Russian irredentism

{{Short description|Modern Russian claims to Imperial/Soviet-era territory}}

File:Former Russia-controlled territories without Alaska.png (1721–1917) and the Soviet era (1922–1991)
{{small|{{Legend2|#800000}}Soviet/post-Soviet territories that were never part of Imperial Russia: Tuva (1944–), East Prussia (1945–), western Ukraine (1939–1991), and Kuril Islands (1945–)
{{Legend2|#B31B1B}}Imperial territories/states that did not become part of the Soviet Union: Finland (1809–1917), Poland (1815–1915), and Kars (1878–1918), excluding Russian America (1741–1867)
{{Legend2|#FF0000}}Soviet sphere of influence: Warsaw Pact (1945–1991; Albania until 1968; East Germany until 1990), Mongolia (1924–1991), excluding Yugoslavia (1945-1948)
{{Legend2|#FB607F}}Imperial sphere of influence and Soviet military occupation: northern Iran (1914–1918; 1941–1946), Manchuria (1892–1906; 1945–1946), northern Korea (1892–1906; 1945–1948), Xinjiang (1934), eastern Austria (1945–1955), and Afghanistan (1979–1989), excluding Greece (1826-1829; 1944-1945) and Finnmark, Norway (1944-1946)}}]]

Russian irredentism ({{langx|ru|русский ирредентизм}}) refers to territorial claims made by the Russian Federation to regions that were historically part of the Russian Empire and the Soviet Union, which Russian nationalists regard as part of the "Russian world". It seeks to create a Greater Russia by politically incorporating ethnic Russians and Russian speakers living in territories bordering Russia. This ideology has been significantly defined by the regime of Vladimir Putin, who has governed the country since 1999. It is linked to Russian neo-imperialism.

Russian troops currently occupy parts of three neighbouring countries: southern and eastern Ukraine, Abkhazia and South Ossetia in Georgia, and the Transnistria region of Moldova. Since it began in 2014, the Russo-Ukrainian War has been described by much of the international community as being a culmination of Russia's irredentist policies towards Ukraine. Examples of these irredentist policies being implemented in this conflict include the Russian annexation of Crimea in 2014{{cite web|url=https://theconversation.com/russias-nationalist-quest-risks-future-of-european-borders-26415|title=Russia's nationalist quest risks future of European borders|website=The Conversation|first=John|last=Nagle|date=8 May 2014}} and the ongoing Russian invasion of Ukraine, which saw the Russian annexation of southeastern Ukraine in 2022.

Ideological background

Specifically looking at the viewpoints of post-Soviet Russian leader Vladimir Putin, Erdi Ozturk, a professor at London Metropolitan University, has commented that irredentist ideology relies upon a "distinction between civilizations by synthesizing nationalism with nostalgic visions of history, memory, and religion."

History

=Imperial era=

From roughly the 16th century to the 20th century, the Russian Empire followed an expansionist policy.The state expanded eastwards, westwards and southwards, which led to the conquests of Siberia, the Caucasus, Turkestan, and Uzbekistan. Few of these actions had irredentist justifications, though the conquest of parts of the Ottoman Empire in the Caucasus in 1877 to bring Armenian Christians under the protection of the Tsar may represent one example.{{sfn|Saideman|Ayres|2008|p=96}} Russia has also had an enduring interest in Constantinople (Istanbul), which was envisioned as the centre of Russian power.{{cite news |last=Hamlin |first=Cyrus |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1886/12/the-dream-of-russia/522855/ |title=The Dream of Russia |newspaper=The Atlantic Monthly |date=December 1886 |accessdate=7 April 2022}}

=Post-Soviet era=

File:Russian occupied territories in map.svg

After the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, it was thought that the Russian Federation had given up on plans of territorial expansion or kin-state nationalism, despite some 25 million ethnic Russians living in neighboring countries outside Russia.{{cite book|page=365|title=Divided Nations and European Integration: National and Ethnic Conflict in the 21st Century|author=Tristan James Mabry|author2=John McGarry|author3=Margaret Moore|author4=Brendan O'Leary|publisher =University of Pennsylvania Press|year= 2013|isbn=9780812244977}} Stephen M. Saideman and R. William Ayres assert that Russia followed a non-irredentist policy in the 1990s despite some justifications for irredentist policies—one factor disfavoring irredentism was a focus by the ruling interest in consolidating power and the economy within the territory of Russia.{{sfn|Saideman|Ayres|2008|p=197}} Furthermore, a stable policy of irredentism popular with the electorate was not found, and politicians proposing such ideas did not fare well electorally.{{sfn|Saideman|Ayres|2008|p=199}} Russian nationalist politicians tended to focus on internal threats (i.e. "outsiders") rather than on the interests of Russians outside the federation.{{sfn|Saideman|Ayres|2008|p=196}}

= Russo-Ukrainian War (since 2014) =

File:Map of Ukraine, including disputed regions.svg) and 2022 (Donetsk, Luhansk, Kherson, and Zaporizhzhia oblasts)]]

{{quote box|width=30%|bgcolor=dark|align=left|quote="Russia's border doesn't end anywhere".|source=—Vladimir Putin, 24 November 2016{{cite news|title=Vladimir Putin: Russia's border 'doesn't end anywhere'| url=https://www.bbc.com/news/av/world-europe-38099842| date=24 November 2016| work=BBC News| access-date=19 June 2023}}}}

It has been proposed that the annexation of Crimea in 2014 proves Russia remains an expansionist state.{{cite book| page=536|title=Mexicano and Latino Politics and the Quest for Self-Determination: What Needs to Be Done|author=Armando Navarro|publisher=Lexington Books|year= 2015 |isbn=9780739197363}}{{cite book|page=183|title=Fundamentals of World Regional Geography|author=Joseph J. Hobbs|publisher=Cengage Learning|year= 2016|isbn=9781305854956}}{{cite book|page=163|title=Imperial Gamble: Putin, Ukraine, and the New Cold War|author=Marvin Kalb|publisher=Brookings Institution Press|year=2015|isbn= 9780815727446}}{{cite news|title=Why Crimea is likely the limit of Greater Russia|author=Stephen Saideman|publisher=The Globe and Mail|date= March 18, 2014 |url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/opinion/why-crimea-is-likely-the-limit-of-greater-russia/article17542819/}} Vladimir Putin's speech on the Crimea annexation was described by analyst Vladimir Socor as a "manifesto of Greater-Russia irredentism".{{cite news|title=Putin's Crimea Speech: A Manifesto of Greater-Russia Irredentism|publisher= Eurasia Daily Monitor |volume= 11| issue= 56|author= Vladimir Socor|url=https://jamestown.org/program/putins-crimea-speech-a-manifesto-of-greater-russia-irredentism/}} Putin said that the dissolution of the Soviet Union had "robbed" Russia of territories and made Russians "the biggest ethnic group in the world to be divided by borders", calling this an "outrageous historical injustice".{{cite news |title=Crimea crisis: Russian President Putin's speech annotated |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-26652058 |work=BBC News |date=19 March 2014}} After the annexation, the Transnistrian authorities requested Russia annex Transnistria.{{cite news|url=https://www.vedomosti.ru/newspaper/articles/2014/03/18/pridnestrove-kak-krym|title=Приднестровье как Крым|trans-title=Transnistria as Crimea|first1=Svetlana|last1=Bocharova|first2=Liliya|last2=Biryukova|newspaper=Vedomosti|date=18 March 2014|language=ru|access-date=8 June 2021|archive-date=11 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211211221724/https://www.vedomosti.ru/newspaper/articles/2014/03/18/pridnestrove-kak-krym|url-status=dead}}{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-26627236|title=Moldova's Trans-Dniester region pleads to join Russia|newspaper=BBC|date=18 March 2014}}{{cite news|url=https://vestnikkavkaza.net/news/politics/52743.html|title=Transnistria wants to merge with Russia|newspaper=Vestnik Kavkaza|date=18 March 2014}}

Following the Crimea annexation, armed Russian-backed separatists seized towns in the eastern Donbas region of Ukraine, sparking the Donbas War. They declared their captured territory to be the Donetsk and Luhansk "people's republics". During this unrest, Putin began referring to "Novorossiya" (New Russia), a former Russian imperial territory that covered much of southern Ukraine.{{cite book |last1=Kimmage |first1=Michael |title=Collisions: The Origins of the War in Ukraine and the New Global Instability |date=2024 |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=129}} Russian-backed forces then announced plans for a new Novorossiya, to incorporate all of eastern and southern Ukraine.{{cite journal |last1=O'Loughlin |first1=John |title=The rise and fall of "Novorossiya": examining support for a separatist geopolitical imaginary in southeast Ukraine |journal=Post-Soviet Affairs |date=2017 |volume=33 |issue=2 |pages=124–144 |doi=10.1080/1060586X.2016.1146452 |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/1060586X.2016.1146452|url-access=subscription }}{{cite news |title=Ukraine: Are 2014 pro-Russia rebels fighting 1920s war? |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-28532392 |work=BBC News |date=28 July 2014}}

A 2015 survey by the Pew Research Center found that "61 percent of Russians believe parts of neighboring countries really belong to Russia".{{cite news |author=Casey Michael |date=19 June 2015 |title=Pew Survey: Irredentism Alive and Well in Russia |publisher=The Diplomat |url=https://thediplomat.com/2015/06/pew-survey-irredentism-alive-and-well-in-russia/}}

In his 2021 essay "On the Historical Unity of Russians and Ukrainians", Putin referred to Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians as "one people" making up a triune Russian nation. He maintained that large parts of Ukraine are historical Russian lands and claimed there is "no historical basis" for the "idea of Ukrainian people as a nation separate from the Russians".Düben, B A. "[https://doi.org/10.31389/lseppr.86 Revising History and ‘Gathering the Russian Lands’: Vladimir Putin and Ukrainian Nationhood"]. LSE Public Policy Review, vol. 3, no. 1, 2023{{Cite web |title=Article by Vladimir Putin "On the Historical Unity of Russians and Ukrainians" |url=http://en.kremlin.ru/events/president/news/66181 |access-date=2022-11-04 |website=President of Russia |date=12 July 2021 |language=en}}

On 21 February 2022, the Kremlin recognized the Russian-controlled territories of Ukraine as independent states—the Donetsk and Luhansk "people's republics"—as well as their irredentist claims to the wider Donbas region of Ukraine. The following day, Russia announced that it was sending troops into these territories.{{cite news |last1=Jack |first1=Victor |last2=Busvine |first2=Douglas |title=Putin recognizes separatist claims to Ukraine's entire Donbass region |url=https://www.politico.eu/article/vladimir-putin-russia-ukraine-donbass-separatist-recognition/ |access-date=28 February 2022 |work=Politico |date=22 February 2022}}{{cite news |last1=Borger |first1=Julian |last2=Roth |first2=Andrew |authorlink2=Andrew Roth |title=Russia strongly condemned at UN after Putin orders troops into eastern Ukraine |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/feb/22/russia-strongly-condemned-at-un-after-putin-orders-troops-into-eastern-ukraine |access-date=28 February 2022 |newspaper=The Guardian |date=22 February 2022}}

==== Full-scale invasion of Ukraine (since 2022) ====

File:Російська пропаганда в Херсоні.jpg poster in occupied Kherson in 2022 declaring "{{Interlanguage links|Russia is here forever|uk|Росія тут назавжди}}!"]]

On 24 February 2022, Russia launched a full invasion of Ukraine.{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-60503037|title=Ukraine conflict: Russian forces attack after Putin TV declaration |website=BBC News |date=24 February 2022 |access-date=24 February 2022 |archive-date=24 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220224064553/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-60503037 |url-status=live}} In announcing the invasion, Putin repeatedly denied Ukraine's right to exist, calling the country "an inalienable part of our own history, culture and spiritual space", and claiming that it was created by Russia.{{cite web |last1=Durand |first1=Olivia |title=Putin’s invasion of Ukraine attacks its distinct history and reveals his imperial instincts |url=https://theconversation.com/putins-invasion-of-ukraine-attacks-its-distinct-history-and-reveals-his-imperial-instincts-177669 |website=The Conversation |date=24 February 2022}} It has been referred to as an irredentist war, going against the norm since World War II that sees territorial conquest as unacceptable.{{cite news |author=Paul Hensel, Sara Mitchell, Andrew Owsiak |date=March 4, 2022 |title=Russian irredentist claims are a threat to global peace |newspaper=The Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2022/03/04/putin-sovereignty-ukraine-irredentism/ |access-date=March 31, 2022}} Parallels were made between Putin's irredentism during the Ukrainian War and Slobodan Milosevic's irredentism during the Bosnian War.{{cite news|title=Why NATO Should Worry About the Balkans | newspaper=The Economist| author=Harun Karcic | url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2022/03/30/bosnia-russia-nato-ukraine-war-dodik/ |date= March 30, 2022| access-date=March 31, 2022| quote=The similarities between Russian and Serbian irredentism are astonishing. Back in the 1990s, Serbian nationalists parroted the claim that Bosnia historically belonged to Serbia, that we Bosniak Muslims were in fact Christian Serbs who were forcefully converted to Islam under the Ottomans, and that Bosnia—as an independent and sovereign country—would not survive without Serbian tutelage. So closely are Bosniak Muslims able to identify with Ukrainians that monetary donations have been collected and prayers held at Bosnian mosques for Ukraine’s defense.}}

On 1 March 2022, images emerged in the press showing Belarusian President Alexander Lukashenko in front of a map which appeared to show invasion plans for Moldova where Russia already has soldiers in the breakaway region of Transnistria.{{Cite web |last=Mitchell |first=Ellen |date=2022-03-01 |title=Belarus president stands in front of map indicating Moldova invasion plans |url=https://thehill.com/policy/international/596409-belarus-president-stands-in-front-of-battle-map-indicating-moldova/ |access-date=2022-10-21 |website=The Hill |language=en-US}}{{Cite web |date=2022-03-02 |title=Belarus leader may have inadvertently revealed Russian invasion map on TV |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/lukashenko-ukraine-russia-belarus-invasion-map-b2026440.html |access-date=2022-10-21 |website=The Independent |language=en}} South Ossetian President Anatoly Bibilov announced his intention to begin the process of annexation by the Russian Federation.{{cite news |title=Breakaway Georgian Region Seeks to Be Putin's Next Annexation |newspaper=Bloomberg |date=30 March 2022 |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2022-03-30/breakaway-georgian-region-seeks-to-be-putin-s-next-annexation |publisher=Bloomberg News |access-date=30 March 2022}}

Four months into the invasion of Ukraine, Putin compared himself to Russian emperor Peter the Great. He claimed that Tsar Peter had returned "Russian land" to the empire, adding "it is now also our responsibility to return (Russian) land". Peter Dickinson of the Atlantic Council sees these comments as proof that Putin "is waging an old-fashioned imperial war of conquest".{{cite web |last1=Dickinson |first1=Peter |title=Putin admits Ukraine invasion is an imperial war to "return" Russian land |url=https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/ukrainealert/putin-admits-ukraine-invasion-is-an-imperial-war-to-return-russian-land/ |publisher=Atlantic Council |date=10 June 2022}}

On 8 June 2022, a draft bill was submitted to Russia's State Duma by a member of the ruling United Russia party proposing to repeal the Decree of the State Council of the Soviet Union "On the Recognition of the Independence of the Republic of Lithuania".{{Cite web |last=Новости |first=Р. И. А. |date=2022-06-08 |title=Депутат Федоров предложил отозвать признание независимости Литвы |url=https://ria.ru/20220608/litva-1793995566.html |access-date=2022-11-21 |website=РИА Новости |language=ru}}{{Cite web |last=Peseckyte |first=Giedre |date=2022-06-09 |title=Russian Duma questions Lithuania's independence |url=https://www.euractiv.com/section/politics/short_news/russian-duma-questions-lithuanias-independence/ |access-date=2022-11-21 |website=www.euractiv.com |language=en-GB}}{{Cite web |last=Cole |first=Brendan |date=2022-06-09 |title=Russia Mulls Lithuania's 'Illegal' Independence From Moscow |url=https://www.newsweek.com/russia-moscow-lithuania-independence-soviet-union-yevgeny-fyodorov-1714138 |access-date=2022-11-21 |website=Newsweek |language=en}} On 6 July, the speaker of the State Duma, Vyacheslav Volodin, threatened to "claim back" Alaska if the US froze or seized Russian assets.[https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2022/07/07/russian-house-speaker-threatens-to-take-back-alaska-a78230 Russian House Speaker Threatens to ‘Take Back’ Alaska] Previously, another member of the State Duma, Oleg Matveychev, had demanded in response to sanctions that the US return Alaska, in addition to Fort Ross, California (which was historically a Russian colony). Matveychev also demanded the recognition of Antarctica as part of Russia, which in total would almost double Russia's territory.{{cite web|url=https://www.adn.com/politics/2022/03/16/a-russian-lawmaker-wants-alaska-back-good-luck-with-that/|title=A Russian lawmaker wants Alaska back. 'Good luck with that!'|work=Anchorage Daily News|date=March 17, 2022|accessdate=November 23, 2024|author=Iris Samuels}}

In September 2022, referendums on joining Russia were held in four Russian-occupied regions of Ukraine: the Donetsk People's Republic, the Luhansk People's Republic, Zaporizhzhia region and Kherson region. The Russian occupation authorities announced that all regions had overwhelmingly voted in favor of joining Russia and that there had been a high turnout despite the ongoing war and depopulation. It was widely dismissed as a sham referendum by Ukraine and many other countries.{{cite news | url=https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/first-partial-results-show-over-96-occupied-ukraine-regions-favour-joining-2022-09-27/ | title=Moscow's proxies in occupied Ukraine regions report big votes to join Russia | newspaper=Reuters | date=28 September 2022 | last1=Trevelyan | first1=Mark }}{{cite web | url=https://apnews.com/article/russia-ukraine-kyiv-moscow-referendums-1780c30715ce49723629d05c5e2f3238 | title=Kremlin announces vote, paves way to annex part of Ukraine | website=Associated Press | date=27 September 2022 }} On 30 September, Putin announced in a speech{{cite news |title=Signing of treaties on accession of Donetsk and Lugansk people's republics and Zaporozhye and Kherson regions to Russia |work=Kremlin |url=http://en.kremlin.ru/events/president/transcripts/copy/69465}} that Russia had annexed the four regions.{{cite news |date=30 September 2022 |work=Reuters |title=Putin says Russia has 'four new regions' as he announces annexation of Ukrainian territory |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/putin-says-russia-has-four-new-regions-he-announces-annexation-ukrainian-2022-09-30/ |access-date=30 September 2022 |archive-date=30 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220930191609/https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/putin-says-russia-has-four-new-regions-he-announces-annexation-ukrainian-2022-09-30/ |url-status=live }} The annexations were declared illegal by the UN. On 12 October 2022, the United Nations General Assembly passed Resolution ES-11/4 advocating for territorial integrity of Ukraine, with 143 nations voting in favor, 5 against and 35 abstaining. It condemned the "illegal so-called referendums" and the "attempted illegal annexation" and demanded that Russia immediately reverse its decisions and withdraw its forces from Ukraine.{{Cite news | title=Ukraine: UN General Assembly demands Russia reverse course on 'attempted illegal annexation'| date=12 October 2022| url=https://news.un.org/en/story/2022/10/1129492| work=UN News| access-date=19 June 2023}}

Dmitry Medvedev, deputy chairman of the Security Council of Russia and former Russian president, said that Ukraine should not exist in any form and that Russia will continue to wage war against any independent Ukrainian state.{{cite news |title=Putin Ally Says There's '100 Percent' Chance of Future Russia-Ukraine Wars |url=https://www.newsweek.com/putin-ally-says-theres-100-percent-chance-future-russia-ukraine-wars-1861639 |work=Newsweek |date=17 January 2024}} He commented that Putin outlined "why Ukraine did not exist, does not exist, and will not exist".{{cite news |title=What Did Putin Gain From Sitting Down With Tucker Carlson? |url=https://www.wsj.com/world/russia/what-did-putin-gain-from-sitting-down-with-tucker-carlson-895a2bfb |work=The Wall Street Journal|first=Matthew|last=Luxmoore|date=9 February 2024|access-date=23 February 2024}} In a March 2024 speech, Medvedev described Ukraine as part of Russia,{{cite news |title=Putin ally says 'Ukraine is Russia' and historical territory needs to 'come home' |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/putin-ally-says-ukraine-is-definitely-russia-rules-out-talks-with-zelenskiy-2024-03-04/ |work=Reuters |date=4 March 2024}} and spoke in front of a large map showing Russia in control of most of the country, with western Ukraine partitioned between other countries, and Ukraine confined to a rump state consisting of the city of Kyiv and the Kyiv Oblast.{{cite news |title='Ukraine Is, of Course, Russia:' Putin Ally |url=https://www.newsweek.com/russia-ukraine-medvedev-borders-putin-1875515 |work=Newsweek |date=4 March 2024}}

Analysis

{{see also|United Nations General Assembly Resolution 68/262|United Nations General Assembly Resolution ES-11/1|Legality of the Russian invasion of Ukraine}}

File:United Nations General Assembly resolution ES-11 L.5 vote.svg adopted Resolution ES 11/4 declaring that the staged referendums and attempted annexation are invalid and illegal under international law.
{{Legend|#74C365|In favour: 143}}{{Legend|#ab4e52|Against: 5}}{{Legend|#FADA5E|Abstained: 35}}{{Legend|#89CFF0|Absent: 10}}]]{{Wikinews|United Nations denounces Russian annexation of Ukrainian territories}}

Some Russian nationalists seek to annex parts of the "near abroad", such as the Baltic states.{{cite journal |author=William Maley |year=1995 |title=Does Russia Speak for Baltic Russians? |journal=The World Today |volume=51 |issue=1 |pages=4–6 |jstor=40396641}} Governor of the Russian occupation of Zaporizhzhia Oblast Yevgeny Balitsky has described how "all of the Baltics" were "all our lands, and our people live there," calling to "correct this...through the might of Russian weapons" and "get our people back, the former subjects of the Russian Empire".{{cite news|author=Cole|first=Brendan|url=https://www.newsweek.com/russia-zaporozhzhia-nato-invade-balitsky-1832236|title=Russian Official Proposes Invading Five NATO Countries|publisher=Newsweek|date=5 October 2023|accessdate=5 October 2023}} Others also some fear potential escalation due to Russian irredentist aspirations in Northern Kazakhstan.{{cite journal |author=C. Diener |first=Alexander |year=2015 |title=Assessing potential Russian irredentism and separatism in Kazakhstan's northern oblasts |journal=Eurasian Geography and Economics |volume=56 |issue=5 |pages=469–492 |doi=10.1080/15387216.2015.1103660 |s2cid=155953187}}

Looking at the Russian efforts as a whole, the news network Al Jazeera has quoted University of San Francisco scholar Stephen Zunes as remarking, "The level of physical devastation and casualties thus far over a relatively short period is perhaps the [worst] in recent decades which, combined with the irredentist aims of the conquest, makes Russia's war on Ukraine particularly reprehensible in the eyes of the international community."{{cite news|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/3/29/can-russia-return-to-the-world-stage-as-other-aggressor-nations|title=Can Russia return to the world stage, as other aggressor nations?|publisher=Al Jazeera|date=29 March 2022|accessdate=7 April 2022}}

U.S. news publication The Washington Post has stated that the Russian government could start a chain reaction of irredentist mass violence, which then "could break the international order".{{cite news|newspaper=The Washington Post|accessdate=17 May 2022|date=4 March 2022|title=Russia's land grabs in Ukraine could break the international order|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2022/03/04/putin-sovereignty-ukraine-irredentism/}}

Notes

References

=Sources=

{{citation| title = For Kin Or Country: Xenophobia, Nationalism, and War |first1 = Stephen M. | last1 = Saideman | first2= William R.| last2 = Ayres| year =2008| publisher =Columbia University Press }}