Potrok Aike

Potrok Aike is a {{convert|3.5|km}} wide, roughly square-shaped lake in southern Patagonia,{{sfn|Ohlendorf|Fey|Gebhardt|Haberzettl|2013|p=29}} {{convert|80|km}} north of the Strait of Magellan{{sfn|Gebhardt|De Batist|Niessen|Anselmetti|2011|p=357}} and {{convert|85|km}} west of Rio Gallegos.{{sfn|Haberzettl|Anselmetti|Bowen|Fey|2009|p=2928}} There are few permanent lakes in this region,{{sfn|Oehlerich|Mayr|Gussone|Hahn|2015|p=191}} another one is Laguna Azul.{{sfn|Haberzettl|Corbella|Fey|Janssen|2007|p=299}}

The lake has a shape resembling a simple pot, typical for volcanic lakes,{{sfn|Zolitschka|Anselmetti|Ariztegui|Corbella|2009|p=30}} and covers a surface area of {{convert|761|ha}}{{sfn|Ohlendorf|Fey|Gebhardt|Haberzettl|2013|p=29}} at about {{convert|113|m}} above sea level.{{sfn|Ohlendorf|Fey|Gebhardt|Haberzettl|2013|p=29}} The lake floor has a bowl shape,{{sfn|Recasens|Ariztegui|Maidana|Zolitschka|2015|p=310}} with a shallow platform at {{convert|30|-|35|m}} depth, a steep drop to {{convert|90|m}} depth and a flat lake floor at {{convert|100|m}} depth.{{sfn|Anselmetti|Ariztegui|De Batist|Catalina Gebhardt|2009|p=877}} Water levels fluctuate up to {{convert|1|m}} between seasons, interannual variability reaches {{convert|2|m}}.{{sfn|Ohlendorf|Fey|Gebhardt|Haberzettl|2013|p=29}} The lake is a {{convert|5|km}} wide and {{convert|50|m}} deep (from above Potrok Aike's water surface) volcanic crater{{sfn|Zolitschka|Schäbitz|Lücke|Corbella|2006b|p=300}} embedded within flat terrain.{{sfn|Ohlendorf|Fey|Gebhardt|Haberzettl|2013|p=30}}

Beaches are formed by pebbles, sand and silt,{{sfn|Irurzun|Orgeira|Gogorza|Sinito|2014|p=712}} there are gravel ridges formed by longshore transport.{{sfn|Anselmetti|Ariztegui|De Batist|Catalina Gebhardt|2009|p=875}} Water currents eroded the eastern coast.{{sfn|Kastner|Ohlendorf|Haberzettl|Lücke|2010|p=900}} Potrok Aike is surrounded by flights of lacustrine terraces, both above{{sfn|Zolitschka|Anselmetti|Ariztegui|Corbella|2013|p=5}} and below the present-day water level;{{sfn|Zolitschka|Anselmetti|Ariztegui|Corbella|2013|p=7}} the highest paleoshoreline is {{convert|21|m}} above the present-day lake surface.{{sfn|Nuttin|Francus|Preda|Ghaleb|2013|p=111}} Alluvial fans developed on the terraces,{{sfn|Zolitschka|Schäbitz|Lücke|Corbella|2006|p=13}} while wind moves sediments to form dunes.{{sfn|Rubin de Rubin|da Silva|2013|p=14}}{{sfn|Zolitschka|Schäbitz|Lücke|Corbella|2006|p=14}} Submerged shorelines including submerged beach ridges are found at {{convert|20|-|45|m}} depth,{{sfn|Anselmetti|Ariztegui|De Batist|Catalina Gebhardt|2009|p=881}} and there are erosional unconformities formed by past lowstands.{{sfn|Anselmetti|Ariztegui|De Batist|Catalina Gebhardt|2009|p=882}} A now-submerged river delta may occur in the southeastern part of the lake.{{sfn|Anselmetti|Ariztegui|De Batist|Catalina Gebhardt|2009|p=887}} The "Policía" scoria cone and "Bandurrias" lava flow crop out on the southwestern corner of the lake and have been eroded by waves.{{sfn|Hahn|Kliem|Oehlerich|Ohlendorf|2014|p=361}} At higher water levels, large embayments would form in the northwestern and southwestern parts of the lake, and a small bay on the eastern side.{{sfn|Vuillemin|Ariztegui|Leavitt|Bunting|2016|p=2477}}

The waters of the lake are well-mixed by wind,{{sfn|Zolitschka|Anselmetti|Ariztegui|Corbella|2013|p=8}} which can form waves up to {{convert|1.5|m}} high{{sfn|Anselmetti|Ariztegui|De Batist|Catalina Gebhardt|2009|p=875}} and produces a water circulation in Potrok Aike that erodes lakefloor sediments.{{sfn|Anselmetti|Ariztegui|De Batist|Catalina Gebhardt|2009|p=889}} Water temperatures range between {{convert|4|-|10|C}}{{sfn|Vuillemin|Ariztegui|Leavitt|Bunting|2016|p=2476}} with little differences by depth;{{sfn|Mayr|Lücke|Stichler|Trimborn|2007|p=60}} temperatures exceeding {{convert|10|C}} are rare{{efn|Unlike more sheltered lakes like Laguna Azul where temperatures can reach {{convert|18|C}}.{{sfn|Ohlendorf|Fey|Gebhardt|Haberzettl|2013|p=40}}}}.{{sfn|Zolitschka|Anselmetti|Ariztegui|Corbella|2013|p=8}} The lake contains about {{convert|0.414|km3}}{{sfn|Ohlendorf|Fey|Gebhardt|Haberzettl|2013|p=29}} of brackish water ({{convert|2.2|-|2.5|g/l}} salinity),{{sfn|Zimmermann|Jouve|Pienitz|Francus|2015|p=22}} with a high dissolved oxygen content throughout the water column{{efn|But not into the sediments.{{sfn|Vuillemin|Ariztegui|Lücke|Mayr|2014|p=102}}}}{{sfn|Vuillemin|Ariztegui|Leavitt|Bunting|2016|p=2476}}{{sfn|Nuttin|Francus|Preda|Ghaleb|2013|p=110}} and a medium to high concentration of nutrients{{sfn|Mayr|Lücke|Maidana|Wille|2009|p=83}} like phosphorus{{efn|Probably derived from groundwater.{{sfn|Mercau|Laprida|Massaferro|Rogora|2012|p=247}}}}.{{sfn|Zimmermann|Jouve|Pienitz|Francus|2015|p=23}} The Secchi depth is about {{convert|6|-|7|m}}.{{sfn|Mayr|Lücke|Maidana|Wille|2009|p=83}} Being a closed lake, water levels{{efn|The steep slopes of the basin mean that even large water level changes do not produce large surface area changes.{{sfn|Lisé-Pronovost|St-Onge|Gogorza|Haberzettl|2015|p=81}}}} fluctuate with climate conditions{{sfn|Zolitschka|Anselmetti|Ariztegui|Corbella|2013|p=7}} and also with the conditions of the surrounding landscape (evapotranspiration,{{sfn|Ohlendorf|Fey|Gebhardt|Haberzettl|2013|p=38}} permeability changes caused by permafrost etc.);{{sfn|Ohlendorf|Fey|Gebhardt|Haberzettl|2013|p=41}} rising/falling temperature, stronger or more westerly winds/weaker or more easterly winds and lower/higher precipitation decrease/increase water levels, while cloud cover plays a subordinate role.{{sfn|Ohlendorf|Fey|Gebhardt|Haberzettl|2013|p=39}}

The watershed area covers more than {{convert|200|km2}} and reaches into Chilean territory;{{sfn|Haberzettl|Fey|Lücke|Maidana|2005|p=284}} the ephemeral Bandurrias Creek{{sfn|Hahn|Kliem|Oehlerich|Ohlendorf|2014|p=362}} enters{{efn|Bandurrias Creek may have drained to the Rio Gallegos via the Robles Creek before the formation of Potrok Aike, which would have captured its drainage.{{sfn|Corbella|Fey|Haberzettl|Mayr|2009|p=20}} }} Potrok Aike from the west{{sfn|Ohlendorf|Fey|Gebhardt|Haberzettl|2013|p=29}} through an U-shaped cascade.{{sfn|Gebhardt|Ohlendorf|Niessen|De Batist|2012b|p=1089}} Especially on the eastern side{{sfn|Haberzettl|Fey|Lücke|Maidana|2005|p=285}} there are arroyos, some of which cut lake terraces{{sfn|Ohlendorf|Fey|Gebhardt|Haberzettl|2013|p=30}} and which carry water mainly during snowmelt.{{sfn|Gebhardt|De Batist|Niessen|Anselmetti|2011|p=358}} There is significant groundwater inflow{{sfn|Ohlendorf|Fey|Gebhardt|Haberzettl|2013|p=30}} which buffers water levels{{sfn|Ohlendorf|Fey|Gebhardt|Haberzettl|2013|p=39}} although its exact significance to water levels is unclear.{{sfn|Ohlendorf|Fey|Gebhardt|Haberzettl|2013|p=41}} About half of its inflow seeps out through groundwater.{{sfn|Ohlendorf|Fey|Gebhardt|Haberzettl|2013|p=33}}

Most of the terrain is formed by moraines and outwash fans{{sfn|Coronato|Ercolano|Corbella|Tiberi|2013|p=16}} of the "Patagonian Gravel" Formation,{{sfn|Zolitschka|Schäbitz|Lücke|Corbella|2006|p=5}} with outcrops of the underlying Santa Cruz Formation in the southern lake terraces.{{sfn|Kliem|Buylaert|Hahn|Mayr|2013|p=132}} Lava plateaus, maars and scoria cones are widespread.{{sfn|Wastegård|Veres|Kliem|Hahn|2013|p=83}} Numerous ephemeral lakes and dunes formed by lake sediments dot the landscape around Potrok Aike; unlike them, the great depth of Potrok Aike keeps it water-filled year round.{{sfn|Ohlendorf|Fey|Gebhardt|Haberzettl|2013|p=30}} Former meltwater channels from ancient glaciations, one of which passes just west of Potrok Aike{{sfn|Coronato|Ercolano|Corbella|Tiberi|2013|p=24}} and is occupied by Robles Creek and Bandurrias Creek,{{sfn|Corbella|Fey|Haberzettl|Mayr|2009|p=20}} cross the region.{{sfn|Coronato|Ercolano|Corbella|Tiberi|2013|p=24}} The area is arid, has not been glaciated for 800,000 years and volcanic activity has been minor, leaving wind and cryogenic processes as the only landscape forming agents; it is thus well-conserved.{{sfn|Zolitschka|Anselmetti|Ariztegui|Corbella|2013|p=5}}

The bottom of the lake is covered by up to {{convert|400|m}} thick sediments.{{sfn|Gebhardt|Ohlendorf|Niessen|De Batist|2012b|p=1090}}{{sfn|Zolitschka|Anselmetti|Ariztegui|Corbella|2009|p=30}} They are mostly carbonates,{{sfn|Zolitschka|Anselmetti|Ariztegui|Corbella|2013|p=7}} along with wind-blown and suspended material.{{sfn|Anselmetti|Ariztegui|De Batist|Catalina Gebhardt|2009|p=875}} In cores, they appear as ball and pillow structures, laminated silts, laminated silts with embedded silt and sand layers, lightly coloured silt layers, normally graded beds, and sand with fine gravel layers and no other structure.{{sfn|Kliem|Enters|Hahn|Ohlendorf|2013|p=57}} Concretions formed perhaps by microbial activity,{{sfn|Vuillemin|Ariztegui|De Coninck|Lücke|2013|p=289}} mollusc shells,{{sfn|Kastner|Ohlendorf|Haberzettl|Lücke|2010|p=897}} microfossils,{{sfn|Hahn|Kliem|Oehlerich|Ohlendorf|2014|p=358}} plant remains (including phytoliths{{sfn|Osterrieth|Álvarez|Buezas|Rojo|2010}}){{sfn|Anselmetti|Ariztegui|De Batist|Catalina Gebhardt|2009|p=883}} and infrequent vivianite concretions complete the sediment package of Potrok Aike.{{sfn|Nuttin|Francus|Preda|Ghaleb|2013|p=111}} The cold conditions allow the precipitation of ikaite, a warmth-sensitive carbonate mineral,{{sfn|Zolitschka|Anselmetti|Ariztegui|Corbella|2013|p=5}} on objects like submerged plants and mooring lines.{{sfn|Oehlerich|Mayr|Griesshaber|Lücke|2013|p=47}} Sedimentation rates during the past 60,000 years were remarkably constant at {{convert|1.21|±|0.02|m/kyr|ft/kyr}}, with higher sedimentation rates before that{{sfn|Buylaert|Murray|Gebhardt|Sohbati|2013|p=78}} and no evidence of gaps in the record.{{sfn|Kim|Zolitschka|Jull|Ohlendorf|2012|p=29}} The sediments bear traces of frequent redeposition{{sfn|Gebhardt|De Batist|Niessen|Anselmetti|2011|p=357}} and debris flows.{{sfn|Anselmetti|Ariztegui|De Batist|Catalina Gebhardt|2009|p=878}}

Ninety-four volcanic ash layers have been emplaced in Potrok Aike{{sfn|Smith|Smith|Fontijn|Gebhardt|2019|p=144}} during the past 80,000 years,{{sfn|Smith|Smith|Fontijn|Gebhardt|2019|p=154}} mostly by volcanoes of the Andean Austral Volcanic Zone such as Aguilera, Lautaro (volcano)/Viedma (volcano){{efn|Viedma and Lautaro tephras are difficult to distinguish by composition alone.{{sfn|Smith|Smith|Fontijn|Gebhardt|2019|p=143}}}}, Monte Burney and Reclus (volcano).{{sfn|Zolitschka|Anselmetti|Ariztegui|Corbella|2013|p=6}}{{sfn|Haberzettl|Anselmetti|Bowen|Fey|2009|p=2931}} Monte Burney is the main source of tephra at Potrok Aike.{{sfn|Wastegård|Veres|Kliem|Hahn|2013|p=88}} Cerro Hudson in the Southern Volcanic Zone also emplaced one tephra during the H1 eruption;{{sfn|Smith|Smith|Fontijn|Gebhardt|2019|p=146}} its H2 eruption has not been identified at Potrok Aike.{{sfn|Smith|Smith|Fontijn|Gebhardt|2019|p=147}} No tephra deposits have been attributed to the Pali-Aike volcanic field, probably because it is downwind from the lake.{{sfn|Kliem|Enters|Hahn|Ohlendorf|2013|p=65}} Whether peaks in tephra deposition between 72,000-38,000 and 25,000-19,000 years ago{{sfn|Smith|Smith|Fontijn|Gebhardt|2019|p=139}} reflect an increase of volcanic activity or increased tephra arrival at Potrok Aike is unclear;{{sfn|Wastegård|Veres|Kliem|Hahn|2013|p=89}} for Hudson tephras decreased arrival is the likely cause.{{sfn|Smith|Smith|Fontijn|Gebhardt|2019|p=151}} Some of the eruptions, in particular the late glacial Monte Burney eruption,{{sfn|Hahn|Kliem|Ohlendorf|Zolitschka|2013|p=162}} severely impacted the lake's surroundings.{{sfn|Wastegård|Veres|Kliem|Hahn|2013|p=83}} Several tephra layers were remobilized on land{{sfn|Smith|Smith|Fontijn|Gebhardt|2019|p=152}} or reworked after deposition in the lake, and thus appear as multiple layers,{{sfn|Smith|Smith|Fontijn|Gebhardt|2019|p=149}}

Potrok Aike is a maar{{sfn|Zolitschka|Anselmetti|Ariztegui|Corbella|2013|p=2}} that formed 770,000 ± 240,000 years ago{{sfn|Ohlendorf|Fey|Gebhardt|Haberzettl|2013|p=30}} during a phreatomagmatic eruption,{{sfn|Zolitschka|Anselmetti|Ariztegui|Corbella|2009|p=29}} when ascending magma interacted with groundwater. Intense explosions{{sfn|Gebhardt|De Batist|Niessen|Anselmetti|2011|p=358}} yielded a deep diatreme, now partly filled by the sediments on the floor of Potrok Aike.{{sfn|Panza|Sacomani|Parisi|Pezzuchi|2015|p=91}} Phreatomagmatic{{efn|Also described as hyaloclastite.{{sfn|Irurzun|Orgeira|Gogorza|Sinito|2014|p=711}}}} deposits of the eruption{{sfn|Ohlendorf|Fey|Gebhardt|Haberzettl|2013|p=30}} crop out east and southeast of Potrok Aike,{{sfn|Ohlendorf|Fey|Gebhardt|Haberzettl|2013|p=29}} and in gullies.{{sfn|Panza|Sacomani|Parisi|Pezzuchi|2015|p=92}} The intersection of two tectonic lineaments close to Potrok Aike may have directed magma ascent there,{{sfn|Corbella|Fey|Haberzettl|Mayr|2009|p=19}} and plentiful groundwater in the area facilitated the development of a maar.{{sfn|Zolitschka|Schäbitz|Lücke|Corbella|2006b|p=300}} It is possible that the large size of Potrok Aike is due to magma-ice interaction, if the volcanic eruption took place during a glaciation.{{sfn|Coronato|Ercolano|Corbella|Tiberi|2013|p=19}} After its formation, wave erosion and gravitational slumping would have expanded the water surface, explaining why Potrok Aike has no tephra ring{{sfn|Kliem|Buylaert|Hahn|Mayr|2013|p=143}} and why it is one of the largest maars in the world.{{sfn|Gebhardt|De Batist|Niessen|Anselmetti|2011|p=362}}

It is part of the {{convert|3000|-|4500|km2}} Pali-Aike volcanic field{{sfn|L’heureux|Borrazzo|Charlie|2022|p=2}} in the back-arc of the Andes.{{sfn|Kliem|Buylaert|Hahn|Mayr|2013|p=132}} Other volcanic landforms around Potrok Aike are three vents northwest of the lake,{{sfn|Panza|Sacomani|Parisi|Pezzuchi|2015|loc=Map}} an older,{{sfn|Zolitschka|Schäbitz|Lücke|Corbella|2006b|p=301}} 1.19 million years old basaltic lava flow{{efn|It is a weakly jointed alkali basalt that emanated from a heavily eroded scoria cone{{sfn|Panza|Sacomani|Parisi|Pezzuchi|2015|p=63}} on the southwestern shore of the lake.{{sfn|Panza|Sacomani|Parisi|Pezzuchi|2015|loc=Map}}}} at the southwestern shore of the lake,{{sfn|Ohlendorf|Fey|Gebhardt|Haberzettl|2013|p=30}} the Sombrero Mexicano and Hito XXII cones also southeast of Potrok Aike,{{sfn|Panza|Sacomani|Parisi|Pezzuchi|2015|p=66}} and the Miocene "Bella Vista Basalts" west of the lake.{{sfn|Lisé-Pronovost|St-Onge|Gogorza|Haberzettl|2015|p=74}} Potrok Aike is in the older, western portion of the Pali-Aike volcanic field;{{sfn|Kliem|Buylaert|Hahn|Mayr|2013|p=132}} more recent volcanic activity took place in its eastern parts 10,000 years ago.{{sfn|Haberzettl|Anselmetti|Bowen|Fey|2009|p=2928}} Volcanic rocks erupted by Potrok Aike contain peridotite xenoliths derived from the mantle,{{sfn|Schrott|Ntaflos|Bjerg|Tschegg|2009}} whose formation began during the Paleoproterozoic{{sfn|Mundl|Ntaflos|Ackerman|Bizimis|2015|p=41}} 2.5 billion years ago.{{sfn|Mundl|Ntaflos|Ackerman|Bizimis|2015|p=42}}

Before Potrok Aike formed,{{sfn|Zolitschka|Schäbitz|Lücke|Corbella|2006|p=9}} the various Plio-Pleistocene{{efn|Between 3.5 and 1 million years ago.{{sfn|Gebhardt|De Batist|Niessen|Anselmetti|2011|p=358}}}} Patagonian glaciers spread into the area from the west (Andes) and the south{{sfn|Coronato|Ercolano|Corbella|Tiberi|2013|pp=13,15}} (Strait of Magellan, Seno Skyring and Seno Otway{{sfn|Zolitschka|Schäbitz|Lücke|Corbella|2006|p=5}}) and deposited moraines and glacial sediments.{{sfn|Zolitschka|Schäbitz|Lücke|Corbella|2006|p=9}} The sediments deposited by the largest of these glaciations have been named "Potrok Aike Drift"{{efn|There are good outcrops of the deposits around Potrok Aike, including erratic blocks, hence the name.{{sfn|Panza|Sacomani|Parisi|Pezzuchi|2015|p=80}}}} or "Sierra de los Frailes Drift"{{sfn|Panza|Sacomani|Parisi|Pezzuchi|2015|p=80}} and were deposited by a glacier propagating from the Seno Otway.{{sfn|Panza|Sacomani|Parisi|Pezzuchi|2015|p=81}} The youngest glacial deposits are 760,000 years old{{sfn|Zolitschka|Anselmetti|Ariztegui|Corbella|2009|p=29}} and belong to the Rio Ci Aike/Cabo Vírgenes glaciations;{{sfn|Zolitschka|Schäbitz|Lücke|Corbella|2006|p=9}} later advances, such as the last glacial maximum Llanquihue Glaciation did not reach the area{{sfn|Zolitschka|Schäbitz|Lücke|Corbella|2006|p=7}} and thus did not fill the maar in.{{sfn|Zolitschka|Schäbitz|Lücke|Corbella|2006|p=9}}

Potrok Aike might have dried up before 53,500 years ago during marine isotope stage 4,{{efn|Perhaps due to declining sea levels causing groundwater to flow out.{{sfn|Kliem|Buylaert|Hahn|Mayr|2013|p=141}}}}{{sfn|Gebhardt|Ohlendorf|Niessen|De Batist|2012b|p=1098}} perhaps allowing wind to remove lakefloor sediments{{sfn|Kliem|Enters|Hahn|Ohlendorf|2013|p=67}} and form dunes on the lake floor.{{sfn|Gebhardt|Ohlendorf|Niessen|De Batist|2012|p=111}} The lake was continuously water filled during the past 45,000 years,{{sfn|Anselmetti|Ariztegui|De Batist|Catalina Gebhardt|2009|p=886}} frequently reaching a level{{sfn|Kliem|Buylaert|Hahn|Mayr|2013|p=139}} of {{convert|21|m}} above present-day,{{sfn|Ohlendorf|Fey|Gebhardt|Haberzettl|2013|p=37}} where it would overflow to the northwest into the Rio Gallegos{{sfn|Kliem|Buylaert|Hahn|Mayr|2013|p=139}} via a northward flowing drainage named Chorrillo Carlota creek{{sfn|Panza|Sacomani|Parisi|Pezzuchi|2015|loc=Map}} or Rio Robes.{{sfn|Charlin|2014|p=189}} Overflow was active between 49,000-44,000 and 34,000-17,000 years ago. Between 34,000-44,000 years ago, lake levels decreased and its biological productivity increased perhaps concomitant to warming in Antarctica.{{sfn|Zolitschka|Anselmetti|Ariztegui|Corbella|2013|p=7}} Water levels dropped 9,600-9,300 years ago during the Holocene as winds increased and remained{{sfn|Zolitschka|Anselmetti|Ariztegui|Corbella|2013|p=8}} {{convert|33|m}} below the present-day level.{{sfn|Ohlendorf|Fey|Gebhardt|Haberzettl|2013|p=29}} Beginning 7,000 years ago, water levels increased again,{{sfn|Zolitschka|Anselmetti|Ariztegui|Corbella|2013|p=9}} with cold and wet periods occurring 4,800, 3,900-3,700, 3,000 and 2,500 years ago.{{sfn|Morales|Barberena|Belardi|Borrero|2009|p=290}} The past two millennia were highly dynamic,{{sfn|Gebhardt|Ohlendorf|Niessen|De Batist|2012b|p=1090}} with a lowstand during the Medieval Climate Anomaly{{sfn|Mayr|Lücke|Maidana|Wille|2009|p=97}} that correlates with a dry period in the North American Great Basin,{{sfn|Morales|Barberena|Belardi|Borrero|2009|p=190}} overflow during the Little Ice Age, and another decrease since its end.{{sfn|Gebhardt|Ohlendorf|Niessen|De Batist|2012b|p=1090}}{{sfn|Zolitschka|Anselmetti|Ariztegui|Corbella|2013|p=9}}

Other events in its history include:

• The warming and retreat of glaciers after the last glacial maximum was uneven, with slowdowns and speedups.{{sfn|Kilian|Lamy|2012|p=8}} The Antarctic Cold Reversal is noted by a cooling of about {{convert|3|-|4|C}} at Potrok Aike, while the Younger Dryas does not appear in temperature reconstructions{{sfn|Massaferro|Larocque-Tobler|2013|p=208}} but appears in the sediments. The sediments also record the A2 and A1 warmings in Antarctica{{sfn|Vuillemin|Ariztegui|Leavitt|Bunting|2016|p=2477}} between 36,000-48,000 years ago.{{sfn|Jouve|Lisé-Pronovost|Francus|De Coninck|2017|p=35}}
• Wind speeds were low during the last glacial maximum,{{sfn|Lisé-Pronovost|St-Onge|Gogorza|Haberzettl|2015|p=82}}{{sfn|Zhu|Lücke|Wissel|Mayr|2014|pp=2165-2166}} then increased during the late glacial in the Bolling-Allerod.{{sfn|Mayr|Lücke|Wagner|Wissel|2013|p=832}} During the early Holocene winds were weaker, then strengthened again during the middle and late Holocene.{{sfn|Lisé-Pronovost|St-Onge|Gogorza|Haberzettl|2015|p=82}}{{sfn|Zhu|Lücke|Wissel|Mayr|2014|pp=2165-2166}} During the Little Ice Age, winds decreased at Potrok Aike.{{sfn|Rubin de Rubin|da Silva|2013|p=11}} The position and strength of the Southern Hemisphere westerlies is governed by changes in insolation and the intertropical convergence zone.{{sfn|Kilian|Lamy|2012|p=19}}
• The main sources of lake sediments have varied over time: Outside input dominated between 11,500-9,600 and before 13,500 years ago{{efn|The increased carbonate input was originally interpreted as a sign of a water level drop.{{sfn|Zolitschka|Anselmetti|Ariztegui|Corbella|2013|p=7}}}}, and carbonate sedimentation decreased 6,900 years ago and paused altogether during the Little Ice Age.{{sfn|Zolitschka|Anselmetti|Ariztegui|Corbella|2013|p=7}}
• Organic matter accumulation increased during interglacial stages, like between 50,000-49,000, 47,800-45,000, 39,200-36,500, 17,200-16,000, 15,000-14,400, when increased precipitation, warmer surface water and increased nutrient input stimulates growth in the lake, while the opposite changes occur during glacial periods.{{sfn|Hahn|Kliem|Ohlendorf|Zolitschka|2013|pp=160-162}} Runoff from remnant permafrost contributed to the late glacial peak in productivity.{{sfn|Hahn|Kliem|Ohlendorf|Zolitschka|2013|p=163}} An exception is during 16,000-14,000, when Potrok Aike was impacted by a major eruption of Monte Burney volcano.{{sfn|Hahn|Kliem|Ohlendorf|Zolitschka|2013|p=162}} Oxygen concentrations have been stable for the past 51,000 years.{{sfn|Lisé-Pronovost|St-Onge|Gogorza|Haberzettl|2015|p=73}}
• Dust deposition records at Potrok Aike resemble these in Antarctica, reflecting the common source regions.{{sfn|Vanderstraeten|Mattielli|Laruelle|Gili|2023|p=6}} Dust deposition decreased during Heinrich event 1 in both Potrok Aike and elsewhere in the Southern Hemisphere, probably due to a wetter atmosphere washing out dust before it can reach these places.{{sfn|Vanderstraeten|Mattielli|Laruelle|Gili|2023|pp=11-12}}
• The sediments bear traces of secular variation of Earth's magnetic field, including several Holocene changes in inclination and intensity that have been recorded at other sites around the world.{{sfn|Acevedo|2021|p=315}} Excursions noted at Potrok Aike are the Laschamp excursion 40,700 ± 1,000 years ago, the Mono Lake excursion 32,400 ± 300 years ago and two changes 46,000 and 20,000 years ago. The latter of which may correspond to the so-called "Hilina Pali excursion".{{sfn|Zolitschka|Anselmetti|Ariztegui|Corbella|2013|p=6}}{{sfn|Lisé-Pronovost|St-Onge|Gogorza|Haberzettl|2013|p=101}} Such records could be used to calibrate paleomagnetic dating.{{sfn|Kilian|Lamy|2012|p=7}}
• About ten mass movements have been identified in Potrok Aike with magnetic techniques,{{sfn|Lisé-Pronovost|St-Onge|Gogorza|Jouve|2014|p=119}} appearing to correspond to episodes of climate warming,{{sfn|Lisé-Pronovost|St-Onge|Gogorza|Jouve|2014|pp=121-122}} while other Holocene deposits coincide with lake level drops.{{sfn|Anselmetti|Ariztegui|De Batist|Catalina Gebhardt|2009|p=886}} Some subaqueous mass flows were originally attributed to ancient earthquakes,{{sfn|Zolitschka|2010|p=37}} but most were probably caused by rapid drops of water levels which destabilized the sediments.{{sfn|Anselmetti|Ariztegui|De Batist|Catalina Gebhardt|2009|p=890}} Increased gustiness may play a role as well.{{sfn|Lisé-Pronovost|St-Onge|Gogorza|Jouve|2014|p=121}}
• Pollen data indicate that Andean forests (Nothofagus) persisted in small areas during the last ice age,{{sfn|Kilian|Lamy|2012|p=8}} and expanded again after it ended.{{sfn|Wille|Maidana|Schäbitz|Fey|2007|p=240}} During the Holocene, pollen changes reflect moisture{{sfn|Wille|Maidana|Schäbitz|Fey|2007|p=244}} (after 2,500 years ago, when increased precipitation drove an expansion of the Andean forest) or wind changes.{{sfn|Wille|Schäbitz|2009|p=233}} Beginning in the 19th century, pollen of introduced plants appears in Potrok Aike, concomitant with the European expansion in the region.{{sfn|Mancini|2007}}
• Charcoal records at Potrok Aike show wildfire activity both in the Andes and around the lake.{{sfn|Haberzettl|Wille|Fey|Janssen|2006|p=79}} They indicate a peak in steppe fire activity between 13,000-11,000 years ago, followed by stable conditions.{{sfn|Sottile|Bamonte|Mancini|Bianchi|2012|p=11}} A fire event around 1600 AD was possibly caused by drought in the Andes.{{sfn|Haberzettl|Wille|Fey|Janssen|2006|p=80}}

Pondweed and water milfoil form dense subaqueous "forests" at {{convert|1.5|-|20|m}} depth,{{sfn|Anselmetti|Ariztegui|De Batist|Catalina Gebhardt|2009|p=881}}{{sfn|Wille|Maidana|Schäbitz|Fey|2007|p=236}}{{sfn|Zhu|Lücke|Wissel|Mayr|2014|p=2155}} below the base of waves.{{sfn|Mayr|Lücke|Maidana|Wille|2009|p=83}} Other subaqueous plants include Blindia/Drepanocladus/Vittia mosses{{sfn|Zhu|Lücke|Wissel|Mayr|2014|p=2156}} and widgeonweeds.{{sfn|Zhu|Lücke|Wissel|Mayr|2014|p=2155}} Pond snails dwell on the lakefloor above {{convert|12|m}} depth,{{sfn|Haberzettl|Corbella|Fey|Janssen|2007|p=306}} and molluscs thrive in the calmer waters of the shallow terraces.{{sfn|Kastner|Ohlendorf|Haberzettl|Lücke|2010|p=897}} Microbial life in the lake waters is dominated by chlorophytes, cyanobacteria, diatoms{{efn|The diatom species Cymbella gravida,{{sfn|Recasens|Maidana|2013|p=467}} Thalassiosira patagonica,{{sfn|Maidana|1999|p=323}} and the genus and species Corbellia contorta were discovered at Potrok Aike.{{sfn|Maidana|Round|1999|p=331}}}} and Euglena, with the main species changing over time.{{sfn|Wille|Maidana|Schäbitz|Fey|2007|p=236}} The biological productivity of the lake waters is low{{sfn|Gogorza|Irurzun|Sinito|Lisé-Pronovost|2012|p=2}} owing to its salinity, turbulence, chloride excess and nitrogen deficiency.{{sfn|Zimmermann|Jouve|Pienitz|Francus|2015|p=23}} Various microbial communities, including archaea and bacteria live in the lake sediments;{{sfn|Vuillemin|Ariztegui|Leavitt|Bunting|2016|p=2486}}{{sfn|Capo|Barouillet|Smol|2023|p=109}} the communities develop during sediment emplacement{{sfn|Ariztegui|Thomas|Vuillemin|2015|p=1659}} and thus their species composition and lifestyle (e.g syntrophy, sulfate reduction, methanogenesis, fermentation, denitrification and acetogenesis) varies depending on the age of the sediment.{{sfn|Vuillemin|Ariztegui|Leavitt|Bunting|2016|p=2486}}{{sfn|Capo|Barouillet|Smol|2023|p=109}} Biological activity in Potrok Aike varied over time.{{sfn|Zolitschka|Anselmetti|Ariztegui|Corbella|2013|p=7}} It reached a maximum during the Late Glacial{{efn|With individual peaks during Antarctic warm events.{{sfn|Recasens|Ariztegui|Maidana|Zolitschka|2015|p=315}}}}, when winds were weaker, the water surface warmed up significantly during summer and there was active inflow.{{sfn|Zolitschka|Anselmetti|Ariztegui|Corbella|2013|p=8}}{{sfn|Vuillemin|Ariztegui|Lücke|Mayr|2014|p=111}}

The lake is surrounded by the Patagonian steppe formed by tussock grasses{{sfn|Ohlendorf|Fey|Gebhardt|Haberzettl|2013|p=30}} like Festuca gracillima and (south of Potrok Aike) Festuca pallescens.{{sfn|Wille|Maidana|Schäbitz|Fey|2007|p=236}} While the beaches{{sfn|Haberzettl|Fey|Lücke|Maidana|2005|p=285}} and flooded shores are unvegetated,{{sfn|Hockun|Mollenhauer|Ho|Hefter|2016|p=111}} small bushes and trees grow on the terraces around Potrok Aike:{{sfn|Anselmetti|Ariztegui|De Batist|Catalina Gebhardt|2009|p=880}}

• Acaena grows on the lowest terraces.{{sfn|Wille|Maidana|Schäbitz|Fey|2007|p=236}}{{sfn|Haberzettl|Fey|Lücke|Maidana|2005|p=285}}
• The higher terraces are dominated by Adesmia boronioides shrubs on the western side.{{sfn|Wille|Maidana|Schäbitz|Fey|2007|p=236}}{{sfn|Haberzettl|Fey|Lücke|Maidana|2005|p=285}}
• On the northern, southern and eastern terraces, a vegetation community characterized by Berberis heterophylla bushes, Azorella filamentosa/Colobanthus subulatus/Nardophyllum bryoides cushion plants, Festuca/Poa/Stipa grasses and Peretia recurvata dominates vegetation.{{sfn|Wille|Maidana|Schäbitz|Fey|2007|p=236}}{{sfn|Haberzettl|Fey|Lücke|Maidana|2005|p=285}}

The northwestern shore has isolated occurrences of red crowberry.{{sfn|Zimmermann|Jouve|Pienitz|Francus|2015|p=23}} In some places, there is ongoing peat formation.{{sfn|Rubin de Rubin|da Silva|2013|p=19}} Major changes during the past 51,000 years are unlikely{{sfn|Ohlendorf|Fey|Gebhardt|Haberzettl|2013|p=51}} - at best, vegetation decreased{{sfn|Vuillemin|Ariztegui|Leavitt|Bunting|2016|p=2483}} or turned into tundra during the last glacial maximum-{{sfn|Coronato|Ercolano|Corbella|Tiberi|2013|p=13}} but the introduction of sheep around 1880 AD caused overgrazing and soil erosion in the region.{{sfn|Haberzettl|Fey|Lücke|Maidana|2005|p=285}}

Common animals in the region include grey wolf, guanacos, Humboldt's hog-nosed skunk, a weasel species and numerous birds{{efn|Black-necked swans, bustards, crested caracaras, Darwin's rheas, ducks, eagles, falcons, ibises and owls.{{sfn|Gómez Otero|1987|p=175}}}} and rodents.{{sfn|Gómez Otero|1987|p=175}} On the north-northeastern side of the lake, fragments of Miocene animal fossils have been found; they include the notoungulates Pachyrukhos and Protypotherium, and the glyptodont Propalaehoplophorus.{{sfn|Rubin de Rubin|da Silva|2013|p=14}}

{{Weather box|width=auto

|location = Potrok Aike

|metric first = Yes

|single line = Yes

|Jan record high C = 31.4

|Feb record high C = 29.7

|Mar record high C = 30.2

|Apr record high C = 22.4

|May record high C = 18.2

|Jun record high C = 14.4

|Jul record high C = 13.0

|Aug record high C = 15.1

|Sep record high C = 20.1

|Oct record high C = 23.3

|Nov record high C = 26.3

|Dec record high C = 31.4

|year record high C = 31.4

|Jan high C = 17.6

|Feb high C = 17.4

|Mar high C = 15.1

|Apr high C = 11.4

|May high C = 6.5

|Jun high C = 3.2

|Jul high C = 3.1

|Aug high C = 5.3

|Sep high C = 9.8

|Oct high C = 12.7

|Nov high C = 14.7

|Dec high C = 16.3

|year high C = 11.9

|Jan mean C = 11.5

|Feb mean C = 11.1

|Mar mean C = 9.2

|Apr mean C = 6.1

|May mean C = 2.5

|Jun mean C = 0.2

|Jul mean C = 0.1

|Aug mean C = 1.5

|Sep mean C = 4.5

|Oct mean C = 6.6

|Nov mean C = 8.6

|Dec mean C = 10.4

|year mean C = 6.7

|Jan low C = 5.4

|Feb low C = 5.0

|Mar low C = 3.6

|Apr low C = 1.2

|May low C = -1.4

|Jun low C = -3.0

|Jul low C = -3.0

|Aug low C = -1.9

|Sep low C = -0.2

|Oct low C = 0.7

|Nov low C = 2.2

|Dec low C = 4.5

|year low C = 1.6

|Jan record low C = -5.1

|Feb record low C = -4.7

|Mar record low C = -7.8

|Apr record low C = -7.3

|May record low C = -11.4

|Jun record low C = -16.8

|Jul record low C = -18.2

|Aug record low C = -16.4

|Sep record low C = -12.4

|Oct record low C = -6.0

|Nov record low C = -6.0

|Dec record low C = -2.2

|year record low C = -18.2

|rain colour = green

|Jan rain mm = 19.6

|Feb rain mm = 19.1

|Mar rain mm = 20.8

|Apr rain mm = 19.6

|May rain mm = 13.9

|Jun rain mm = 13.2

|Jul rain mm = 12.5

|Aug rain mm = 12.8

|Sep rain mm = 9.8

|Oct rain mm = 13.4

|Nov rain mm = 16.7

|Dec rain mm = 18.7

|year rain mm = 162.6

|Jan humidity = 58.6

|Feb humidity = 60.0

|Mar humidity = 64.9

|Apr humidity = 70.8

|May humidity = 77.9

|Jun humidity = 81.6

|Jul humidity = 80.3

|Aug humidity = 76.9

|Sep humidity = 70.1

|Oct humidity = 63.4

|Nov humidity = 58.8

|Dec humidity = 57.9

|year humidity = 67.7

|source 1 = {{sfn|INTA|2015}}}}

The climate of the region is cold and arid,{{sfn|Zolitschka|Anselmetti|Ariztegui|Corbella|2013|p=5}} with a mean annual temperature of {{convert|7|C}}.{{sfn|Anselmetti|Ariztegui|De Batist|Catalina Gebhardt|2009|p=875}} Precipitation does not exceed {{convert|200|mm}},{{sfn|Ohlendorf|Fey|Gebhardt|Haberzettl|2013|p=30}} with year-to-year variations reaching {{convert|50|mm}}.{{sfn|Zhu|Lücke|Wissel|Mayr|2014|p=2155}} The Southern Hemisphere westerlies, which blow between the subtropical anticyclones of the Pacific Ocean and Atlantic Ocean on the one side and the subpolar troughs on the other,{{sfn|Zhu|Lücke|Wissel|Müller|2013|p=206}} control the regional climate{{efn|The core of the westerlies migrates north and south with the seasons.{{sfn|Morales|Barberena|Belardi|Borrero|2009|p=289}} Farther south is the Antarctic Convergence.{{sfn|Gebhardt|De Batist|Niessen|Anselmetti|2011|p=357}}}}:{{sfn|Hahn|Kliem|Oehlerich|Ohlendorf|2014|p=350}} Winds blow mainly from the west, with average speeds of {{convert|7.4|m/s}}{{sfn|Ohlendorf|Fey|Gebhardt|Haberzettl|2013|p=30}} peaking in summer,{{sfn|Zhu|Lücke|Wissel|Müller|2013|p=206}} sometimes causing storms on the lake;{{sfn|Zolitschka|Anselmetti|Ariztegui|Corbella|2013|p=4}} only 0.5% of days are calm.{{sfn|Mayr|Lücke|Stichler|Trimborn|2007|p=54}} Owing to the winds, Potrok Aike does not freeze over in winter{{sfn|Recasens|Ariztegui|Maidana|Zolitschka|2015|p=310}} except sometimes at its edges.{{sfn|Mayr|Lücke|Stichler|Trimborn|2007|p=54}} The potent rain shadow cast by the Andes is responsible for the aridity.{{sfn|Ohlendorf|Fey|Gebhardt|Haberzettl|2013|p=30}} Most precipitation occurs when the westerlies weaken and easterly moisture from the Atlantic Ocean reaches the region,{{sfn|Zolitschka|Anselmetti|Ariztegui|Corbella|2013|p=9}} although the higher frequency of westerly winds means that most precipitation still occurs during westerly conditions.{{sfn|Haberzettl|Anselmetti|Bowen|Fey|2009|p=2929}} Past lake level changes occurred when the westerlies shifted either north or south of Potrok Aike.{{sfn|Nuttin|Francus|Preda|Ghaleb|2013|p=111}} Evaporation rates exceed precipitation by a factor of about 24.{{sfn|Wille|Maidana|Schäbitz|Fey|2007|p=236}} Relative humidity peaks during winter and reaches a minimum during summer.{{sfn|Ohlendorf|Fey|Gebhardt|Haberzettl|2013|p=34}} Whether climate oscillations like the El Niño-Southern Oscillation or the Southern Annular Mode play a role in the local climate is unclear.{{sfn|Ohlendorf|Fey|Gebhardt|Haberzettl|2013|p=39}} Runoff occurs during spring, when snow melts.{{sfn|Haberzettl|Fey|Lücke|Maidana|2005|p=284}}

During the last glacial maximum, climate conditions were significantly different around Potrok Aike; permafrost formed and increased runoff into the lake, winds slowed and colder temperatures might have led to the development of seasonal ice cover{{efn|The occurrence of probable dropstones on the lake floor supports this view.{{sfn|Zolitschka|Anselmetti|Ariztegui|Corbella|2009|p=32}}}}. This would have decreased evaporation, causing water levels to rise,{{sfn|Zolitschka|Anselmetti|Ariztegui|Corbella|2013|p=9}} while the southward shift of the westerlies during the ice age increased precipitation at Potrok Aike.{{sfn|Zolitschka|Anselmetti|Ariztegui|Corbella|2013|p=10}} Dust deposition increased at the lake and the surrounding oceans during that time.{{sfn|Zolitschka|Anselmetti|Ariztegui|Corbella|2013|p=2}}{{sfn|Haberzettl|Anselmetti|Bowen|Fey|2009|p=2937}} During the late glacial, mean air temperatures reached {{convert|9|C}}{{efn|The source says these were the coldest temperatures at Potrok Aike in the past 16,000 years, but gives lower temperatures for the present-day.{{sfn|Massaferro|Larocque-Tobler|2013|p=208}}}}.{{sfn|Massaferro|Larocque-Tobler|2013|p=208}} At the beginning of the Holocene, the westerlies retreated poleward as Antarctic sea ice decreased, reaching Potrok Aike around 9,300 years ago and causing the steep lake level drop.{{sfn|Zolitschka|Anselmetti|Ariztegui|Corbella|2013|p=10}} Simultaneously temperatures rose to a maximum of {{convert|12.2|C}} between 10,400-3,500 years ago. They then declined until present-day.{{sfn|Massaferro|Larocque-Tobler|2013|p=208}} A temporary weakening of the westerlies during the Little Ice Age drove the rise of water levels at that time.{{sfn|Zolitschka|Anselmetti|Ariztegui|Corbella|2013|p=10}} Palaeoclimate records at Potrok Aike are not always congruent with records obtained from sites closer to the Andes.{{sfn|Haberzettl|Wille|Fey|Janssen|2006|p=77}}

The name is part-Tehuelche and part-Spanish: Spanish {{lang|es|potro}} means "foal" and Tehuelche {{lang|teh|aike}} refers to a place where people stop and store resources. This may indicate that Potrok Aike was a stopping point for local people, as it has a reliable water supply.{{sfn|Haberzettl|Wille|Fey|Janssen|2006|p=78}} The region was inhabited by Aónikenk people,{{sfn|Gómez Otero|1987|p=175}} before Westerners arrived at the end of the 19th century{{efn|Numerous expeditions passed close to the lake.{{sfn|Haberzettl|Wille|Fey|Janssen|2006|p=78}}}}.{{sfn|Haberzettl|Fey|Lücke|Maidana|2005|p=296}} Sheep grazing is widespread in the region.{{sfn|Ohlendorf|Fey|Gebhardt|Haberzettl|2013|p=30}}

Politically, Potrok Aike is in Argentina's Santa Cruz Province.{{sfn|Ohlendorf|Fey|Gebhardt|Haberzettl|2013|p=30}} The lake can be reached from the{{sfn|Panza|Sacomani|Parisi|Pezzuchi|2015|p=175}} National Route 40 between Rio Gallegos and Rio Turbio, which passes about {{convert|20|km}} north of Potrok Aike.{{sfn|Hockun|Mollenhauer|Ho|Hefter|2016|p=112}} The border to Chile is about {{convert|5|km}} south of Potrok Aike.{{sfn|Zolitschka|Schäbitz|Lücke|Corbella|2006|p=3}} The "Diego Ritchie"{{sfn|Panza|Sacomani|Parisi|Pezzuchi|2015|loc=p.62,Map}} police station lies southwest of the lake,{{sfn|Coronato|Ercolano|Corbella|Tiberi|2013|p=14}} a weather station about {{convert|1|km}} northwest{{sfn|Zolitschka|Anselmetti|Ariztegui|Corbella|2013|p=3}} and there is a field station of Argentina's National Agricultural Technology Institute.{{sfn|Zolitschka|Corebella|Maidna|Ohlendorf|2006|p=54}}

The lake is the subject of an international research effort known as the "Potrok Aike maar lake Sediment Archive Drilling prOject" (PASADO), which is part of the International Continental Scientific Drilling Program{{sfn|Zolitschka|Anselmetti|Ariztegui|Corbella|2013|p=1}} and of the "South American Lake Sediment Archives and Modeling" (SALSA) project.{{sfn|Hahn|Kliem|Ohlendorf|Zolitschka|2013|p=155}} The Potrok Aike project began in 1999, when field trips searching suitable sites for the German Climate Research Program identified Potrok Aike as a good candidate site{{efn|Potrok Aike and Patagonia more generally are among the few parts of Earth south of the 38th parallel south{{sfn|Zolitschka|Schäbitz|Lücke|Corbella|2006b|p=295}} and thus the only place where there are land-based records of Southern Ocean climate, dust fluxes{{sfn|Zolitschka|Anselmetti|Ariztegui|Corbella|2009|p=29}}{{sfn|Anselmetti|Ariztegui|De Batist|Catalina Gebhardt|2009|p=874}} and Southern Hemisphere westerlies,{{sfn|Kilian|Lamy|2012|p=1}} and Patagonia is the southernmost landmass outside of Antarctica.{{sfn|Recasens|Ariztegui|Maidana|Zolitschka|2015|p=309}} Moreover, the record at Potrok Aike goes back much longer than at other Patagonian sites,{{sfn|Zolitschka|Anselmetti|Ariztegui|Corbella|2009|p=29}} which were frequently covered by ice during the last glacial maximum{{sfn|Kilian|Lamy|2012|p=5}}}}. In 2002 gravity cores were obtained from the lake, with piston cores coming in the following year.{{sfn|Zolitschka|Anselmetti|Ariztegui|Corbella|2013|p=2}} A field camp nicknamed "Potrok City" was built for the research project.{{sfn|Zolitschka|2010|p=77}} In total, seven{{efn|Some initial drilling efforts aimed at creating the financial and scientific incentives for deep drilling.{{sfn|Anselmetti|Ariztegui|De Batist|Catalina Gebhardt|2009|p=875}}}} drill cores were taken from Potrok Aike.{{sfn|Zolitschka|Anselmetti|Ariztegui|Corbella|2013|p=4}} The PASADO hydraulic piston cores 5022-1 and 5022-2 were obtained from the deep lake basin. The gravity and piston cores PTA-03/12+13, PTA-02/3, PTA-02/4, PTA-02/5 also come from there, while PTA-03/6 and PTA-03/5 are derived from shallower waters off the northern shoreline and PTA-02/2 and PTA-02/1 from slopes off the northwestern coast. The drilling operations originally intended to obtain cores spanning 700,000 years,{{sfn|Haberzettl|Fey|Lücke|Maidana|2005|p=285}}{{sfn|Zolitschka|Anselmetti|Ariztegui|Corbella|2013|p=3}} but bad weather and technical difficulties{{sfn|Zolitschka|Anselmetti|Ariztegui|Corbella|2009|p=33}} forced researchers to settle for a much shorter timeframe{{sfn|Zolitschka|Anselmetti|Ariztegui|Corbella|2013|p=3}} of 51,000 years{{sfn|Ohlendorf|Fey|Gebhardt|Haberzettl|2013|p=28}} and to abandon efforts to investigate the volcanic basement.{{sfn|Zolitschka|Anselmetti|Ariztegui|Corbella|2009|p=32}} The cores have a combined length exceeding {{convert|0.5|km}}{{sfn|Recasens|Ariztegui|Maidana|Zolitschka|2015|p=309}} and are stored at the University of Berlin.{{sfn|Zolitschka|Anselmetti|Ariztegui|Corbella|2013|p=4}} The resolution of the cores is about 1-10 years.{{sfn|Kilian|Lamy|2012|p=15}}

The objectives of the PASADO project included obtaining data on palaeoclimate,{{efn|Dust and hydrology changes, temperature and precipitation variations. They were to be determined with multiple techniques like biomarkers, chironomids, diatoms, dust deposition, pollen and stable isotopes, as well as through comparisons with marine and continental ice sheet records, the outputs of palaeoclimate modelling{{sfn|Zolitschka|Anselmetti|Ariztegui|Corbella|2013|p=4}} and comparisons with other water bodies in the region like Cardiel Lake and Cari Laufquén.{{sfn|Zolitschka|Anselmetti|Ariztegui|Corbella|2013|p=10}}}} former vegetation and wildfire{{efn|Using charcoal and pollen.{{sfn|Zolitschka|Anselmetti|Ariztegui|Corbella|2013|p=4}}}} conditions, volcanic activity and studies on phreatomagmatic volcanism, variations of Earth's magnetic field and the activity of underground ecosystems.{{sfn|Zolitschka|Corebella|Maidna|Ohlendorf|2006|p=54}}{{sfn|Zolitschka|Anselmetti|Ariztegui|Corbella|2013|p=4}} Lastly, they sought to establish a reliable chronology through magnetic and tephrochronological methods,{{sfn|Zolitschka|Anselmetti|Ariztegui|Corbella|2013|p=3}} and reliable palaeo proxies through comparisons with extant conditions.{{sfn|Zolitschka|Anselmetti|Ariztegui|Corbella|2013|p=4}}

Research on Potrok Aike yielded insights in climate, dating, geology and hydrology,{{sfn|Zolitschka|Anselmetti|Ariztegui|Corbella|2013|p=1}} and have been used in various disciplines of regional research.{{sfn|Coronato|Ercolano|Corbella|Tiberi|2013|p=13}} Techniques used included biological, geochemical, magnetic, mineralogical (including microbiological), physical and sedimentological procedures,{{sfn|Zolitschka|Anselmetti|Ariztegui|Corbella|2013|p=1}} as well as comparisons to climate models and ecology reconstructions. At its beginning, the effort involved Argentine, German and Swiss scientists,{{sfn|Zolitschka|Anselmetti|Ariztegui|Corbella|2013|p=2}} later expanding to include technical personnel and researchers from Argentina, Canada, Germany, Sweden, Switzerland and the USA.{{sfn|Zolitschka|Anselmetti|Ariztegui|Corbella|2013|p=3}} The challenges encountered at Potrok Aike led to the development of new lake sediment drilling techniques and the adoption of standards used in marine core studies.{{sfn|Zolitschka|Anselmetti|Ariztegui|Corbella|2013|pp=4-5}} Palaeoclimate research at Potrok Aike has an economic dimension, as the regional economy is vulnerable to short-term droughts.{{sfn|Zolitschka|Schäbitz|Lücke|Corbella|2006b|p=296}}

Apart from PASADO, earlier studies were carried out on Potrok Aike to obtain data on its past hydrology, climate{{sfn|Recasens|Ariztegui|Maidana|Zolitschka|2015|p=310}} and archaeology, and there have been later, independent research efforts.{{sfn|Charlin|Borrero|Gómez Otero|2018|p=24}} Palaeoclimate research in the region's lakes began at Magallanes Maar{{sfn|Zolitschka|Schäbitz|Lücke|Corbella|2006b|p=296}} and continued at Potrok Aike and Laguna Azul.{{sfn|Zolitschka|Schäbitz|Lücke|Corbella|2006b|p=298}}

Numerous traces of prior human habitation have been found around Potrok Aike, especially on the uppermost terraces,{{sfn|Gómez Otero|1987|p=177}} and rock art{{efn|Potrok Aike is one of the few sites in the region where rock paintings and engravings occur in the same place, perhaps because it is one of the few water sources there.{{sfn|Manzi|Carballo Marina|Campan|2015|p=196}}}} is widespread in the area.{{sfn|Charlin|Borrero|Gómez Otero|2018|p=23}} Potrok Aike played a major role in the human landscape of the region, as it was an important source of water and raw materials.{{sfn|Charlin|Borrero|Gómez Otero|2018|p=23}} The region was easily traversable and Potrok Aike accessible from other major sites like Cueva Fell{{sfn|Gómez Otero|1987|p=177}} or the Rio Gallegos.{{sfn|Charlin|Borrero|Gómez Otero|2018|p=33}} The lake was inhabited for a long time;{{sfn|Charlin|Pallo|2013|p=313}} the oldest dated site is about 4,800 years old{{sfn|Charlin|2014|p=187}} and was discovered in eroding dunes on the northeastern shore.{{sfn|Rubin de Rubin|da Silva|2013|p=16}} Other sites with archaeological remains lie {{convert|3|-|4|km}} northwest of Potrok Aike,{{sfn|Charlin|2014|p=189}} including sophisticated rock paintings.{{sfn|Charlin|Borrero|Gómez Otero|2018|p=24}}

The so-called "Potrok Aike type" or "PKA", a rock type frequently used in tools found at archaeological sites in the region, is named after the frequent findings close to Potrok Aike{{efn|Whether the name refers to the lake Potrok Aike{{sfn|Charlin|Pallo|2013|p=309}} or a dry lake west of Potrok Aike with the same name is unclear. "PKA" is included in the so-called "Rocas de Grano Fino Oscuro",{{sfn|Charlin|Pallo|2013|p=310}} which occurs at Potrok Aike in higher quantities and larger blocks than elsewhere,{{sfn|Rubin de Rubin|da Silva|2013|p=16}} and black dacite nodules have been found close to Potrok Aike.{{sfn|Cardillo|Charlin|Moreno|2023|p=150}}}}{{sfn|Charlin|Pallo|2013|p=309}} although it is not exclusive to that lake.{{sfn|Charlin|Borrero|Gómez Otero|2018|p=28}} Found in glaciofluvial deposits of the region, it is a high-quality dacite{{sfn|Charlin|Pallo|2013|p=310}} and the most commonly used raw material for tool making in the region.{{sfn|Cirigliano|Pallo|Charlin|2018}}{{sfn|Charlin|Pallo|2015|p=129}} Artefacts of chalcedony and obsidian have been found at Potrok Aike, but the sources of these rocks are unknown.{{sfn|Banegas|Gómez Otero|Goye|Ratto|2014|p=159}}

The region was first inhabited 12,500 years ago.{{sfn|Kilian|Lamy|2012|p=16}} Four or five or four phases of settlement are recognized;{{sfn|Gómez Otero|1993|pp=329-330}} during the last 4,500 years, a widespread hunter-gatherer culture in the region which exploited the plentiful natural resources like wood{{efn|Inhabitants obtained firewood from barberries that grew in sheltered areas.{{sfn|Gómez Otero|1987|p=175}}}} and water.{{sfn|Gómez Otero|1987|p=195}} Humans hunted and hunt preferably guanacos; rheas are hunted when their fat levels are higher than the guanaco's.{{sfn|Gómez Otero|1993|p=329}}{{sfn|Morales|Barberena|Belardi|Borrero|2009|p=289}} Human responses to climate variability were complex and varied by region.{{sfn|Morales|Barberena|Belardi|Borrero|2009|p=292}}

In 1982, three rock shelters were discovered close to the southern shore of the lake.{{sfn|Gómez Otero|1987|p=175}} The largest has a surface of {{convert|13.3|m2}}{{sfn|Gómez Otero|1993|p=330}} and is within the Policia scoria cone.{{sfn|Charlin|Borrero|Gómez Otero|2018|p=25}} They yielded animal bones (mainly guanacos),{{sfn|Gómez Otero|1987|p=185}} hearths,{{sfn|Gómez Otero|1987|p=190}} lithic artefacts and rock art.{{sfn|Gómez Otero|1987|p=175}} Lithic nuclei have been recovered. Stone tools include flakes,{{sfn|Charlin|Borrero|Gómez Otero|2018|p=29}} knives, projectile points, racloirs, scrapers{{sfn|Gómez Otero|1987|pp=184-185}} and tools for cutting wood.{{sfn|Charlin|Borrero|Gómez Otero|2018|p=33}} The rock art was made with red and white colours{{sfn|Charlin|2014|p=187}} and depicts anthropomorphic drawings, simple geometrical signs and bird footsteps, consistent with other rock art in the regional "Rio Chico" style.{{sfn|Charlin|Borrero|Gómez Otero|2018|p=24}} In the largest rockshelter, several stratigraphic layers consisting of guano and sand have been distinguished.{{sfn|Gómez Otero|1987|p=178}} Occupation began about 524-347 BCE{{sfn|Charlin|Borrero|Gómez Otero|2018|p=25}} during the fourth{{efn|Findings at Potrok Aike were instrumental in showing that the fourth and fifth settlement periods were in fact the same.{{sfn|Banegas|Gómez Otero|Goye|Ratto|2014|p=156}}}} settlement period{{sfn|Gómez Otero|1993|p=331}} and continued into recent times as demonstrated by the finding of an iron,{{sfn|Gómez Otero|1987|p=193}} but was discontinuous especially during times of less suitable climates.{{sfn|Charlin|Borrero|Gómez Otero|2018|p=34}}

The rockshelter was probably a place where lithic tools were produced{{sfn|Charlin|Borrero|Gómez Otero|2018|p=32}} and hunters gathered{{sfn|Gómez Otero|1987|p=190}} and exploited their guanaco kills.{{sfn|Gómez Otero|1993|p=334}} The rockshelter was not a permanent dwelling, however,{{sfn|Gómez Otero|1993|p=342}} and humans remained there for only short timespans.{{sfn|Gómez Otero|1993|p=338}} Rather, people then lived in tents which had several advantages over rock shelters.{{sfn|Gómez Otero|1993|p=341}} Findings of scallops in the rockshelter imply that there was long-distance trade between Potrok Aike and the ocean coasts.{{sfn|Charlin|Borrero|Gómez Otero|2018|p=33}} There is evidence that climatic fluctuations influenced population density in the region, with decreased activity during the dry Medieval Climate Anomaly,{{sfn|Charlin|Borrero|Gómez Otero|2018|p=32}} but that the rockshelter was used particularly during times of climatic instability - perhaps reflecting adaptations of the local population.{{sfn|Charlin|Borrero|Gómez Otero|2018|p=34}}

{{notelist}}

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• {{cite web

| url = http://anterior.inta.gov.ar/region/pas/sipas2/cmp/agromet/index.html

| language = Spanish

| title = Información de estaciones agrometeorológicas–Potrok Aike

| publisher = Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria

| accessdate = December 5, 2015|ref={{harvid|INTA|2015}}}}

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• {{cite book|isbn=978-987-29262-0-5|chapter=Disponibilidad de materias primas líticas y uso del espacio en el interfluvio Gallegos-Chico (Pali Aike, Santa Cruz)|title=Tendencias teórico-metodológicas y casos de estudio en la arqueología de Patagonia|pages=307–316|publisher=Museo de Historia Natural de San Rafael, INAPL y SAA, San Rafael|trans-chapter=Availability of lithic raw materials and use of space in the Gallegos-Chico interfluve (Pali Aike, Santa Cruz) |editor-last=Zangrando |editor-first=A.F. |editor2-last=Barberena |editor2-first=R. |editor3-last=Gil |editor3-first=A. |editor4-last=Neme |editor4-first=G. |editor5-last=Giardina |editor5-first=M. |editor6-last=Luna |editor6-first=L. |editor7-last=Otaola |editor7-first=C. |editor8-last=Paulides |editor8-first=S. |editor9-last=Salgán |editor9-first=L. |editor10-last=Tivoli|last1=Charlin|first1=Judith Emilce|last2=Pallo|first2=Maria Cecilia|year=2013|language=es|hdl=11336/149519}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Zhu |first1=J. |last2=Lücke |first2=A. |last3=Wissel |first3=H. |last4=Mayr |first4=C. |last5=Enters |first5=D. |last6=Ja Kim |first6=K. |last7=Ohlendorf |first7=C. |last8=Schäbitz |first8=F. |last9=Zolitschka |first9=B. |title=Climate history of the Southern Hemisphere Westerlies belt during the last glacial–interglacial transition revealed from lake water oxygen isotope reconstruction of Laguna Potrok Aike (52° S, Argentina) |journal=Climate of the Past |date=9 December 2014 |volume=10 |issue=6 |pages=2153–2169 |doi=10.5194/cp-10-2153-2014 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2014CliPa..10.2153Z |url=https://cp.copernicus.org/articles/10/2153/2014/ |language=English |issn=1814-9324}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Zimmermann |first1=Claudia |last2=Jouve |first2=Guillaume |last3=Pienitz |first3=Reinhard |last4=Francus |first4=Pierre |last5=Maidana |first5=Nora I. |title=Late Glacial and Early Holocene cyclic changes in paleowind conditions and lake levels inferred from diatom assemblage shifts in Laguna Potrok Aike sediments (southern Patagonia, Argentina) |journal=Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology |date=June 2015 |volume=427 |pages=20–31 |doi=10.1016/j.palaeo.2015.03.006|bibcode=2015PPP...427...20Z |hdl=11336/19519 }}
• {{cite journal |last1=Zolitschka |first1=Bernd |last2=Schäbitz |first2=Frank |last3=Lücke |first3=Andreas |last4=Corbella |first4=Hugo |last5=Ercolano |first5=Bettina |last6=Fey |first6=Michael |last7=Haberzettl |first7=Torsten |last8=Janssen |first8=Stephanie |last9=Maidana |first9=Nora |last10=Mayr |first10=Christoph |last11=Ohlendorf |first11=Christian |last12=Oliva |first12=Gabriel |last13=Paez |first13=Marta M. |last14=Schleser |first14=Gerhard H. |last15=Soto |first15=Julio |last16=Tiberi |first16=Pedro |last17=Wille |first17=Michael |title=Crater lakes of the Pali Aike Volcanic Field as key sites for paleoclimatic and paleoecological reconstructions in southern Patagonia, Argentina |journal=Journal of South American Earth Sciences |date=July 2006b |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=294–309 |doi=10.1016/j.jsames.2006.04.001|bibcode=2006JSAES..21..294Z |hdl=11336/16938 }}
• {{cite conference |last1=Zolitschka |first1=B. |last2=Schäbitz |first2=F. |last3=Lücke |first3=A. |last4=Corbella |first4=H. |last5=Haberzettl |first5=T. |last6=Ohlendorf |first6=C. |last7=Oliva |first7=G. |title=Excursion guide to the crater lake of Laguna Potrok Aike (Santa Cruz, Argentina) |journal=Terra Nostra |volume=1 |year=2006 |pages=36–51 |publisher=International Continental Scientific Drilling Program (ICDP) |conference=PASADO Workshop, 16–20 March 2006, Río Gallegos, Argentina}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Zolitschka |first1=Bernd |last2=Corebella |first2=Hugo |last3=Maidna |first3=Nora |last4=Ohlendorf |first4=Christian |title=Investigating Maar Formation and the Climate History of Southern Argentina - the Potrok Aike Maar Lake Sediment Archive Drilling Project (PASADO) |journal=Scientific Drilling |date=1 September 2006 |issue=3, Sept 2006 |doi=10.2204/iodp.sd.3.13.2006}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Zolitschka |first1=Bernd |last2=Anselmetti |first2=Flavio |last3=Ariztegui |first3=Daniel |last4=Corbella |first4=Hugo |last5=Francus |first5=Pierre |last6=Ohlendorf |first6=Christian |last7=Schäbitz |first7=the PSADO Scientific Drilling Team |title=The Laguna Potrok Aike Scinetific Drilling Project PASADO (ICDP Expedition 5022) |journal=Scientific Drilling |date=1 September 2009 |issue=8, Sept 2009 |doi=10.2204/iodp.sd.8.04.2009}}
• {{cite book |editor-last1=Zolitschka |editor-first1=Bernd |title=Potrok Aike Maar Lake Sediment Archive Drilling Project |date=2010 |doi=10.23689/fidgeo-2041 |publisher=GeoUnion Alfred-Wegener-Stifung, Berlin |last1=Zolitschka |first1=Bernd (Ed.) }}
• {{cite journal |last1=Zolitschka |first1=B. |last2=Anselmetti |first2=F. |last3=Ariztegui |first3=D. |last4=Corbella |first4=H. |last5=Francus |first5=P. |last6=Lücke |first6=A. |last7=Maidana |first7=N.I. |last8=Ohlendorf |first8=C. |last9=Schäbitz |first9=F. |last10=Wastegård |first10=S. |title=Environment and climate of the last 51,000 years – new insights from the Potrok Aike maar lake Sediment Archive Drilling prOject (PASADO) |journal=Quaternary Science Reviews |date=July 2013 |volume=71 |pages=1–12 |doi=10.1016/j.quascirev.2012.11.024|bibcode=2013QSRv...71....1Z |hdl=11336/15952 }}

{{refend}}

• {{cite book |last1=González |first1=Liliana |last2=Iglesias |first2=Roberto Oscar |last3=Cibils |first3=Omar Andrés |title=Campo Experimental Potrok Aike: resultado de 15 años de labor técnica |date=January 2016 |isbn=978-987-521-706-5 |language=es|url=https://ediciones.inta.gob.ar/libro/campo-experimental-potrok-aike-resultado-de-15-anos-de-labor-tecnica/|ref=none}}
• [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0037073811001692 The PASADO core processing strategy — A proposed new protocol for sediment core treatment in multidisciplinary lake drilling projects]
• [https://edocs.tib.eu/files/e01fb08/55831693X.pdf Schlussbericht Südargentinische Seesediment Archive und Modellierung (SALSA) Stabile Isotope und Ökosystemdynamik (SALSA III)]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Potrok Aike}}

Category:Lakes of Santa Cruz Province, Argentina

Category:Maars of Argentina

Category:Volcanoes of Santa Cruz Province, Argentina