Robotaxi

So far all the trials have involved specially modified passenger cars with space for two or four passengers sitting in the back seats behind a partition. LIDAR, cameras and other sensors have been used on all vehicles. The cost of early vehicles was estimated in 2020 at up to US$400,000 due to custom manufacture and specialized sensors.{{Cite web |last=Hawkins |first=Andrew J. |date=2020-01-22 |title=Exclusive look at Cruise's first driverless car without a steering wheel or pedals |url=https://www.theverge.com/2020/1/21/21075977/cruise-driverless-car-gm-no-steering-wheel-pedals-ev-exclusive-first-look |access-date=2024-05-05 |website=The Verge |language=en}} However, the prices of some components such as LIDAR have fallen significantly.{{Cite web |last=Stevens |first=Tim |date=December 13, 2023 |title=How the Cars of Tomorrow Will "See": The Future of Lidar and Radar |url=https://www.motortrend.com/features/lidar-technology-radar-future-cars/ |website=MotorTrend}} In January 2021, Waymo stated its costs were approximately $180,000 per vehicle, and its operating cost at $0.30 per mile (~$0.19 per km), well below Uber and Lyft, but this excludes the cost of fleet technicians and customer support.{{cite news |title=Waymo CEO Says Tesla Is Not A Competitor, Gives Estimated Cost Of Autonomous Vehicles |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/johanmoreno/2021/01/22/waymo-ceo-says-tesla-is-not-a-competitor-gives-estimated-cost-of-autonomous-vehicles/?sh=16331838541b |work=Forbes |date=22 January 2021}} Baidu announced in June 2021 it would start producing robotaxis for 500,000 yuan ($77,665) each.{{cite news |title=Baidu to deploy 1,000 budget robotaxis on Chinese roads as it seeks ways to monetise autonomous driving technology |url=https://www.scmp.com/tech/big-tech/article/3137776/baidu-deploy-1000-budget-robotaxis-chinese-roads-it-seeks-ways |access-date=12 July 2021 |publisher=SCMP |date=18 June 2021}} Tesla has discussed a sub-$25,000 Tesla Robotaxi, and as of 2023 is designing an assembly line that will accommodate the vehicle.{{cite book |url=https://www.simonandschuster.com/books/Elon-Musk/Walter-Isaacson/9781982181284 |title=Elon Musk |access-date=28 November 2023 |isbn=978-1-9821-8128-4 |language=en |last1=Isaacson|first1=Walter |date=12 September 2023 |author-link=Walter Isaacson |publisher=Simon & Schuster |pages=501–505}}

Several companies are testing robotaxi services, especially in the United States and in China. All operate only in a geo-fenced area. Service areas for robotaxis, also known as the Objective Design Domain (ODD), are specially designated zones where robotaxis can safely provide service.{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=November 16, 2021 |title=AutoX Operates Fully Driverless Robotaxi Service, Covering 65 Square Miles of Shenzhen |url=https://www.robotics247.com/article/autox_operates_fully_driverless_robotaxi_service_covering_65_square_miles_of_shenzhen |access-date=2024-05-07 |website=Robotics 24/7 |language=en}} As of 2024, Baidu's {{interlanguage link|Apollo Go|zh|萝卜快跑}} had carried the most passengers, over 6 million by April 2024. Other providers in China include AutoX, DiDi, Pony.ai, WeRide, all operating in 10 or more cities. In the US, Waymo is the most prominent provider, operating in San Francisco, Phoenix, and Los Angeles. A 2024 study of Waymo indicated an 85% reduction in injury crashes per mile driven.{{Cite web |last=NextBigFuture |date=2024-07-11 |title=China Robotaxi is Much Bigger than Waymo |url=https://nextbigfuture.substack.com/p/china-robotaxi-is-much-bigger-than-waymohtml |access-date=2024-07-17 |website=next BIG future}}

Separate to these efforts have been trials of larger shared autonomous vehicles on fixed routes with designated stops, able to carry between 6 and 10 passengers. These shuttle buses operate at low speeds.

At present, it is not only technical issues that hinder the widespread use of robotaxis, but also social issues. First, consumers' concerns about the reliability and safety of self-driving taxis are a major obstacle. For example, system failures during the service process and the risk of accident perception will reduce potential users.{{Cite journal |last1=Yang |first1=Chun |last2=Gu |first2=Chao |last3=Wei |first3=Wei |date=December 2023 |title=Does Robotaxi Offer a Positive Travel Experience? A Study of the Key Factors That Influence Consumers' Use of the Robotaxi |journal=Systems |language=en |volume=11 |issue=12 |pages=559 |doi=10.3390/systems11120559 |doi-access=free |issn=2079-8954}} In addition, consumers still have doubts about whether the robotaxi can cope with complex urban environments or severe weather conditions.{{Cn|date=January 2025}}

In February 2018 Arizona granted Waymo a Transportation Network Company permit.{{cite news|date=17 February 2018 |author=Jonathan M. Gitlin |title=Robotaxi permit gets Arizona's OK; Waymo will start service in 2018 |url=https://arstechnica.com/cars/2018/02/robotaxi-permit-gets-arizonas-ok-waymo-will-start-service-in-2018/ |work=Ars Technica |access-date=1 May 2022 }}

In February 2022 the California Public Utilities Commission (CPUC) issued Drivered Deployment permits to Cruise and Waymo to allow passenger service in autonomous vehicles with a safety driver present in the vehicle. These carriers must hold a valid California Department of Motor Vehicles (DMV) Deployment permit and meet the requirements of the CPUC Drivered Deployment program.{{cite web|date=28 February 2022 |title=CPUC Issues First Autonomous Vehicle Drivered Deployment Permits |url=https://www.cpuc.ca.gov/news-and-updates/all-news/cpuc-issues-first-autonomous-vehicle-drivered-deployment-permits |website=CPUC |access-date=1 May 2022 }} In June 2022, Cruise received approval to operate a commercial robotaxi service in San Francisco.{{Cite press release |url=https://www.getcruise.com/news/were-going-commercial/ |date=2 June 2022 |title=We're going commercial. |publisher=Cruise |access-date=3 June 2022 }}{{cite news|date=3 June 2022 |author=Rebecca Bellan |title=Cruise can finally charge for driverless robotaxi rides in San Francisco |url=https://techcrunch.com/2022/06/02/cruise-can-finally-charge-for-driverless-robotaxi-rides-in-san-francisco/ |work=TechCrunch |access-date=3 June 2022 }}

In April 2022, China gave Baidu and Pony.ai its first permits to deploy robotaxis without safety drivers on open roads within a 23 square mile area in the Beijing Economic-Technological Development Area.{{cite news|date=28 April 2022 |title=Beijing grants new robotaxi permits |url=https://www.autonews.com/china/beijing-grants-new-robotaxi-permits |work=Automotive News |access-date=30 April 2022 }}{{cite news|date=28 April 2022 |title=Baidu, Pony.AI win first driverless robotaxi permits in China |url=https://techcrunch.com/2022/04/27/baidu-pony-ai-win-first-driverless-robotaxi-permits-in-china/ |work=TechCrunch |access-date=30 April 2022 }}

In August 2023, the CPUC approved granting additional operating authority for Cruise LLC and Waymo LLC to conduct commercial passenger service using vehicles without safety drivers in San Francisco.{{Cite news |last1=Thadani |first1=Trisha |last2=Merrill |first2=Jeremy B. |date=2023-08-18 |title=California just opened the floodgates for self-driving cars |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2023/08/10/san-francisco-robotaxi-approved-waymo-cruise/ |access-date=2024-05-07 |newspaper=Washington Post |language=en-US |issn=0190-8286}} [https://docs.cpuc.ca.gov/PublishedDocs/Published/G000/M516/K992/516992488.PDF The approval] includes the ability for both companies to charge fares for rides at any time of day.

{{See also|History of self-driving cars}}

In August 2016, MIT spinoff NuTonomy was the first company to make robotaxis available to the public, starting to offer rides with a fleet of 6 modified Renault Zoes and Mitsubishi i-MiEVs in a limited area in Singapore.{{Cite web|url=https://www.theverge.com/2016/8/25/12637822/self-driving-taxi-first-public-trial-singapore-nutonomy|title=World's first self-driving taxi trial begins in Singapore|last=Vincent|first=James|date=2016-08-25|website=The Verge|access-date=2017-08-24}} NuTonomy later signed three significant partnerships to develop its robotaxi service: with Grab, Uber’s rival in Southeast Asia, with Groupe PSA, which is supposed to provide the company with Peugeot 3008 SUVs and the last one with Lyft to launch a robotaxi service in Boston.{{Cite web|url=https://techcrunch.com/2016/09/22/grab-nutonomy/|title=Uber rival Grab partners with Nutonomy to test self-driving cars in Singapore {{!}} TechCrunch|last=Russell|first=Jon|date=22 September 2016 |access-date=2017-08-24}}{{Cite web|url=https://techcrunch.com/2017/05/03/nutonomy-peugeot-citroen-groupe-psa/|title=Nutonomy teams up with Peugeot-maker Groupe PSA for self-driving car tests in Singapore {{!}} TechCrunch|last=Russell|first=Jon|date=3 May 2017 |access-date=2017-08-24}}{{Cite web|url=http://media.groupe-psa.com/en/groupe-psa-and-nutonomy-form-strategic-partnership-test-fully-autonomous-vehicles-singapore|title=Groupe PSA and nuTonomy Form Strategic Partnership to Test Fully Autonomous Vehicles in Singapore {{!}} Media Groupe PSA|website=media.groupe-psa.com|access-date=2017-08-24}}{{Cite web|url=https://techcrunch.com/2017/06/06/lyft-and-nutonomy-partner-to-bring-first-self-driving-lyft-service-to-boston/|title=Lyft and Nutonomy partner to bring first self-driving Lyft service to Boston {{!}} TechCrunch|last=Etherington|first=Darrell|date=6 June 2017 |access-date=2017-08-24}}

In August 2017, Cruise Automation, a self-driving startup acquired by General Motors in 2016, launched the beta version of a robotaxi service for its employees in San Francisco using a fleet of 46 Chevrolet Bolt EVs.{{Cite magazine|title=GM's Robocar Service Drives Employees Around SF for Free|language=en-US|magazine=WIRED|url=https://www.wired.com/story/gm-cruise-anywhere-self-driving-san-francisco/|access-date=2017-08-24}}{{Cite web|last=Etherington|first=Darrell|title=Cruise is running an autonomous ride-hailing service for employees in SF {{!}} TechCrunch|date=8 August 2017 |url=https://techcrunch.com/2017/08/08/cruise-is-running-an-autonomous-ride-hailing-service-for-employees-in-sf/|access-date=2017-08-24}}

{{dynamic list}} Trials listed have a safety driver unless otherwise indicated. The commencement of a trial does not mean it is still active.

• August 2016 - NuTonomy launched its autonomous taxi service using a fleet of 6 modified Renault Zoes and Mitsubishi i-MiEVs in Singapore.
• September 2016 - Uber started allowing a select group of users in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania to order robotaxis from a fleet of 14 vehicles. Two Uber engineers were always in the front seats of each vehicle.
• March 2017 - An Uber self-driving car was hit and flipped on its side by another vehicle that failed to yield. In October 2017, Uber started using only one test driver.
• April 2017 - Waymo started a large scale robotaxi tests in a geo-fenced suburb of Phoenix, Arizona with a driver monitoring each vehicle. The service area was about {{convert|100|sqmi|sqkm|abbr=out}}..{{cite news|title=Login Join Extra Crunch Search TC Sessions: SaaS Startups Videos Audio Newsletters Extra Crunch EC-1s Advertise Events More Waymo starts to open driverless ride-hailing service to the public |url=https://techcrunch.com/2020/10/08/waymo-starts-to-open-driverless-ride-hailing-service-to-the-public/ |access-date=12 July 2021 |publisher=Tech Crunch |date=8 October 2020}} In November 2017, some driverless testing began. Commercial operations began in November 2019.
• August 2017 - Cruise Automation launched the beta version robotaxi service for 250 employees (10% of its staff) in San Francisco using a fleet of 46 vehicles.
• March 2018 - A woman attempting to cross a street in Tempe, Arizona at night was struck and killed by an Uber vehicle while the onboard safety driver was watching videos. Uber later restarted testing, but only during daylight hours and at slower speeds.
• August 2018 - Yandex began a trial with two vehicles in Innopolis, Russia.{{cite web |title=Robo-taxi fleet has been in service since August, 2018 |website = YouTube| date=4 January 2019 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C9oJodL0zb8 |access-date=12 July 2021}}{{cite news |title=Yandex Offers Robotaxi Rides to Citizens of Remote Russian City |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-08-28/yandex-offers-robotaxi-rides-to-citizens-of-remote-russian-city |access-date=12 July 2021 |publisher=Bloomberg |date=28 August 2018}}
• December 2018 - Waymo started a self-driving taxi service, dubbed Waymo One, for paying customers in Arizona.{{cite news|date=5 December 2018 |title=Waymo unveils self-driving taxi service in Arizona for paying customers |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-waymo-selfdriving-focus-idUSKBN1O41M2 |publisher=Reuters |access-date=30 April 2022 }}
• April 2019 - Pony.ai launched a pilot system for employees and invited affiliates, serving pre-defined pickup points and covering {{convert|50|sqkm|sqmi|abbr=on}} in Guangzhou, China.{{cite news|title=Pony.ai tests robo-taxi program on its employees, promises self-driving trucks next |url=https://venturebeat.com/2019/04/19/pony-ai-launches-robotaxi-employee-program-ponypilot-says-its-developing-self-driving-trucks/ |access-date=24 July 2021 |publisher=Venture Beat |date=19 April 2019}}
• November 2019 - WeRide RoboTaxi began a pilot service with 20 vehicles in Guangzhou and Huangpu over an area of {{convert|144.65|sqkm|sqmi|abbr=on}}.{{cite news|title=WeRide kicks off a robotaxi pilot program in Guangzhou |url=https://technode.com/2019/11/28/weride-robotaxi-launch-guangzhou/ |access-date=12 July 2021 |publisher=technode |date=28 November 2019}}{{cite web |title=WeRide Pilots First Robotaxi Service in China's First-Tier City Guangzhou |url=https://www.weride.ai/robotaxi-service/ |access-date=12 July 2021}}
• November 2019 - Pony.ai started a three-month trial in Irvine, California with 10 cars and stops for pickup and drop off.{{cite news |title=Pony.ai to launch BotRide robo-taxi service in Irvine |url=https://venturebeat.com/2019/10/25/pony-ai-to-launch-botride-robo-taxi-service-in-irvine/ |access-date=24 July 2021 |publisher=Venture Beat |date=25 October 2019}}
• April 2020 - Baidu opened its trial of 45 vehicles in Changsha, China to public users for free trips, serving 100 designated spots on a set {{convert|135|km|mi|abbr=on}} network. Services operated from 9:20am to 4:40pm with a safety-driver and a "navigator", allowing space for two passengers in the back.{{cite news|title=Baidu Apollo Robotaxi deployed in Changsha offers "considerate" riding experience |url=http://autonews.gasgoo.com/china_news/70017430.html |access-date=2021-07-27 |publisher=Gasgoo |date=12 August 2020}}
• June 2020 - DiDi robotaxi service began operation in Shanghai in an area that covered Shanghai's Automobile Exhibition Center, the local business districts, subway stations and hotels in the downtown area.{{cite web |title=DiDi Robotaxi Service Begins Operation in Shanghai |website = YouTube| date=26 June 2020 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mnYXiRbxMus |access-date=12 July 2021}}
• August 2020 - Baidu began offering free trips, with app bookings, on its trial in Cangzhou, China, which served 55 designated spots over pre-defined routes.{{cite news |title=Baidu launches Robotaxi service "Apollo Go" for general public in Cangzhou |url=http://autonews.gasgoo.com/icv/70017465.html |access-date=27 July 2021 |publisher=Gasgoo |date=21 August 2020}}
• December 2020 - AutoX (which is backed by Alibaba Group) launched a non-public trial of driverless robotaxis in Shenzhen with 25 vehicles.{{cite news |title=Alibaba-backed autonomous car firm AutoX starts driverless testing |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-autox-autonomous/alibaba-backed-autonomous-car-firm-autox-starts-driverless-testing-idUSKBN28D047 |access-date=12 July 2021 |publisher=Reuters |date=3 December 2020}} The service was then opened to the public in January 2021.{{cite AV media |title=Driverless Robotaxi |website=AutoX.ai |url=http://www.autox.ai/download/video/driverless_robotaxi_en.mp4 |format=MP4 video }}{{cite news |title=AutoX Launches Driverless Robotaxis To The Public In Shenzhen |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/davidsilver/2021/01/27/autox-launches-driverless-roboaxis-in-shenzhen/?sh=cb6aac07d2ac |access-date=12 July 2021 |work=Forbes |date=27 January 2021}}
• February 2021 - Waymo One began limited robotaxi service in a number of suburbs of San Francisco for a selection of its own employees. In August 2021, the public was invited to apply to use the service with limited locations. A safety driver was present in each vehicle. The number of vehicles involved has not been disclosed.{{cite news |title=Waymo giving select passengers robotaxi rides in SF |url=https://www.therobotreport.com/waymo-giving-select-passengers-robotaxi-rides-san-francisco/ |access-date=2021-08-28 |publisher=The Robot Report |date=24 August 2021}}
• May 2021 - Baidu commenced a commercial robotaxi service with ten Apollo Go vehicles in a {{convert|3|sqkm|sqmi|abbr=on}} area with eight pickup and drop-off stops, in Shougang Park in western Beijing.{{cite news|title=Baidu goes commercial with 'robotaxis' in Beijing |url=https://archive.shine.cn/nation/Baidu-goes-commercial-with-robotaxis-in-Beijing/shdaily.shtml |access-date=12 July 2021 |publisher=Shanghai Daily |date=3 May 2021}}
• July 2021 - Baidu opened a pilot program to the public in Guangzhou with a fleet of 30 sedans serving {{convert|60|sqmi|sqkm|abbr=on}} in the Huangpu district.{{cite news|title=Baidu opens robotaxi pilot to public in Guangzhou |url=https://technode.com/2021/07/19/baidu-opens-robotaxi-pilot-to-public-in-guangzhou/ |access-date=24 July 2021 |publisher=TechNode |date=19 July 2021}} 200 designated spots were served between 9:30am and 11pm every day.{{cite news |title=Baidu Expands Robotaxi Pilot Program to Guangzhou |url=https://www.caixinglobal.com/2021-07-20/baidu-expands-robotaxi-pilot-program-to-guangzhou-101742697.html |access-date=2021-07-27 |publisher=CX Tech |date=20 July 2021}}
• July 2021 - DeepRoute.ai began a free-of-charge trial with 20 vehicles in downtown Shenzhen, serving 100 pickup and dropoff locations.{{cite news |title=DeepRoute.ai begins robotaxi trials with 20 vehicles in downtown Shenzhen |url=https://kr-asia.com/deeproute-ai-begins-robotaxi-trials-with-20-vehicles-in-downtown-shenzhen |access-date=24 July 2021 |publisher=KrAsia |date=20 July 2021}}
• February 2022 - Cruise opened up its driverless cars in San Francisco to the public.{{Cite web|title=Welcome, Riders|url=https://www.getcruise.com/news/welcome-riders/|access-date=2022-02-02|website=www.getcruise.com|language=en|archive-date=2022-02-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220202005538/https://www.getcruise.com/news/welcome-riders/|url-status=dead}}
• February 2023 - Zoox, the self-driving startup owned by Amazon, carried passengers in its robotaxi for the first time in Foster City, California.{{Cite web|date=February 14, 2023 |author=Edward Ludlow |title=Amazon's Self-Driving Car Shuttles People on Public Roads for the First Time |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2023-02-13/amazon-s-self-driving-car-unit-carries-passengers-on-public-roads?leadSource=uverify%20wall |website=Bloomberg News |access-date=2023-02-17 }}
• August 2023 - Waymo and Cruise were authorized by the CPUC to collect fares for driverless rides in San Francisco.
• December 2023 - China finalized regulations on commercial robotaxi operation. Roboshuttles or robotrucks were required to maintain in-car drivers. Robotaxis could use remote operators. The robotaxi:remote operator ratio could not exceed 3:1. Operators had to be certified. Accident reporting rules specified required data.{{Cite web |last=Wang |first=Brian |date=2024-05-16 |title=China's Robotaxi Industry {{!}} NextBigFuture.com |url=https://www.nextbigfuture.com/2024/05/chinas-robotaxi-industry.html |access-date=2024-05-26 |language=en-US}}
• April 2024, Baidu Apollo, AutoX, Pony.ai, DiDi and WeRide were each operating in 10 to 25 cities, with fleets of hundreds of robotaxis. Baidu Apollo had traveled over {{Convert|100000000|km|abbr=on}} without a major accident.
• July 2024 - In Wuhan, Baidu's attempts at commercializing Apollo Go robotaxis received massive attention from social media. Base fares started as low as 4 Chinese yuan (0.55 USD), compared to 18 yuan (2.48 USD) for a human-driven taxi. The rapid adoption of driverless taxis rattled China's gig economy workforce.{{Cite web |last=Jiang |first=Kathleen Magramo, Hassan Tayir, Joyce |date=2024-07-19 |title=Super cheap robotaxi rides spark widespread anxiety in China |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2024/07/18/cars/china-baidu-apollo-go-robotaxi-anxiety-intl-hnk/index.html |access-date=2024-08-17 |website=CNN |language=en}} However, their popularity boosted Baidu's shares.{{Cite web |last=Cheng |first=Evelyn |date=2024-07-11 |title=China's robotaxi push sparks concerns about job security for drivers |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2024/07/11/chinas-robotaxi-push-sparks-concerns-about-job-security-for-drivers.html |access-date=2024-07-13 |website=CNBC |language=en}}
• August 2024 - In most areas of Wuhan, Baidu’s Apollo Go robotaxis could now operate fully autonomously without any safety personnel on board. The company recorded 899,000 rides in the second quarter of 2024, bringing the total number of rides to 7 million as of July 28, 2024.{{Cite web |last=Cheng |first=Evelyn |date=2024-08-23 |title=Baidu reports slower growth in robotaxi rides |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2024/08/23/baidu-reports-slower-growth-in-robotaxi-rides-.html |access-date=2024-09-18 |website=CNBC |language=en}}

Uber began development of self-driving vehicles in early 2015. In September 2016, the company started a trial allowing a select group of users of its ride-hailing service in Pittsburgh to order robotaxis from a fleet of 14 modified Ford Fusions.{{Cite web|url=https://techcrunch.com/2016/09/14/1386711/|title=Uber starts self-driving car pickups in Pittsburgh {{!}} TechCrunch|last=Brewster|first=Signe|date=14 September 2016 |access-date=2017-08-24}} The test extended to San Francisco with modified Volvo XC90s before being relocated to Tempe, Arizona in February 2017.{{Cite web|url=https://techcrunch.com/2016/12/22/uber-deploying-self-driving-cars-from-san-francisco-pilot-in-arizona-instead/|title=Uber deploying self-driving cars from San Francisco pilot in Arizona instead {{!}} TechCrunch|last=Etherington|first=Darrell|date=22 December 2016 |access-date=2017-08-24}}{{Cite web|url=https://techcrunch.com/2017/02/21/self-driving-ubers-are-now-picking-people-up-in-arizona/|title=Self-driving Ubers are now picking people up in Arizona {{!}} TechCrunch|last1=Buhr|first1=Sarah|last2=Dickey|first2=Megan Rose|date=21 February 2017 |access-date=2017-08-24}}

In March 2017, one of Uber's robotaxis crashed in self-driving mode in Arizona, which led the company to suspend its tests before resuming them a few days later.{{Cite web|url=https://techcrunch.com/2017/03/25/uber-grounds-entire-self-driving-fleet-as-it-probes-arizona-crash/|title=Uber grounds entire self-driving fleet as it probes Arizona crash {{!}} TechCrunch|last=Lomas|first=Natasha|date=25 March 2017 |access-date=2017-08-24}}{{Cite news|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017-03-27/uber-self-driving-car-tests-resume-in-san-francisco-after-crash|title=Uber Self-Driving Car Tests Resume Three Days After Crash|date=2017-03-27|work=Bloomberg.com|access-date=2017-08-24}} In March 2018, Uber paused self-driving vehicle testing after the death of Elaine Herzberg in Tempe, Arizona, a pedestrian struck by an Uber vehicle while attempting to cross the street, while the onboard engineer was watching videos. Uber settled with the victim's family.{{cite news | url=https://techcrunch.com/2018/03/29/uber-has-settled-with-the-family-of-the-homeless-victim-killed-last-week/ | title=Uber has settled with the family of the homeless victim killed last week | work=TechCrunch | date=March 29, 2018 | access-date=March 30, 2018 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180331035824/https://techcrunch.com/2018/03/29/uber-has-settled-with-the-family-of-the-homeless-victim-killed-last-week/ | archive-date=March 31, 2018 | url-status=live | df=mdy-all }}{{cite news | last=Sage | first=Alexandra | title=Woman dies in Arizona after being hit by Uber self-driving SUV | url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-autos-selfdriving-uber/woman-dies-in-arizona-after-being-hit-by-uber-self-driving-suv-idUSKBN1GV296 | work=Reuters | date=March 19, 2018}}

In January 2021, Uber sold its self driving division, Advanced Technologies Group (ATG), to Aurora Innovation for $4 billion while also investing $400 million into Aurora for a 26% ownership stake.{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-uber-atg/uber-sells-atg-self-driving-business-to-aurora-at-4-billion-idUSKBN28H2RX |title=Uber sells ATG self-driving business to Aurora at $4 billion |author1=Hu, Krystal |author2=Bellon, Tina |author3=Lee, Jane Lanhee |date=December 7, 2020 |work=Reuters |access-date=19 May 2021}}{{cite news | url=https://www.bizjournals.com/pittsburgh/news/2021/01/19/aurora-closes-acquisition-of-uber-atg.html | title=Aurora closes acquisition of Uber ATG, forms partnership with PACCAR | first=Julia | last=Mericle | work=American City Business Journals | date=January 19, 2021}}

File:Waymo_Jaguar_I-Pace_Interior_In_Motion.jpg as it autonomously drives through San Francisco]]

In early 2017, Waymo, the Google self-driving car project which became an independent company in 2016, started a large public robotaxi test in Phoenix using 100 and then 500 more Chrysler Pacifica Hybrid minivans provided by Fiat Chrysler Automobiles as part of a partnership between the two companies.{{Cite web|url=https://www.recode.net/2016/12/13/13937626/google-self-driving-waymo-alphabet|title=Google's self-driving arm is spinning out of X and will be called Waymo|last=Bhuiyan|first=Johana|date=2016-12-13|website=Recode|access-date=2017-08-24}}{{Cite web|url=https://techcrunch.com/2017/04/25/waymo-begins-first-public-on-demand-self-driving-service-test-in-arizona/|title=Waymo begins first public on-demand self-driving service test in Arizona {{!}} TechCrunch|last=Etherington|first=Darrell|date=25 April 2017 |access-date=2017-08-24}}{{Cite news|url=http://www.detroitnews.com/story/business/autos/mobility/2017/04/25/waymo-google/100869212/|title=FCA provides Waymo with vans for self-drive tests|work=Detroit News|access-date=2017-08-24|language=en}} Waymo also signed a deal with Lyft to collaborate on self-driving cars in May 2017.{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/05/14/technology/lyft-waymo-self-driving-cars.html|title=Lyft and Waymo Reach Deal to Collaborate on Self-Driving Cars|last=Isaac|first=Mike|date=2017-05-14|work=The New York Times|access-date=2017-08-24|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}} In November 2017, Waymo revealed it had begun to operate some of its automated vehicles in Arizona without a safety driver behind the wheel.{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/dr-gridlock/wp/2017/11/07/waymo-is-taking-the-next-step-in-the-driverless-car-evolution/|title=Waymo is taking the next step in the driverless car evolution|last=Laris|first=Michael|date=2017-11-07|newspaper=Washington Post|access-date=2017-12-02|language=en-US|issn=0190-8286}}

And in December 2018, Waymo started self-driving taxi service, dubbed Waymo One, in Arizona for paying customers.

By November 2019, the service was operating autonomous vehicles without a safety backup driver.{{Cite web|last=Hawkins|first=Andrew|date=2019-12-09|title=Waymo's driverless car: ghost-riding in the back seat of a robot taxi|url=https://www.theverge.com/2019/12/9/21000085/waymo-fully-driverless-car-self-driving-ride-hail-service-phoenix-arizona|access-date=2020-08-05|website=The Verge}}{{Cite web|last=Piper|first=Kelsey|date=2020-02-28|title=It's 2020. Where are our self-driving cars? - In the age of AI advances, self-driving cars turned out to be harder than people expected.|url=https://www.vox.com/future-perfect/2020/2/14/21063487/self-driving-cars-autonomous-vehicles-waymo-cruise-uber|access-date=2020-09-14|website=Vox}} The autonomous taxi service was operating in San Francisco as of 2021.{{Cite web |last=Amadeo |first=Ron |date=2021-08-25 |title=Waymo expands to San Francisco with public self-driving test [Update] |url=https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2021/08/waymo-expands-to-san-francisco-with-public-self-driving-test/ |access-date=2022-12-15 |website=Ars Technica |language=en-us}} In December 2022, the company applied for a permit to operating self-driving taxi rides in California without a human operator present as backup.{{Cite news |last=Dave |first=Paresh |date=2022-12-13 |title=Waymo seeks permit to sell self-driving car rides in San Francisco |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/technology/waymo-seeks-permit-sell-self-driving-car-rides-san-francisco-2022-12-13/ |access-date=2022-12-15}}

In September 2019, Baidu's autonomous driving unit Apollo launched Apollo Go robotaxi service, with an initial fleet of 45 autonomous vehicles. Apollo Go has since expanded to more than 10 Chinese cities.{{Cite web |title=BAIDU APOLLO ROBOTAXI SERVICE IS PUBLICLY AVAILABLE IN CHANGSHA, HUNAN PROVINCE |url=https://iot-automotive.news/baidu-apollo-robotaxi/ |access-date=2024-09-18 |website=IoT Automotive News |language=en-US}}

In August 2022, Baidu achieved a landmark victory in the race for autonomous vehicles by securing the first permits in China to deploy fully driverless taxis in the cities of Wuhan and Chongqing.{{Cite news |date=2022-08-08 |title=Baidu Wins Approval for China's First Full Driverless Taxis |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2022-08-08/baidu-wins-approval-for-china-s-first-full-driverless-taxis?sref=tvptySX4 |access-date=2024-09-18 |work=Bloomberg.com |language=en}}

In May 2024, Baidu unveiled the Apollo ADFM, claimed to be the world's first Level 4 autonomous driving foundation model, along with the sixth-generation Apollo Go robotaxi, which can be produced for under $30,000.{{Cite web |last=Kang |first=Lei |date=2024-05-15 |title=Baidu Apollo launches 6th-gen robotaxi with 60% lower cost |url=https://cnevpost.com/2024/05/15/baidu-apollo-launches-6th-gen-robotaxi/ |access-date=2024-09-18 |website=CnEVPost |language=en-US}} The company also said by April 2024, Apollo had accumulated over 100 million kilometers of autonomous driving without major accidents.

In August 2024, Apollo Go has deployed 400 robotaxis operating fully autonomously without any safety personnel on board in Wuhan, offering 24/7 service to 9 million residents.{{Cite web |last=Transcribing |first=Motley Fool |date=2024-08-22 |title=Baidu (BIDU) Q2 2024 Earnings Call Transcript |url=https://www.fool.com/earnings/call-transcripts/2024/08/22/baidu-bidu-q2-2024-earnings-call-transcript/#:~:text=Total%20revenue%20was%20RMB%2033.9,decreasing%202%25%20year%20over%20year. |access-date=2024-09-18 |website=The Motley Fool |language=en}} Baidu aims for Apollo Go to achieve operational unit breakeven in Wuhan by the end of 2024.

In January 2020, GM subsidiary Cruise exhibited the Cruise Origin, a Level 4–5 driverless vehicle,{{cite news |last1=Howard |first1=Bill |title=GM's Cruise Origin Is an Autonomous Vehicle From the Future |url=https://www.extremetech.com/extreme/302323-meet-gms-cruise-origin-of-the-autonomous-species |work=Extreme Tech |date=January 23, 2020 |access-date=2022-03-16}} intended to be used for a ride hailing service.{{cite news |last1=Baldwin |first1=Roberto |title=Cruise Unveils Origin, a Self-Driving Vehicle with No Steering Wheel or Pedals |url=https://www.caranddriver.com/news/a30613209/cruise-automation-self-driving-bus-revealed/ |work=Car and Driver |date=January 22, 2020 |access-date=2022-03-16}}

In February 2022, Cruise started driverless taxi service in San Francisco.{{Cite news|url=https://www.motorauthority.com/news/1132494_cruise-opens-up-driverless-taxi-service-to-public-in-san-francisco |date=2022-02-02 |author=Viknesh Vijayenthiran |title=Cruise opens up driverless taxi service to public in San Francisco |work=Motor Authority |access-date=2022-03-16 }}

Also in February 2022, Cruise petitioned U.S. regulators (NHTSA) for permission to build and deploy a self-driving vehicle without human controls.{{Cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/business/autos-transportation/gm-seeks-us-approval-deploy-self-driving-vehicle-2022-02-18/ |date=2022-02-19 |author=David Shepardson |title=GM seeks U.S approval to deploy self-driving vehicles |work=Reuters |access-date=2022-03-16 }}

{{As of|April 2022}}, the petition is pending.{{cite news|date=26 April 2022 |author=David Shepardson |title=U.S. Senate Democrats urge Buttigieg to develop autonomous vehicle rules |url=https://www.reuters.com/business/autos-transportation/senate-democrats-urge-us-transport-chief-develop-autonomous-vehicle-rules-2022-04-27/ |work=Reuters |access-date=29 April 2022 }}

In April 2022, their partner Honda unveiled its Level 4 mobility service partners to roll out in central Tokyo in the mid-2020s using the Cruise Origin.{{Cite press release |url=https://global.honda/newsroom/news/2022/c220421eng.html?from=newsrelease_area |title=Honda Signs Memorandum of Understanding with Teito Motor Transportation and kokusai motorcars as Part of Aim to Launch Autonomous Vehicle Mobility Service in Central Tokyo |publisher=Honda |access-date=21 April 2022}}

Unfortunately, there are signs that autonomously operated Cruise vehicles may interfere with emergency vehicles,{{Cite news |agency=Associated Press |date=2023-11-08 |title=Cruise recalls all self-driving cars after grisly accident and California ban |url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2023/nov/08/cruise-recall-self-driving-cars-gm |access-date=2024-02-06 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}} and has been culpable of at least one collision with a fire truck.{{Cite web |last=Shakir |first=Umar |date=2023-08-18 |title=Cruise robotaxi collides with fire truck in San Francisco, leaving one injured |url=https://www.theverge.com/2023/8/18/23837217/cruise-robotaxi-driverless-crash-fire-truck-san-francisco |access-date=2024-02-06 |website=The Verge |language=en}}

On 2 October 2023, a Cruise vehicle operating autonomously (without driver supervision) collided with a pedestrian. Instead of stopping immediately, the vehicle misidentified the collision mechanics and presumed it was crashed into from the side. Consequently, the vehicle proceeded to drag the pedestrian under the car for {{Convert|20|feet|meters|abbr=on}} until it came to a stop on the side of the road. As both the response of the vehicle was deemed unacceptable and the company appears to have withheld details of the crash from regulators, California regulators revoked the license to operate these cars. Cruise recalled all of its 950 vehicles in November 2023.{{Cite news |agency=Associated Press |date=2023-12-05 |title=Cruise robotaxi service hid severity of accident, California officials claim |url=https://www.theguardian.com/business/2023/dec/04/california-cruise-robotaxi-san-francisco-accident-severity |access-date=2024-02-06 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}

These decisions were enacted in parallel with the exposure of safety risks, identified earlier within the Cruise company, regarding proper vehicle behavior around children and around construction sites.{{Cite web |last=Biddle |first=Sam |date=2023-11-06 |title=Cruise Knew Its Self-Driving Cars Had Problems Recognizing Children — and Kept Them on the Streets |url=https://theintercept.com/2023/11/06/cruise-self-driving-cars-children/ |access-date=2024-02-06 |website=The Intercept |language=en-US}}

{{seealso|Tesla next-generation vehicle}}

Tesla's CEO Elon Musk has predicted since 2019 that Tesla would have robotaxis on the road within years.{{Cite web |last=Hawkins |first=Andrew J. |date=2024-04-05 |title=Elon Musk says Tesla will reveal its robotaxi on August 8th |url=https://www.theverge.com/2024/4/5/24122384/tesla-robotaxi-reveal-date-elon-musk-august-8 |access-date=2024-07-01 |website=The Verge |language=en}} He was expected to announce the plans for Tesla's robotaxi on 8 August 2024, but the event was moved to 10 October 2024.{{Cite web |last=O'Kane |first=Sean |date=July 23, 2024 |title=Elon Musk sets new date for Tesla robotaxi reveal, calls everything beyond autonomy 'noise' |url=https://techcrunch.com/2024/07/23/elon-musk-sets-new-date-for-tesla-robotaxi-reveal-calls-everything-beyond-autonomy-noise/?guccounter=1 |access-date=August 2, 2024 |website=Techcrunch}} During that event Tesla demonstrated two new vehicles, the two-seater Tesla Cybercab and the 14-seater (plus standing room) Tesla Robovan, which can carry up to 20 passengers. The company also reiterated that all of their other models of cars and pickup trucks would be usable as robotaxis after a software update and regulatory approval, which they expected at the earliest in California and Texas in 2025.

File:Zoox_Autonomous_Robotaxi_-_San_Francisco_May_2025_(5).jpg

Many automakers announced their plans in 2015–2018 to develop robotaxis before 2025 and specific partnerships have been signed between automakers, technology providers and service operators, including:

• The startup Zoox announcing in 2015 its ambition to build a robotaxi from scratch.{{Cite web|url=https://spectrum.ieee.org/secretive-robotaxi-startup-zoox-prepares-for-realworld-testing|title=Secretive Robotaxi Startup Zoox Prepares for Real-World Testing|website=IEEE Spectrum: Technology, Engineering, and Science News|language=en|access-date=2017-08-25|date=2017-03-28}}
• BMW and Fiat Chrysler Automobiles partnering in 2016 with Intel and Mobileye to develop robotaxis by 2021.{{Cite news |last=Pak |first=Steve |date=2016-07-02 |title=BMW, Intel team up to launch fully-autonomous robot taxis by 2021 |url=http://en.yibada.com/articles/137163/20160702/bmw-intel-team-up-launch-fully-autonomous-robot-taxis-2021.htm |access-date=2017-08-24 |work=Yibada English}}{{Cite news |date=16 August 2017 |title=Fiat Chrysler joins BMW-Intel self-driving car alliance |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-fiat-chrysler-autonomous-idUSKCN1AW0MB |access-date=2017-08-24 |work=Reuters}}
• Baidu partnering in 2016 with Nvidia to develop autonomous cars and robotaxis.{{Cite news |date=2016-09-01 |title=Baidu's Vision of Future: Robot Taxis, Chinese Home Gadgets |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2016-09-01/baidu-envisions-robot-cars-with-nvidia-and-echo-like-home-gadget |access-date=2017-08-24 |work=Bloomberg.com}}
• Daimler AG teaming up with Bosch in 2017 to develop the software for a robotaxi service by 2025.{{Cite web |last=Muoio |first=Danielle |date=April 4, 2017 |title=Mercedes has formed a new alliance to develop robot taxis |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/mercedes-daimler-alliance-bosch-driverless-taxis-2017-4 |access-date=2017-08-24 |website=Business Insider France |language=fr-FR}}
• The Renault-Nissan-Mitsubishi Alliance partnering in 2017 with Transdev and DeNA to develop robotaxi services within 10 years.{{Cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-nissan-strategy-idUSKBN19D0S2|title=Nissan-Renault plan driverless ride-hailing service to beat off startup competition|date=22 June 2017|work=Reuters|access-date=2017-08-24}}{{Cite web |last=Korosec |first=Kirsten |date=February 27, 2017 |title=How Renault-Nissan Is Going to Get You in an Electric Driverless Car |url=http://fortune.com/2017/02/27/renault-nissan-driverless-vehicles/ |access-date=2017-08-24 |website=Fortune}}
• Honda releasing in 2017 an autonomous concept car, NeuV, that aims at being a personal robotaxi.{{Cite web |date=January 6, 2017 |title=Honda wants its newest concept car to become your personal self-driving taxi |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/hondas-neuv-self-driving-taxi-rideshare-2017-1 |access-date=2017-08-24 |website=Business Insider |language=}}
• Ford Motor's plan in 2017 to develop a robotaxi by 2021 through partnerships with several startups.{{Cite news |last=Muller |first=Joann |date=August 18, 2016 |title=Meet The Four Startups Helping Ford Develop A Robo-Taxi By 2021 |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/joannmuller/2016/08/18/meet-the-four-start-ups-helping-ford-develop-a-robo-taxi-by-2021/#3868014f72d7 |access-date=2017-08-24 |work=Forbes |language=en}}
• Ford Motor investing $1 billion in the startup Argo AI in 2017 to develop autonomous cars and robotaxis;{{Cite web|url=https://www.theverge.com/2017/8/16/16155254/argo-ai-ford-self-driving-car-autonomous|title=An inside look at Ford's $1 billion bet on Argo AI|last=Korosec|first=Kirsten|date=2017-08-16|website=The Verge|access-date=2017-08-24}} the startup was disbanded in 2022 by Ford.{{Cite web |title=Autonomous vehicle startup Argo AI is shutting down |url=https://www.engadget.com/autonomous-vehicle-startup-argo-ai-shutting-down-203250200.html |access-date=2022-11-16 |website=Engadget |date=26 October 2022 |language=en-US}}
• Lyft and Ford partnering in 2017 to add Ford's self-driving cars to Lyft's ride-hailing network;{{Cite news |date=September 26, 2017 |title=Ford joins Lyft's expanding group of self-driving partners |url=https://www.engadget.com/2017/09/27/ford-lyft-self-driving-partnership/ |access-date=2017-09-27 |work=Engadget |language=en-US}} Google leading a $1 billion investment in 2017 in Lyft which could support Waymo's robotaxi strategy; in 2021, Lyft's self-driving division was sold to Toyota.{{Cite web |date=27 April 2021 |title=Toyota to buy self-driving division of U.S. Ride-hailing firm Lyft |url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2021/04/27/business/corporate-business/toyota-lyft-automated-driving/ |access-date=2024-05-05 |website=The Japan Times}}
• Delphi buying the startup NuTonomy for $400 million in 2017.{{Cite news |last=Burns |first=Matt |date=October 24, 2017 |title=Delphi buys Nutonomy for $400 million to scale and deliver autonomous vehicles |url=https://techcrunch.com/2017/10/24/delphi-buys-nutonomy-for-400-million-to-scale-and-deliver-autonomous-vehicles/ |access-date=2017-11-07 |work=TechCrunch |language=en}}
• Parsons Corporation announcing in 2017 a partnership with automated mobility operating system company Renovo.auto to deploy and scale AMoD services.{{Cite news|url=https://www.parsons.com/2017/11/parsons-renovo-announce-collaboration-enable-deployment-scaling-commercial-automated-mobility-demand-systems/|title=Parsons and Renovo Announce Collaboration to Enable Deployment and Scaling of Commercial Automated Mobility on Demand Systems - Parsons|date=2017-11-16|work=Parsons|access-date=2017-12-02|language=en-US}}
• Didi Chuxing partnering in 2018 with the Renault-Nissan-Mitsubishi Alliance and other automakers to explore the future launch of robotaxi services in China.{{Cite news |date=February 7, 2018 |title=Renault-Nissan and Didi plan self-driving ride service in China |url=https://www.engadget.com/2018/02/07/renault-nissan-mitsubishi-didi-chuxing-china/ |access-date=2018-02-15 |work=Engadget |language=en-US}}

• Self-driving car

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Category:Automotive technologies

Category:Robotics

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Category:Taxis