%20year%20cycle.pdf|url-status=live}} There are 12 months in a year starting with Chithirai when the Sun enters the first Rāśi and the number of days in a month varies between 29 and 32.{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/IndianCalendricSystem-SK-Chatterjee/page/n15/mode/2up?q=tamil|author=S.K. Chatterjee|title=Indian Calendric System|publisher=Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India|year=1998|pages=9–12}} The new year starts following the March equinox in the middle of April.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dbibAAAAQBAJ|page=809|title=Britannica Encyclopedia of World Religions|publisher=Encyclopaedia Britannica|year=2008|isbn=978-1-59339-491-2|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=6 August 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240806053301/https://books.google.com/books?id=dbibAAAAQBAJ|url-status=live}} The days of week (kiḻamai) in the Tamil calendar relate to the celestial bodies in the Solar System: Sun, Moon, Mars, Mercury, Jupiter, Venus, and Saturn, in that order.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w76Ler3OvEcC&pg=PA631|page=631|title=Tamil dictionary|author=Johann Philipp Fabricius|year=1998|isbn=978-8-12060-264-9|publisher=Asian Educational Services|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=6 August 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240806053231/https://books.google.com/books?id=w76Ler3OvEcC&pg=PA631#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}

File:South Indian food cuisine.jpg

{{Main|Tamil cuisine}}

Hospitality is a major feature of Tamil culture.{{cite book|title=Tamil Culture: Religion, Culture, and Literature|author=A. Kiruṭṭin̲an̲|year=2000|isbn=978-8-18605-052-1|publisher=Bharatiya Kala Prakashan|page=77}} It was considered as a social obligation and offering food to guests was regarded as one of the highest virtues.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8KuQkclfSxsC&pg=PA658|page=658|title=Social Problems in India|author=Selwyn Stanley|year=2004|isbn=978-8-17764-708-2|publisher=Allied Publishers|access-date=15 July 2024|archive-date=15 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240715174158/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Social_Problems_in_India/8KuQkclfSxsC?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PA658|url-status=live}}{{cite journal|url=https://irjt.iorpress.org/index.php/irjt/article/view/1049|title=Hospitality Characteristics of Tamil People|journal=International Tamil Research|volume=4|year=2022|access-date=15 July 2024|archive-date=17 August 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220817042310/https://irjt.iorpress.org/index.php/irjt/article/view/1049|url-status=live}} Rice is the diet staple and is served with sambar, rasam, and poriyal as a part of a Tamil meal.{{cite web|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/chennai/2024/Jul/09/rediscovering-the-richness-of-rice|title=Rediscovering the richness of rice|date=9 July 2024|access-date=11 July 2024|publisher=The New Indian Express|archive-date=11 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240711010328/https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/chennai/2024/Jul/09/rediscovering-the-richness-of-rice|url-status=live}}{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_HwMAQAAMAAJ&q=tamil+meal+sambar+rasam+poriyal|page=412|title=South India Heritage: An Introduction|year=2007|isbn=978-8-18866-164-0|publisher=East West Books}} Bananas find mention in the Sangam literature and the traditional way of eating a meal involves having the food served on a banana leaf, which is discarded after the meal. Eating on banana leaves imparts a unique flavor to the food, and is considered healthy.{{cite book|title=The Bloomsbury Handbook of Indian Cuisine|year=2023|isbn=978-1-350-12864-4|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3jusEAAAQBAJ|page=41|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716151737/https://books.google.com/books?id=3jusEAAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}{{cite web|url=https://iskconhighertaste.com/bananaleaf_sattvic.html|title=Serving on a banana leaf|publisher=ISCKON|access-date=1 January 2023|archive-date=31 May 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230531220859/http://iskconhighertaste.com/bananaleaf_sattvic.html|url-status=live}}{{cite web|url=https://www.indiatimes.com/health/healthyliving/the-benefits-of-eating-food-on-banana-leaves-242512.html|title=The Benefits of Eating Food on Banana Leaves|work=India Times|date=9 March 2015|access-date=20 March 2016|archive-date=7 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307041415/http://www.indiatimes.com/health/healthyliving/the-benefits-of-eating-food-on-banana-leaves-242512.html|url-status=live}} Food is usually eaten seated on the floor and the finger tips of the right hand is used to take the food to the mouth.{{cite book|title=India: The Culture|first=Bobbie|last=Kalman|publisher=Crabtree Publishing Company|year=2009|page=29|isbn=978-0-7787-9287-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UuDBEsOF6G4C|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=19 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180419005150/https://books.google.com/books?id=UuDBEsOF6G4C|url-status=live}}

There are regional sub-varieties namely Chettinadu, Kongunadu, Nanjilnadu, Pandiyanadu and Sri Lankan Tamil cuisines.{{cite web|url=https://www.tamilnadutourism.tn.gov.in/food/recipes|title=Food recipes|publisher=Government of Tamil Nadu|access-date=1 June 2024|archive-date=10 June 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240610171229/https://www.tamilnadutourism.tn.gov.in/food/recipes|url-status=live}}{{cite web|title=Big, bold flavours from a small island|url=https://www.deccanherald.com/lifestyle/food-and-drink/big-bold-flavours-from-a-small-island-2866110|date=28 January 2024|access-date=1 June 2024|publisher=Deccan Herald|archive-date=28 January 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240128000946/https://www.deccanherald.com/lifestyle/food-and-drink/big-bold-flavours-from-a-small-island-2866110|url-status=live}} There are both vegetarian and meat dishes with fish traditionally consumed across the coast and other meat preferred in the interiors. The Chettinadu cuisine is popular for its meat based dishes and generous usage of spices.{{cite web|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/cons-products/food/indias-pluralism-traditional-cuisines-of-tamil-nadu-largely-about-meat-fish/articleshow/49304324.cms?from=mdr|title=India's pluralism: Traditional cuisines of Tamil Nadu largely about meat & fish|publisher=The Economic Times|date=11 October 2015|access-date=1 June 2024|archive-date=20 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201220160216/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/cons-products/food/indias-pluralism-traditional-cuisines-of-tamil-nadu-largely-about-meat-fish/articleshow/49304324.cms?from=mdr|url-status=live}} The Kongunadu cuisine uses less spices and are generally cooked fresh. It uses coconut, sesame seeds, groundnut, and turmeric to go with various cereals and pulses grown in the region.{{cite web|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/web-only/2023/Jul/22/flavours-of-kongunadu-there-are-several-tamil-nadus-when-it-comes-to-food-2597501.html|title=Flavours of Kongunadu: There are several Tamil Nadus when it comes to food|date=22 July 2023|access-date=1 June 2024|publisher=The New Indian Express|archive-date=22 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230722180757/https://www.newindianexpress.com/web-only/2023/jul/22/flavours-of-kongunadu-there-are-several-tamil-nadus-when-it-comes-to-food-2597501.html|url-status=live}} Nanjilnadu cuisine is milder and is usually based on fish and vegetables. Sri Lankan Tamil cuisine uses gingelly oil and jaggery along with coconut and spices, which differentiates it from the other culinary traditions in the island. Biryani is a popular dish with several different versions prepared across various regions. Idli, and dosa are popular breakfast dishes and other dishes cooked by to the Tamil people include upma,{{cite web|url=https://www.timesnownews.com/lifestyle/food/recipes/6-breakfast-items-from-tamil-nadu-to-have-instead-of-idli-and-dosa-article-108816150|title=6 Breakfast Items From Tamil Nadu To Have Instead Of Idli and Dosa|date=27 March 2024|access-date=1 June 2024|publisher=Times Now|archive-date=27 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240327235308/https://www.timesnownews.com/lifestyle/food/recipes/6-breakfast-items-from-tamil-nadu-to-have-instead-of-idli-and-dosa-article-108816150|url-status=live}} idiappam,{{cite book|first=K.T.|last=Achaya|title=The Story of Our Food|date=1 November 2003|publisher=Universities Press|isbn=978-8-17371-293-7|page=80}} pongal,{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4QHE-qKU-ugC&pg=PA170|page=170|title=Acceptable Genes? Religious Traditions and Genetically Modified Foods|year=2009|publisher=SUNY Press|isbn=978-1-43842-894-9|editor=Conrad Bunk|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716151738/https://books.google.com/books?id=4QHE-qKU-ugC&pg=PA170#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}} paniyaram,{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x4kkEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT265|title=Tamilnadu A Journey in Time Part II People, Places and Potpourri|author=George Abraham Pottamkulam|year=2021|isbn=978-1-63806-520-3|publisher=Notion Press|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716141934/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Tamilnadu_A_Journey_in_Time_Part_II/x4kkEAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PT265|url-status=live}} and parotta.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yg8HEAAAQBAJ|title=India, Sri Lanka and the SAARC Region: History, Popular Culture and Heritage|author=Lopamudra Maitra Bajpai|year=2020|isbn=978-1-00020-581-7|publisher=Taylor & Francis|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716141935/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/India_Sri_Lanka_and_the_SAARC_Region/yg8HEAAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}

{{main|Siddha medicine}}

Siddha medicine is a form of traditional medicine originating from the Tamils and is one of the oldest systems of medicine in India.{{cite web|url=https://nischennai.org/main/siddha-medicine/|title=About Siddha medicine: Origins|publisher=National Institute of Siddha|access-date=16 February 2024|archive-date=10 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231210052929/https://nischennai.org/main/siddha-medicine/|url-status=live}} The word literally means perfection in Tamil and the system focuses on wholesome treatment based on various factors. As per Tamil tradition, the knowledge of Siddha medicine came from Shiva, which was passed on to 18 holy men known as Siddhar led by Agastya. The knowledge was then passed on orally and through palm leaf manuscripts to the later generations.{{cite web|url=https://ayushedu.bisag-n.gov.in/AYUSH_EDU/siddha|title=About Siddha|publisher=Government of India|access-date=1 June 2024}}{{Dead link|date=September 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} Siddha practitioners believe that all objects including the human body is composed of five basic elements – earth, water, fire, air, sky which are present in food and other compounds, which is used as the basis for the drugs and other therapies.{{cite report|url=https://siddhacouncil.com/ccrs/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/Siddha-Dossier_CCRS_Chennai-1.pdf|title=Siddha system of medicine|date=August 2020|access-date=1 June 2024|publisher=National Siddha Council|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716144733/https://siddhacouncil.com/ccrs/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/Siddha-Dossier_CCRS_Chennai-1.pdf|url-status=live}}

File:2019 kolam decoration for Pongal festival, South India.jpgs.{{cite book|author=Abbie Mercer|title=Happy New Year|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z3AnvD5jeDMC|year=2007|publisher=Rosen Publishing|isbn=978-1-4042-3808-4|page=22}}]]

Pongal is a major and multi-day harvest festival celebrated by Tamils in the month of Thai according to the Tamil solar calendar (usually falls on 14 or 15 January).{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RNBgCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA126|page=126|title=Vegetarianism and Animal Ethics in Contemporary Buddhism|author=James Stewart|year=2015|isbn=978-1-31762-398-4|publisher=Taylor & Francis|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716141936/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Vegetarianism_and_Animal_Ethics_in_Conte/RNBgCgAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PA126|url-status=live}}{{cite journal|last=Beteille|first=Andre|title=89. A Note on the Pongal Festival in a Tanjore Village|journal=Man|publisher=Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland|volume=64|year=1964|issue=2 |issn=0025-1496|doi=10.2307/2797924|pages=73–75|jstor=2797924 }}{{cite book|author=J. Gordon Melton|title=Religious Celebrations: An Encyclopedia of Holidays, Festivals, Solemn Observances, and Spiritual Commemorations|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lD_2J7W_2hQC|year=2011|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-59884-206-7|pages=547–548}}{{cite book|author1=Roy W. Hamilton|author2=Aurora Ammayao|title=The art of rice: spirit and sustenance in Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yyQoAQAAMAAJ|year=2003|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-93074-198-3|pages=156–157|access-date=30 October 2019|archive-date=21 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230421115348/https://books.google.com/books?id=yyQoAQAAMAAJ|url-status=live}} Puthandu is known as Tamil New Year which marks the first day of year on the Tamil calendar and falls on in April every year on the Gregorian calendar.{{cite book|author=Roshen Dalal|title=Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DH0vmD8ghdMC&q=puthandu|year=2010|publisher=Penguin Books|isbn=978-0-14341-421-6|page=406|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716151809/https://books.google.com/books?id=DH0vmD8ghdMC&q=puthandu#v=snippet&q=puthandu&f=false|url-status=live}} Other major festivals include Karthikai Deepam,{{cite book|last1=Spagnoli|first1=Cathy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6_Aci8KA7JEC&dq=karthigai+deepam+november+december&pg=PA133|title=Jasmine and Coconuts: South Indian Tales|last2=Samanna|first2=Paramasivam|date=1999|publisher=Libraries Unlimited|isbn=978-1-56308-576-5|page=133|access-date=8 February 2024|archive-date=30 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230930150136/https://books.google.com/books?id=6_Aci8KA7JEC&dq=karthigai+deepam+november+december&pg=PA133|url-status=live}}{{cite book|last=Gajrani|first=S.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zh6z0nuIjAgC&dq=karthigai+deepam&pg=PA207|title=History, Religion and Culture of India|date=2004|publisher=Gyan Publishing House|isbn=978-8-18205-061-7|page=207|access-date=8 February 2024|archive-date=30 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230930145221/https://books.google.com/books?id=zh6z0nuIjAgC&dq=karthigai+deepam&pg=PA207|url-status=live}} Thaipusam,{{cite book|title=Traditional Festivals: A Multicultural Encyclopedia|first=Christian|last=Roy|year=2005|isbn=978-1-85109-689-3|pages=462–463|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing}}{{cite book|author=Alexandra Kent|title=Divinity and Diversity: A Hindu Revitalization Movement in Malaysia|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|year=2005|isbn=978-8-79111-489-2}} Panguni Uthiram,{{cite book|last=Pechilis|first=Karen|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4eLFBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT155|title=Interpreting Devotion: The Poetry and Legacy of a Female Bhakti Saint of India|date=22 March 2013|page=155|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-50704-5|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=13 February 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240213153509/https://books.google.com/books?id=4eLFBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT155|url-status=live}}{{cite book|title=Holiday Symbols & Customs|year=2015|isbn=978-0-780-81365-6|first=James|last=Chambers|publisher=Infobase Publishing}} and Vaikasi Visakam.{{cite book|title=Indian Encyclopedia|author=Subodh Kant|isbn=978-8-177-55257-7|year=2002|publisher=Cosmo Publications|page=7821}} Aadi Perukku is a Tamil cultural festival celebrated in the Tamil month of Adi and the worship of Amman and Ayyanar deities are organized during the month in temples across Tamil Nadu with much fanfare.{{cite news|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/chennai/2022/jul/26/an-ode-to-aadi-and-ayyanar-2480584.html|title=An ode to Aadi and Ayyanar|newspaper=Indian Express|date=26 July 2022|access-date=1 December 2023|archive-date=22 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231222132958/https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/chennai/2022/jul/26/an-ode-to-aadi-and-ayyanar-2480584.html|url-status=live}} Other festivals celebrated include Ganesh Chaturthi, Navarathri, Deepavali, Eid al-Fitr and Christmas.{{cite web|url=https://www.tamilnadutourism.com/blog/most-important-festivals-of-tamilnadu-that-are-worth-watching-and-experiencing/|title=Important festivals of Tamilnadu|date=14 June 2023|work=Government of Tamil Nadu|access-date=1 June 2024|archive-date=26 February 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240226135224/https://www.tamilnadutourism.com/blog/most-important-festivals-of-tamilnadu-that-are-worth-watching-and-experiencing/|url-status=live}}{{cite web|url=https://www.tamilnadutourism.tn.gov.in/photos/festivals|title=Festivals|work=Government of Tamil Nadu|access-date=1 June 2024|archive-date=11 June 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240611190954/https://www.tamilnadutourism.tn.gov.in/photos/festivals|url-status=live}}{{cite web|url=https://www.tamilnadutourism.com/festivals/christmas.php|title=Christmas in Tamil Nadu|work=Government of Tamil Nadu|access-date=1 June 2024|archive-date=1 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231201140154/https://www.tamilnadutourism.com/festivals/christmas.php|url-status=live}}

File:Madurai-alanganallur-jallikattu.jpg, a traditional bull taming event.]]

{{Main|Sports in Tamil Nadu}}

Jallikattu is a traditional event held during the period attracting huge crowds in which a bull is released into a crowd of people, and multiple human participants attempt to grab the large hump on the bull's back with both arms and hang on to it while the bull attempts to escape.{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/Governor-clears-ordinance-on-%E2%80%98jallikattu%E2%80%99/article17074093.ece|title=Governor clears ordinance on 'jallikattu'|last=Ramakrishnan|first=T.|newspaper=The Hindu|access-date=1 December 2023|date=26 February 2017|language=en|archive-date=20 May 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230520145353/http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/Governor-clears-ordinance-on-%E2%80%98jallikattu%E2%80%99/article17074093.ece|url-status=live}}{{cite web|url=https://www.tamilnadutourism.tn.gov.in/events/jallikattu-bull-festival|title=Jallikattu bull festival|work=Government of Tamil Nadu|access-date=1 June 2024|archive-date=10 June 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240610211259/https://www.tamilnadutourism.tn.gov.in/events/jallikattu-bull-festival|url-status=live}} It has been practised since Sangam period with the aim of keeping people fit. Proficiency in the sport was considered a virtue while untamable bulls were held as a pride of the owner.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o56i5ymOIBkC&pg=PA159DQ|title=A Western Journalist on India: The Ferengi's Columns|first=François|last=Gautier|isbn=978-81-241-0795-9|year=2001|publisher=Har-Anand Publications|access-date=7 August 2023|archive-date=14 September 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240914130005/https://books.google.com/books?id=o56i5ymOIBkC&pg=PA159DQ#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}{{cite web|url=http://travel.nytimes.com/2007/03/22/travel/21webletter.html|title=NY Times: The ritual dates back as far as 2,000 years ...|access-date=24 May 2007|work=The New York Times|first=Daniel|last=Grushkin|date=22 March 2007|archive-date=24 February 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080224235809/http://travel.nytimes.com/2007/03/22/travel/21webletter.html|url-status=live}} Kabaddi is a traditional contact sport that originated from the Tamils.{{cite book|title=International Sport Management|publisher=Human Kinetics|isbn=978-0-73608-273-0|page=183|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BX6QSQAACAAJ&q=kabaddi|access-date=22 August 2015|date=May 2010|archive-date=14 September 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240914125846/https://books.google.com/books?id=BX6QSQAACAAJ&q=kabaddi|url-status=live}}{{cite book|title=International Sport Management|first1=Ming|last1=Li|first2=Eric W.|last2=MacIntosh|first3=Gonzalo A.|last3=Bravo|year=2012|publisher=Ming Li, Eric W. MacIntosh, Gonzalo A. Bravo|isbn=978-0-736-08273-0|page=106}} Chess is a popular board game which originated as Sathurangam in the 7th century CE.{{cite book|author=Murray, H. J. R.|title=A History of Chess|publisher=Benjamin Press|year=1913|isbn=978-0-93631-701-4|quote=Chathuranga, four-handed dice chess}} Traditional games like Pallanguzhi,{{cite book|last=Russ|first=Laurence|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rXeCAAAAMAAJ&q=pallanguli|title=Mancala Games|date=1984|publisher=Reference Publications|isbn=978-0-917-25619-6|pages=60|language=en|access-date=24 December 2023|archive-date=27 August 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230827164356/https://books.google.com/books?id=rXeCAAAAMAAJ&q=pallanguli|url-status=live}} Uriyadi,{{cite news|title=Traditional sports and games mark Pongal festivities|url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-tamilnadu/traditional-sports-and-games-mark-pongal-festivities/article1096563.ece|work=The Hindu|date=17 January 2011|access-date=24 December 2023|archive-date=3 June 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240603090112/https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-tamilnadu/Traditional-sports-and-games-mark-Pongal-festivities/article15521808.ece|url-status=live}} Gillidanda,{{cite book|first=Steve|last=Craig|year=2002|title=Sports and Games of the Ancients: (Sports and Games Through History)|isbn=978-0-313-31600-5|page=63|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group}} Dhaayam are played across the region.{{cite book|last=Finkel|first=Irving|year=2004|contribution=Round and Round the Houses: The Game of Pachisi|editor-last=Mackenzie|editor-first=Colin|editor2-last=Finkel|editor2-first=Irving|title=Asian Games: The Art of Contest|publisher=Asia Society|pages=46–57|isbn=978-0-878-48099-9}} In modern times, Cricket is the most popular sport.{{cite web|url=http://sporteology.com/top-10-most-popular-sports-in-india/|title=Top 10 Most Popular Sports in India|publisher=Sporteology|access-date=16 October 2013|archive-date=22 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180622111511/https://sporteology.com/top-10-most-popular-sports-in-india/|url-status=live}}

{{See also|Religion in ancient Tamil country|Dravidian folk religion|Vaishnavism in Ancient Tamilakam}}

File:Ayyanar_idols_near_Gobichettipalayam.jpg, guardian folk deity of Tamils]]

As per the Sangam literature, the Sangam landscape was classified into five categories known as thinais, which were associated with a Hindu deity: Murugan in kurinji (hills), Thirumal in mullai (forests), Indiran in marutham (plains), Varunan in the neithal (coasts) and Kotravai in palai (desert).{{cite book|title=Arts and Crafts of Tamil Nadu|first=C.|last=Chandramouli|year=2004|publisher=Directorate of Census Operations|page=74}} Thirumal is indicated as a deity during the Sangam era, who was regarded as Paramporul ("the suprement one") and is also known as Māyavan, Māmiyon, Netiyōn, and Māl in various Sangam literature.{{cite book|last=Hardy|first=Friedhelm|title=Viraha Bhakti: The Early History of Krsna Devotion|year=2015|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-8-12083-816-1|pages=156}}{{cite book|last=Padmaja|first=T.|title=Temples of Kr̥ṣṇa in South India: History, Art, and Traditions in Tamilnāḍu|date=2002|publisher=Abhinav Publications|isbn=978-81-7017-398-4|pages=27}} While Shiva worship existed in the Shaivite culture as a part of the Tamil pantheon, Murugan became regarded as the Tamil kadavul ("God of the Tamils").{{cite book|last=Clothey|first=Fred W.|title=The Many Faces of Murukan: The History and Meaning of a South Indian God. With the Poem Prayers to Lord Murukan|year=2019|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|isbn=978-3-11080-410-2|pages=34}}{{cite book|last=Mahadevan|first=Iravatham|author-link=Iravatham Mahadevan|title=A Note on the Muruku Sign of the Indus Script in light of the Mayiladuthurai Stone Axe Discovery|year=2006|publisher=Harappa|url=http://www.harappa.com/arrow/stone_celt_indus_signs.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060904034700/http://www.harappa.com/arrow/stone_celt_indus_signs.html|archive-date=4 September 2006}}{{cite book|title=Essential Hinduism|author1=Steven Rosen|author2=Graham M. Schweig|publisher=Greenwood Publishing|year=2006|page=45}} In Tamil tradition, Murugan is the youngest son of Shiva and Parvati and Pillayar is regarded as the eldest son, who is venerated as the Mudanmudar kadavul ("foremost god").{{cite book|title=Tamil Civilization:Quarterly Research Journal of the Tamil University|volume=5|year=1987|publisher=University of Michigan|page=9}}

The cult of the mother goddess is treated as an indication of a society which venerated femininity. The worship of Amman, also called Mariamman, is thought to have been derived from an ancient mother goddess, and is also very common.{{cite book|title=Ayyanar and Mariamman, Folk Deities in South India|first=Christa|last=Neuenhofer|year=2012|isbn=978-1-457-99010-6|publisher=Blurb, Incorporated}}{{cite web|title=Principles and Practice of Hindu Religion|work=Hindu Heritage Study Program|url=http://www.bnaiyer.com/hinduism/hist-34.html|access-date=5 December 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061114082702/http://www.bnaiyer.com/hinduism/hist-34.html|archive-date=14 November 2006|url-status=dead}}{{cite web|url=https://www.tamilnadutourism.com/temples/amman-temples.php|title=Amman temples|access-date=1 December 2023|work=Government of Tamil Nadu|archive-date=23 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231223062719/https://www.tamilnadutourism.com/temples/amman-temples.php|url-status=live}} Kannagi, the heroine of the Cilappatikaram is worshipped as a goddess by many Tamils, particularly in Sri Lanka.{{cite web|title=Tracing the Sri Lanka-Kerala link|author=P. K. Balachandran|work=The Hindustan Times|date=23 March 2006|url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/news/5983_1657214,00430014.htm|access-date=5 December 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061210184751/http://www.hindustantimes.com/news/5983_1657214%2C00430014.htm|archive-date=10 December 2006|url-status=dead }} In the Sangam literature, there is a description of the rites performed by the priestesses in temples.{{cite book|last=Lal|first=Mohan|title=The Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature (Volume Five Sasay To Zorgot), Volume 5|year=2006|publisher=Sahitya Akademi|isbn=978-81-260-1221-3|page=4396}} Among the ancient Tamils, the practice of erecting memorial stones (natukal) was prevalent and it continued till the Middle ages.{{cite book|last=Shashi|first=S.S.|title=Encyclopaedia Indica: India, Pakistan, Bangladesh: Volume 100|year=1996|publisher=Anmol Publications}} It was customary for people who sought victory in war to worship these hero stones to bless them with victory.{{cite book|last=Subramanium|first=N.|title=Śaṅgam polity: the administration and social life of the Śaṅgam Tamils|year=1980|publisher=Ennes Publications}} In rural areas, local deities called Aiyyan̲ār (also known as Karuppan, Karrupasami, Muniandi), are worshipped who are thought to protect the villages from harm.{{cite journal|last=Cutler|first=Norman|date=1983|editor-last=Clothey|editor-first=Fred W.|editor2-last=Ramanujan|editor2-first=A. K.|editor3-last=Shulman|editor3-first=David Dean|title=Tamil Religion: Melting Pot or Battleground?|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1062405|journal=History of Religions|volume=22|issue=4|pages=381–391|doi=10.1086/462931|jstor=1062405|s2cid=162366616|issn=0018-2710|access-date=29 April 2021|archive-date=16 August 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230816205508/https://www.jstor.org/stable/1062405|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}}{{cite journal|title=Horse Shrines in Tamil India: Reflections on Modernity|first=Mark|last=Jarzombek|author-link=Mark Jarzombek|journal=Future Anterior|year=2009|url=http://web.mit.edu/mmj4/www/downloads/future_ant4_1.pdf|volume=4|issue=1|pages=18–36|doi=10.1353/fta.0.0031|doi-access=free|access-date=24 July 2015|archive-date=23 August 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220823052722/http://web.mit.edu/mmj4/www/downloads/future_ant4_1.pdf|url-status=live}} Their worship probably emanated from the hero stone worship and appears to be the surviving remnants of an ancient Tamil tradition.{{cite web|title= 'Hero stone' unearthed|url= http://www.hindu.com/2006/07/22/stories/2006072202680200.htm |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20071001023228/http://www.hindu.com/2006/07/22/stories/2006072202680200.htm |url-status= dead |archive-date= 1 October 2007 |access-date=5 December 2006|work= The Hindu|date=22 July 2006}} Idol worship forms a part of the Tamil Hindu culture similar to the Hindu traditions.{{cite web|url=https://www.htfl.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/Hinduism-Philosophy-of-Idol-Worship.pdf|title=Philosophy of Idol Worship|author=Swami Sivananda|access-date=1 June 2024|work=Hindu Temple of Florida|archive-date=6 August 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240806053230/https://www.htfl.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/Hinduism-Philosophy-of-Idol-Worship.pdf|url-status=live}}{{cite web|url=https://saivaneethi.org/en/idol-worship/|title=Idol worship|work=Saiva neethi|access-date=1 June 2024}}

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}}

During the Sangam period, Ashivakam, Jainism and Buddhism also had a significant following.{{cite web|title=Tamil Virtual University|url=http://www.tamilvu.org/courses/diploma/c031/c0313/html/c0313201.htm|access-date=15 August 2023|archive-date=15 August 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230815013626/http://www.tamilvu.org/courses/diploma/c031/c0313/html/c0313201.htm|url-status=live}} Jainism existed from the Sangam period with inscriptions and drip-ledges from 1st century BCE to 6th century CE describing the same.{{cite web|last=Nagarajan|first=Saraswathy|title=On the southern tip of India, a village steeped in the past|work=The Hindu|date=17 November 2011|url=http://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/travel/on-the-southern-tip-of-india-a-village-steeped-in-the-past/article2636325.ece|access-date=23 March 2017|archive-date=10 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171210102314/http://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/travel/on-the-southern-tip-of-india-a-village-steeped-in-the-past/article2636325.ece|url-status=live}}{{cite web|url=http://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/history-and-culture/2200yearold-tamilbrahmi-inscription-found-on-samanamalai/article3220674.ece|title=2,200-year-old Tamil-Brahmi inscription found on Samanamalai|work=The Hindu|date=24 March 2012|access-date=19 January 2014|first=T. S.|last=Subramanian|archive-date=1 January 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140101051105/http://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/history-and-culture/2200yearold-tamilbrahmi-inscription-found-on-samanamalai/article3220674.ece|url-status=live}} The Kalabhra dynasty, who were patrons of Jainism, ruled over the ancient Tamil country in the 3rd–7th century CE.{{cite book|last1=Kulke|first1=Hermann|author-link1=Hermann Kulke|last2=Rothermund|first2=Dietmar|author-link2=Dietmar Rothermund|title=A History of India|date=2007|publisher=Routledge|location=London|isbn=978-0-415-32920-0|page=105|edition=4th|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RoW9GuFJ9GIC|access-date=7 September 2016|language=en|archive-date=23 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231223185128/https://books.google.com/books?id=RoW9GuFJ9GIC|url-status=live}}{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=te1sqTzTxD8C&pg=PA72|title=The First Spring: The Golden Age of India|isbn=978-0-6700-8478-4|last1=Eraly|first1=Abraham|year=2011|publisher=Penguin Books India|access-date=8 February 2024|archive-date=5 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405183047/https://books.google.com/books?id=te1sqTzTxD8C&pg=PA72|url-status=live}} Buddhism had an influence in Tamil Nadu before the later Middle Ages with ancient texts referring to a Vihāra in Nākappaṭṭinam from the time of Ashoka in 3rd century BCE and Buddhist relics from 4th century CE found in Kaveripattinam.{{cite journal|title=Marine archaeological explorations of Tranquebar-Poompuhar region on Tamil Nadu coast|last=Rao|first=S.R.|journal=Journal of Marine Archaeology|volume=2|year=1991|page=6|url=http://drs.nio.org/drs/bitstream/2264/3295/2/Mar_Archaeol_2_5.pdf|access-date=9 February 2024|archive-date=24 January 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110124225917/http://drs.nio.org/drs/bitstream/2264/3295/2/Mar_Archaeol_2_5.pdf|url-status=live}}{{cite book|last=Duraiswamy|first=Dayalan|title=Role of Archaeology on Maritime Buddhism|url=https://www.academia.edu/19992743|access-date=9 February 2024|archive-date=10 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240710113323/https://www.academia.edu/19992743|url-status=live}}{{cite book|title=Survey of Buddhist temples and monasteries|first=Akhtar|last=Malik|year=2007|isbn=978-8-12613-259-1|publisher=Anmol Publications|page=306}} Around the 7th century CE, the Pandyas and Pallavas, who patronized Buddhism and Jainism, became patrons of Hinduism following the revival of Saivism and Vaishnavism during the Bhakti movement led by Alwars and Nayanmars.{{sfn|Sastri|2002|p=333}}

The Christian apostle, St. Thomas, is believed to have preached Christianity to the Tamils between 52 and 70 CE.{{cite web|title=Santhome Cathedral|url=https://www.tamilnadutourism.tn.gov.in/destinations/santhome-cathedral-and-basilica|access-date=28 December 2022|work=Government of Tamil Nadu|archive-date=30 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230130204928/https://www.tamilnadutourism.tn.gov.in/destinations/santhome-cathedral-and-basilica|url-status=live}} Rowthers were Tamils who were converted to Islam by the Turkish preacher Nathar Shah in the tenth century CE and follow the Hanafi school.{{cite book|author=Shafique Ali Khan|title=Two Nation Theory: As a Concept, Strategy and Ideology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e9ggAAAAMAAJ|access-date=15 September 2013|year=1985|publisher=Royal Book Company|page=70|quote=Nathar Wali (died in 1039) is supposed to be the earliest Muslim Sufi who dedicated his life to Islam in the south}}{{cite book |last=Mohan |first=A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7d7NNdswXA4C&dq=Rowthers+Turkish&pg=PA206 |title=Utopia and the Village in South Asian Literatures |date=2012|publisher=Springer Publishing|isbn=978-1-13703-189-1 }}{{cite book |last=Singh |first=K. S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=beexzq__jCsC&q=Rowthers+Turkish |title=People of India: pt.1-3 Kerala |date=1992 |publisher=Anthropological Survey of India|isbn=978-8-18593-899-8}}{{cite book|last=Abraham|first=George|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RK__DwAAQBAJ&q=Rawther+Turks&pg=PT404|title=Lanterns on the Lanes: Lit for Life|year=2020|page=104|publisher=Notion Press|isbn=978-1-64899-659-7|access-date=4 May 2021|archive-date=14 September 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240914130414/https://books.google.com/books?id=RK__DwAAQBAJ&q=Rawther+Turks&pg=PT404#v=snippet&q=Rawther%20Turks&f=false|url-status=live}} Other Muslim clans such as Marakkayar, Labbai, and Kayalar originated as a result of the trade with the Arab world.{{cite journal |last=Jean-Baptiste |first=Prashant More |date=1991 |title=The Marakkayar Muslims of Karikal, South India |journal=Journal of Islamic Studies |volume=2 |pages=25–44 |doi=10.1093/jis/2.1.25 |pmc=355923 |pmid=15455059 }}{{cite book |last=Weekes |first=Richard V. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dQ3FEAAAQBAJ |title=Muslim Peoples [2 Volumes]: A World Ethnographic Survey |date=1984 |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |isbn=978-0-313-23392-0 |pages=431}}{{cite book |last=Wink |first=Andre |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g2m7_R5P2oAC&dq=labbai&pg=PA79 |title=Al-Hind: Early medieval India and the expansion of Islam, 7th-11th centuries |publisher=Brill Publishers |year=1990 |pages=78–80|isbn=978-0-39104-173-8 }} Majority of the Tamil Muslims speak Tamil rather than Urdu, which is spoken by Muslims in other parts of the Indian subcontinent.{{cite book|last=Jain|first=Dhanesh|contribution=Sociolinguistics of the Indo-Aryan languages|editor1-last=Cardona|editor1-first=George|editor2-last=Jain|editor2-first=Dhanesh|title=The Indo-Aryan Languages|publisher=Routledge|place=London|year=2003|series=Routledge language family series|isbn=0-70071-130-9|page=57}}{{cite book|last=More|first=J.B.P.|title=Muslim identity, print culture and the Dravidian factor in Tamil Nadu|publisher=Orient Longman|year=2007|isbn=978-8-12502-632-7}}{{cite book|last1=Landis|first1=Dan|last2=Albert|first2=Rosita D.|title=Handbook of Ethnic Conflict: International Perspectives|page=150|year=2012|publisher=Springer Science|isbn=978-1-4614-0447-7}} Mercantile groups introduced Cholapauttam, a syncretic form of Buddhism and Shaivism in northern Sri Lanka and Southern India. The religion lost its importance in the 14th century when conditions changed for the benefit of Sinhala and Pali traditions.{{cite book|title=Early Interactions Between South and Southeast Asia: Reflections on Cross-cultural Exchange|last1=Manguin|first1=Pierre-Yves|last2=Mani|first2=A.|last3=Wade|first3=Geoff|date=2011|publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies|isbn=978-9-81434-510-1|page=138}}

As of the 21st century, majority of the Tamils are adherents of Hinduism.{{cite report|url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2001/Census_data_finder/C_Series/Population_by_religious_communities.htm|title=Census 2001 – Statewise population by Religion|work=Government of India|access-date=18 July 2010|archive-date=19 January 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080119031333/http://www.censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2001/Census_data_finder/C_Series/Population_by_religious_communities.htm|url-status=live}} The migration of Tamils to other countries resulted in new Hindu temples being constructed in places with significant population of Tamil people and people of Tamil origin, and countries with significant Tamil migrants.{{cite book|last=Javier|first=A.G.|title=They Do What: A Cultural Encyclopedia of Extraordinary and Exotic Customs from Around the World|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing|year=2014|isbn=979-8-21615-549-2}} Sri Lankan Tamils predominantly worship Murugan with numerous temples existing throughout the island.{{cite journal|last=Pathmanathan|first=S|author-link=S. Pathmanathan|date=September 1999|title=The guardian deities of Sri Lanka: Skanda-Murgan and Kataragama|url=http://kataragama.org/research/pathmanathan.htm|url-status=live|journal=The Journal of the Institute of Asian Studies|publisher=The institute of Asian studies|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100926205619/http://kataragama.org/research/pathmanathan.htm|archive-date=26 September 2010|df=dmy-all}}{{cite journal|last=Bechert|first=Heinz|author-link=Heinz Bechert|year=1970|title=Skandakumara and Kataragama: An Aspect of the Relation of Hinduism and Buddhism in Sri Lanka|url=http://kataragama.org/research/bechert.htm|url-status=live|journal=Proceedings of the Third International Tamil Conference Seminar|location=Paris|publisher=International Association of Tamil Research|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100925212357/http://kataragama.org/research/bechert.htm|archive-date=25 September 2010|df=dmy-all}} There are also followers of Ayyavazhi in Tamil Nadu, mainly in the southern districts.{{cite book|author=R. Ponnu|title=Sri Vaikunda Swamigal and the Struggle for Social Equality in South India|date=2000|publisher=Ram Publishers|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=REH8XwAACAAJ|page=98|access-date=14 September 2024|archive-date=14 September 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240914130355/https://books.google.com/books?id=REH8XwAACAAJ|url-status=live}} Atheist, rationalist, and humanist philosophies are also adhered by sizeable minorities, as a result of Tamil cultural revivalism in the 20th century, and its antipathy to what it saw as Brahminical Hinduism.{{cite journal|last=Maloney|first=Clarence|title=Religious Beliefs and Social Hierarchy in Tamiḻ Nāḍu, India|journal=American Ethnologist|volume=2|issue=1|year=1975|pages=169–191|doi=10.1525/ae.1975.2.1.02a00100|doi-access=free}}

{{Main|List of Tamil people}}

{{Portal|Tamils|India}}

• List of languages by first written accounts
• Kumari Kandam
• Tamil population by cities
• Tamil population by nation

{{notelist}}

{{reflist}}

{{Refbegin|30em}}

• {{cite book|last=de Silva|first= Chandra|author-link=Chandra de Silva|title= Sri Lanka – A History|edition = 2|year=1997|publisher=Vikas Publishing House|isbn=978-0-95107-102-1}}
• {{cite book|last=Indrapala|first=K.|author-link=K. Indrapala|title=The Evolution of an ethnic identity: The Tamils of Sri Lanka|year=2007|publisher=Vijitha Yapa|isbn=978-9-55126-672-1|url=https://archive.org/details/the-evolution-of-an-ethnic-identity-the-tamils-in-sri-lanka-c.-300-bce-to-c.-1200-ce-tamil-version/page/n1/mode/2up}}
• {{cite book|last= Sastri|first=Nilakanta|author-link=Nilakanta Sastri|title=A history of South India from prehistoric times to the fall of Vijayanagar|orig-year=1955|year=2002|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn= 978-0-19560-686-7}}
• {{cite book|title=Ancient Indian History and Civilization|first=Sailendra Nath|last=Sen|publisher=New Age International|year=1999|isbn=978-8-12241-198-0}}
• {{cite book|title=From the Stone Age to the 12th Century|first=Upinder|last=Singh|year=2008|isbn=978-8-131-71120-0|publisher=Pearson Education}}
• {{cite book|first=Kamil|last=Zvelebil|author-link=Kamil Zvelebil|title=Companion Studies to the History of Tamil Literature|year=1992|publisher=Brill Publishers|isbn=978-9-00409-365-2}}

{{Refend}}

• [https://www.britannica.com/topic/Tamil Tamils] – Encyclopædia Britannica entry

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