Rusyn language#Carpathian Rusyn

In the English language, the term Rusyn is recognized officially by the ISO.{{Cite web |url=https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/rue |title=ISO 639-3: 639 Identifier Documentation: Rusyn (rue) |access-date=22 June 2021 |archive-date=20 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210720003746/https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/rue |url-status=live }} Other names are sometimes also used to refer to the language, mainly deriving from exonyms such as Ruthenian or Ruthene ({{IPAc-en|UK|r|ʊ|ˈ|θ|iː|n}} {{respell|RUUTH|een}}, {{IPAc-en|US|r|uː|ˈ|θ|iː|n}} {{respell|ROO|theen}}),{{Cite web|url=https://www.oed.com/start;jsessionid=9A039F62BD5C4C21D51DB48486D2C1DB?authRejection=true&url=%2Fview%2FEntry%2F169178%3FredirectedFrom%3DRuthene|title=Home : Oxford English Dictionary|website=www.oed.com|access-date=20 February 2021|archive-date=17 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210417200758/https://www.oed.com/start;jsessionid=9A039F62BD5C4C21D51DB48486D2C1DB?authRejection=true&url=%2Fview%2FEntry%2F169178%3FredirectedFrom%3DRuthene|url-status=live}} that have more general meanings, and thus (by adding regional adjectives) some specific designations are formed, such as: Carpathian Ruthenian/Ruthene or Carpatho-Ruthenian/Ruthene.{{sfn|Renoff|Reynolds|1975|p=35, 51, 79–80}}

Within the Rusyn community, the language is also referred to as {{langx|rue|label=none|руснацькый язык|rusnac'kyj jazyk|Rusnak language}},{{sfn|Plishkova|2009|p=17, 37, 67}}{{sfn|Magocsi|2015|p=3-5}} or simply referred to as speaking our way ({{langx|rue|label=Carpathian Rusyn|по-нашому|translit=po-nashomu}}).{{sfn|Pugh|2009|p=2}}

The classification of the Rusyn language has historically been both linguistically and politically controversial. During the 19th century, several questions were raised among linguists, regarding the classification of East Slavic dialects that were spoken in the northeastern (Carpathian) regions of the Kingdom of Hungary, and also in neighbouring regions of the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria. From those questions, three main theories emerged:{{sfn|Magocsi|Pop|2005|p=276-281}}

• Some linguists claimed that East Slavic dialects of the Carpathian region should be classified as specific varieties of the Russian language.
• Other linguists argued that those dialects should be classified as western varieties of a distinctive Ukrainian language.
• A third group claimed that those dialects are specific enough to be recognized as a distinctive East Slavic language.

In spite of these linguistic disputes, official terminology used by the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy that ruled the Carpathian region remained unchanged. For Austro-Hungarian state authorities, the entire East Slavic linguistic body within the borders of the Monarchy was classified as Ruthenian language ({{langx|de|ruthenische Sprache}}, {{langx|hu|Rutén nyelv}}), an archaic and exonymic term that remained in use until 1918.{{sfn|Moser|2018|p=87-104}}

{{Expand section|date=December 2021}}

In terms of geographic distribution, Rusyn language is represented by two specific clusters: the first is encompassing Carpathian Rusyn or Carpatho-Rusyn varieties, and the second is represented by Pannonian Rusyn.{{sfn|Magocsi|Pop|2005|p=267-269, 275}}

Carpathian Rusyn is spoken in:

• the Zakarpattia Oblast of Ukraine.
• northeastern regions of Slovakia.
• southeastern regions of Poland. The variety of Rusyn spoken in Poland is generally known as Lemko language ({{lang|rue|лемківскій язык}}, {{small|romanized:}} {{Transliteration|rue|lemkivskij jazyk}}).{{Cite web |title=Gavin Baptie (2011): Issues in Rusyn language standardisation, p. 8-9. |url=http://theses.gla.ac.uk/2781/1/2011BaptieMPhil-1.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180523095552/http://theses.gla.ac.uk/2781/1/2011BaptieMPhil-1.pdf |archive-date=23 May 2018 |access-date=22 May 2018}}
• northeastern regions of Hungary.
• northern regions of Romania (in Maramureș).

Pannonian Rusyn is spoken by the Pannonian Rusyns in the region of Vojvodina (in Serbia), and in a nearby region of Slavonia (in Croatia).

{{see also|Transcarpathian dialect}}

The main continuum of Rusyn varieties stretches from Transcarpathia and follows the Carpathian Mountains westward into South-Eastern Poland and Eastern Slovakia, forming an area referred to as Carpathian Ruthenia. As with any language, all three major varieties of Rusyn vary with respect to phonology, morphology, and syntax, and have various features unique to themselves, while of course also containing their own, more local sub-varieties. The continuum of Rusyn is agreed to include the varieties known historically as Lemko and Bojko, and is also generally accepted to end at or with the Hucul variety, which is "not included in the Rusyn continuum per se, but represent[s] a linguistic variant .. better seen as a dialect of Ukrainian". As the westernmost member of the family of East Slavic languages, it has also acquired a number of West Slavic features—unique to East Slavic languages—due to prolonged contact with the coterritorial languages of Polish and Slovak.{{Sfn|Pugh|2009|p=3-4}}

Today, there are three formally codified Rusyn literary varieties and one de facto (Subcarpathian Rusyn). These varieties reflect the culmination of nearly two centuries of activist and academic labor, during which a literary Rusyn language was desired, discussed, and addressed (time and again) by a dedicated intelligentsia. Linguist Stefan M. Pugh notes, "...at every stage someone was thinking of writing in Rusyn; approximately every generation a grammar of some sort would be written but not find wide acceptance, primarily for reasons of a political nature (and of course logistical practicalities)."{{Sfn|Pugh|2009|p=4, 6}}

Some of these earlier grammars include those by Dmytrij Vyslockij{{Efn|{{langx|rue|Дмитрий Вислоцкий}}}} (Karpatorusskij bukvar'{{Efn|{{langx|rue|Карпаторусский букварь}}}}),{{cite book |last1=Vyslockyj |first1=Dmytryj |year=1931 |location=Cleveland |language=rue |script-title=ru:Карпаторусский букварь |trans-title=Karpatorusskij bukvar'}} Vanja Hunjanky (1931), Metodyj Trochanovskij (Bukvar: Perša knyžečka dlja narodnıx škol;{{Efn|{{langx|rue|Буквар. Перша книжечка для народных школ.}}}} 1935),{{cite book |last1=Trochanovskij |first1=Metodyj |year=1935 |location=Lviv |language=rue |script-title=ru:Буквар. Перша книжечка для народных школ. |trans-title=Bukvar. Perša knyžečka dlja narodnıx škol. |author-link1=Metodyj Trochanovskij}}

{{cite journal |author=Bogdan Horbal |year=2005 |editor1-last=Custer |editor1-first=Richard D. |title=The Rusyn Movement among the Galician Lemkos |url=http://www.lemko.org/scholar/horbal/94.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Rusyn-American Almanac of the Carpatho-Rusyn Society |location=Pittsburgh |issue=10th Anniversary 2004–2005 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110104045502/http://lemko.org/scholar/horbal/94.pdf |archive-date=4 January 2011 |access-date=23 May 2010 |editor1-link=Richard D. Custer}} and Ivan Harajda (1941).{{sfn|Kushko|2007|p=111-132}} Harajda's grammar is particularly notable for having arrived in the midst of a five-year linguistic fervor for Carpatho-Rusyn. From 1939 through 1944 an estimated 1,500 to 3,000 Rusyn-language publications (mostly centered around Uzhhorod, Ukraine) entered print and from 1941 onward, Harajda's grammar was the accepted standard.

{{notelist}}

In Slovakia, the Prešov literary variety has been under continuous codification since 1995{{cite journal |author=Taras Kuzio |year=2005 |title=The Rusyn question in Ukraine: sorting out fact from fiction |url=http://www.taraskuzio.net/Nation%20and%20State%20Building_files/national-rusyns.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Canadian Review of Studies in Nationalism |volume=XXXII |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090327140741/http://www.taraskuzio.net/Nation%20and%20State%20Building_files/national-rusyns.pdf |archive-date=27 March 2009 |access-date=2009-12-03 |df=dmy-all}} when first published by Vasyl Jabur, Anna Plíšková and Kvetoslava Koporová.{{Citation needed|date=September 2022}} Its namesakes are both the city and region of Prešov, Slovakia—historically, each have been respective centers for Rusyn academia and the Rusyn population of Slovakia.

Prešov Rusyn was based on varieties of Rusyn found in a relatively compact area within the Prešov Region. Specifically, the variety is based on the language spoken in the area between the West Zemplin and East Zemplin Rusyn dialects (even more specifically: a line along the towns and villages of Osadne, Hostovice, Parihuzovce, Čukalovce, Pcoline, Pichne, Nechvalova Polianka, Zubne, Nizna Jablonka, Vysna Jablonka, Svetlice, and Zbojne). And though the many Rusyn dialects of Slovakia entirely surpass the limited set of features prescribed in the standard, this comparatively small sample size was consciously chosen by codifiers in order to provide a structured ecosystem within which a variety of written and spoken language would inevitably (and already did) thrive.{{Sfn|Pugh|2009|p=7}}

Its orthography is largely based on Zhelekhivka,{{citation needed|date=December 2021}} a late 19th century variety of the Ukrainian alphabet.

File:Oholoshennia.jpg language and Polish in Krynica-Zdrój, Poland ]]

In Poland, a standard Lemko-Rusyn grammar and dictionary, {{langx|pl|label=none|Gramatyka języka łemkowskiego||Grammar of the Lemko Language}} ({{langx|rue|Ґраматыка лемківского языка|Gramatŷka lemkivskoho jazŷka}}), was published in 2000 by Mirosława Chomiak and {{ill|Henryk Fontański|pl||rue|Генрик Фонтаньски}}, with a second edition issued in 2004.{{sfn|Pugh|2009|p=9}}http://theses.gla.ac.uk/2781/1/2011BaptieMPhil-1.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180523095552/http://theses.gla.ac.uk/2781/1/2011BaptieMPhil-1.pdf|date=23 May 2018}}, p. 52.

In Transcarpathia, Ukraine, M. Almašij's and Igor Kerča's {{langx|rue|label=none|Материнськый язык: Писемниця русинського языка|Materyns'kyj jazyk: pysemnycja rusyns'koho jazyka}}, serves as the de facto literary standard for Subcarpathian, though "unofficial". Published in 1999, with a second edition in 2004, and a 58,000 word Rusyn-Russian dictionary in 2007, Kerča's work has been used by prominent Rusyn publishers in Uzhhorod—albeit with variations between published works that are typical of the spoken language.{{sfn|Magosci|p=87}}{{sfn|Pugh|2009|p=10}}

{{Unreferenced section|date=September 2022}}

Despite the above codified varieties, many Carpatho-Rusyn publications will use a combination of the three Carpathian standards (most notably in Hungary and in Transcarpathia). There have even attempts to revitalize the pre-war etymological orthography with archaic Cyrillic orthography (i.e. usage of the letter ѣ, or yat'); the latter can be observed throughout Rusyn Wikipedia, where even a single article may be written in several different codified varieties. And while somewhat archaic, used of Harajda's grammar is even promoted by some in Rusyn Wikipedia (although parts of the articles are written using other standards).

{{Main|Pannonian Rusyn}}

Pannonian Rusyn, has variously been referred to as an incredibly distinct dialect of Carpathian Rusyn or a separate language altogether. In the ISO 639-9 identifier application for Pannonian Rusyn (or "Ruthenian" as it is referred to in that document), the authors note that "Ruthenian is closest to [a] linguistic entity sometimes called [ {{Langx|sk|východoslovenský}}, {{Langx|rsk|виходнярски|lit=East Slovak|label=Pan. Rusyn}} ],{{Efn-lr|Original text: "Vchodnoslovensky [sic] (віходняски)"}} ... (the speeches of Trebišov and Prešov [districts])."{{Cite web |last=Dulichenko |first=Aleksander D. |date=2020-11-17 |title=SO 639-3 Registration Authority Request for New Language Code Element in ISO 639-3 |url=https://iso639-3.sil.org/sites/iso639-3/files/change_requests/2021/2021-005_rsk.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210603072809/https://iso639-3.sil.org/sites/iso639-3/files/change_requests/2021/2021-005_rsk.pdf |archive-date=2021-06-03 |website=SIL International}}

The literary variety of Serbian and Croatian Rusyns is, again, significantly different from the above three Carpathian varieties in both vocabulary and grammar.{{Citation needed|date=September 2022}} It was first standardized in 1923 by G. Kostelnik.{{Citation needed|date=September 2022}} The modern standard has been continuously developed since the 1980s by Julian Ramač, Helena Međeši and Mihajlo Fejsa of Serbia, and Mihály Káprály of Hungary.{{Citation needed|date=September 2022}}

{{Expand section|date=January 2022}}

{{quote box

| align = right

| width = 30%

| title = The Rusyn Language in History|One of the dangers of any enterprise like the codification of a language is the desire to 'see' its history go back as far as possible. This danger affects every single language that may have had difficulties in gaining acceptance of its identity {{om|on the part of some outside body or bodies.}} A good example is Ukrainian itself {{om|, which fought for recognition (not to mention permission to be used and published) in the 19th century.}} It was not recognized by {{om|, for example, much of}} the 19th century ('great') Russian establishment {{om|for a very long time -}} leading to a continued perception {{om|on the part of many ordinary Russians (especially non-linguists)}} that Ukrainian was a 'dialect' of Russian {{om|Russian, or an uneducated 'peasant' language, and the like.}} Such treatment invariably led later Ukrainian scholars {{om|to look for the earliest features of what became 'Ukrainian', and therefore by association}} to refer to the language of those [earliest] features as not only 'old' Ukrainian but 'proto'-Ukrainian {{om|(this question is examined for East Slavic as a whole in Pugh 1996).}} The desire to see the beginnings of Rusyn as existing before, say, the 18th century is entirely natural – it was clearly in evidence in that century, so the beginnings must have been earlier. In fact, it is possible to see linguistic traces of what we recognize as 'Rusyn' in documents in very early texts – but this is not to say that these texts were written in 'Old Rusyn'. It is safe to say that Rusyn begins to be quite recognizable in a more systematic fashion (in terms of modern Rusyn) by the 18th century. Of course, given the political and social histories of the region, and especially religious history, documents differ according to the region, time, and the (socio-)linguistic milieu in which they were composed – e.g., Church Slavonic, Russian, Latin, etc.

| author = S. M. Pugh

| source = The Rusyn Language, 2009{{sfn|Pugh|2009|p=4-5}}

}}

The Niagovo Postilla (Njagovskie poučenija), dated to 1758, is one of the earliest texts possessing significant phonetic and morphological characteristics of modern Rusyn (specifically the Subcarpathian variant) and is potentially "linguistically traceable" to the 16th century.{{sfn|Pugh|2009|p=5}}{{sfn|Rusinko|2003|p=5}}

By the 18th century, the Rusyn language was "clearly in evidence" and "quite recognizable in a more systematic fashion".{{sfn|Pugh|2009|p=4-5}}

The first books produced exclusively for Rusyn readership were printed under the direction of bishop of Mukachevo, Joseph Decamillis (r. 1690 – 1706). Under his direction, the printshop at the University of Trnava published a catechism (Katekhisis dlia naouki Ouhorouskim liudem, 1698) and an elementary language primer (Boukvar’ iazyka slaven’ska, 1699). For decades, these would be the only textbooks available to Rusyn students.{{sfn|Magocsi|2015|p=84}}

Later, in 1767 Maria Theresa's Urbarium was published throughout the Habsburg Empire in a variety of languages, including Rusyn.{{sfn|Magocsi|2015|p=99}}{{cite journal |title=The Urbarium of Maria Theresa in the languages of the South Slavic peoples of the Hungarian Kingdom |year=2004 |doi=10.1556/sslav.49.2004.1-2.7|last1=Udvari |first1=István |journal=Studia Slavica |volume=49 |issue=1–2 |pages=103–119 }}

Finally, under Bishop Andriy Bachynskyi's tenure (r. 1773 – 1809) in the Greek Catholic Eparchy of Mukachevo, new texts for Rusyn student readership were published. These several editions of Ioann Kutka's primer and catechism were published in Rusyn vernacular, though with heavy influence from Church Slavonic.{{sfn|Magocsi|2015|p=101}}

By the 19th century, "attempts to write in a form of Russo-Church Slavonic with a Rusyn flavor, or a type of 'Subcarpathian Russian' with Rusyn phonetic features," began to be made. Notably, Myxajlo Lučkaj's grammar of the Subcarpathian variety of Church Slavonic, Grammatica Slavo-Ruthena, of 1830 had a "distinctly Rusyn flavor". And while Lučkaj did not support use of vernacular as a literary language (commenting on the proper usage of either {{langx|la|label=none|lingua eruditorum et Communis plebis|translation=the languages of the learned and the languages of the common people}} in his Praefatio), he did include examples of "Rusyn paradigms" in his work to attempt demonstrate its similarity to Church Slavonic. Lučkaj in effect sought to prove the two languages were close sisters of a common ancestor.{{sfn|Pugh|2009|p=5}}{{cite journal |last1=DANYLENKO |first1=ANDRII |title=Myxajlo Lučkaj — A Dissident Forerunner of Literary Rusyn? |journal=The Slavonic and East European Review |date=2009 |volume=87 |issue=2 |pages=201–226 |doi=10.1353/see.2009.0132 |jstor=40650354 |s2cid=152082970 |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/40650354 |access-date=11 January 2022 |archive-date=12 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220112004054/https://www.jstor.org/stable/40650354 |url-status=live }}

In 1847, Greek Catholic priest Alexander Dukhnovych published the first textbook written almost fully in common Rusyn vernacular, Knyzhytsia chytalnaia dlia nachynaiushchykh (A Reader for Beginners).{{sfn|Magocsi|2015|p=105}} Further editions of the primer followed in 1850 and 1852, as well as the establishment of "the first Carpatho-Rusyn cultural organization", the Prešov Literary Society, in 1850. Over the next four years of its existence, the Society would go on to publish a further 12 works, including Dukhnovych's Virtue is More Important than Riches (the very first play written in Carpatho-Rusyn), as well Carpatho-Rusyn's first literary anthologies in 1850, 1851, and 1852, titled Greetings to the Rusyns.{{sfn|Magocsi|2015|p=145}}

After the dissolution of Austria-Hungary (1918), the newly proclaimed Hungarian Republic recognized Rusyn regional autonomy in Subcarpathian regions and created, at the beginning of 1919, a department for Rusyn language and literature at the Budapest University.{{sfn|Magocsi|Pop|2005|p=46, 521}}

File:Lemko, issue 209, year 1938, page 1.jpg, (no 209), from year 1938, with typical Rusyn language features: separation of reflexive pronoun (ся) and words лем, што, котры, уж.]]

By the end of 1919, the region of Subcarpathian Ruthenia was appended to the newly formed Czechoslovak state, as its easternmost province. During the next twenty years, linguistic debates were continued between the same three options (pro-Russian, pro-Ukrainian, and local Rusyn), with Czechoslovak state authorities occasionally acting as arbiters.{{sfn|Csernicskó|Fedinec|2015|p=93–113}}

In March 1939, the region proclaimed independence under the name Carpatho-Ukraine, but it was immediately occupied and annexed by Hungary. The region was later occupied (1944) and annexed (1945) by the Soviet Union, and incorporated into the Ukrainian SSR,{{sfn|Magocsi|Pop|2005|p=495-497}} which proceeded with implementation of Ukrainian linguistic standards. In Soviet Ukraine, Rusyns were not recognized as a distinctive ethnicity, and their language was considered a dialect of Ukrainian language. Poland employed similar policies,{{sfn|Magocsi|Pop|2005|p=73}} using internal deportations to move many Eastern Slavs from southeastern to newly acquired western regions (Operation Vistula),{{sfn|Magocsi|Pop|2005|p=531-532}} and switch their language to Polish, and Ukrainian at school.

During that period, the only country that was officially recognizing the Rusyn minority and its language was Yugoslavia.{{sfn|Magocsi|Pop|2005|p=75}}

File:Vojvodina rusyn croatian czech map.png in Vojvodina, Serbia]]

After the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, modern standards of minority rights were gradually applied throughout Eastern Europe, thus affecting the attitude of several states towards the Rusyn language. As successors of Yugoslavia, Serbia and Croatia continued to recognize the Rusyn language as an official minority language.{{cite web |url=http://www.skupstinavojvodine.gov.rs/?s=aktAPV001&j=EN |title=Statute of the Autonomous Province of Vojvodina |publisher=Skupstinavojvodine.gov.rs |access-date=2012-08-07 |archive-date=3 March 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120303072347/http://www.skupstinavojvodine.gov.rs/?s=aktAPV001&j=EN |url-status=live }}

Scholars with the former Institute of Slavic and Balkan Studies in Moscow (now the Institute of Slavonic Studies of the Russian Academy of Sciences) formally acknowledged Rusyn as a separate language in 1992, and trained specialists to study the language.{{cite news |author=Іван Гвать |url=http://www.radiosvoboda.org/content/article/24433107.html |title=Україна в лещатах російських спецслужб |newspaper=Радіо Свобода |date=25 December 2011 |publisher=Radiosvoboda.org |access-date=2012-08-07 |archive-date=5 June 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120605001017/http://www.radiosvoboda.org/content/article/24433107.html |url-status=live }} These studies were financially supported by the Russian Academy of Sciences.

Since 1995, Rusyn has been recognized as a minority language in Slovakia, enjoying the status of an official language in municipalities where more than 20 percent of the inhabitants speak Rusyn.{{cite web|url=http://www.mensiny.vlada.gov.sk/data/files/418.doc|title=Zákon 184/1999 Z. z. o používaní jazykov národnostných menšín|last=Slovenskej Republiky|first=Národná Rada|year=1999|publisher=Zbierka zákonov|language=sk|access-date=2010-05-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011131038/http://www.mensiny.vlada.gov.sk/data/files/418.doc|archive-date=11 October 2017|url-status = dead|df=dmy-all}}

Ukrainian state authorities do not recognize Rusyns as a separate ethnicity, regardless of Rusyn self-identification. Ukraine officially considered Rusyn a dialect of Ukrainian. In 2012, Ukraine adopted a new law, recognizing Rusyn as one of several minority and regional languages, but that law was revoked in 2014.{{sfn|Csernicskó|Fedinec|2016|p=560-582}}

Rusyn is recognized as an officially protected, minority language by the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages in Bosnia and Herzegovina (2011), Croatia (1997), Hungary (1998), Romania (2008), Poland (as Lemko, 2009), Serbia (2006), and Slovakia (2002).{{sfn|Council of Europe|2021}}

It is not possible to estimate accurately the number of fluent speakers of Rusyn; however, their number is estimated to be in the tens of thousands.{{citation needed|date=January 2022}}

{{Transcluded section|part=y|source=Pannonian Rusyn#ISO 639-3 Identifier}}

The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) has assigned the ISO 639-3 code 'rue' for Carpathian Rusyn.{{Cite web |title=ISO 639-3: 639 Identifier Documentation: Rusyn (rue) |url=https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/rue |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210720003746/https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/rue |archive-date=20 July 2021 |access-date=22 June 2021}}

{{trim|{{#section-h:Pannonian Rusyn|ISO 639-3 Identifier}} }}

{{notelist|group=b}}

A soft consonant combination sound [{{IPA|ʃʲt͡ʃʲ}}] exists more among the northern and western dialects. In the eastern dialects the sound is recognized as [{{IPA|ʃʲʃʲ}}], including the area on which the standard dialect is based. It is noted that a combination sound like this one, could have evolved into a soft fricative sound [{{IPA|ʃʲ}}].{{sfn|Pugh|2009|p=476}}

• /{{IPA link|ɪ}}/ and /{{IPA link|ɤ}}/ tend to be more towards centralized as [{{IPA|ɪ̈}}], [{{IPA|ɤ̈}}].{{sfn|Pugh|2009|p=24}}

{{Missing information|section|Lemko and Subcarpathian declension|date=January 2022}}

Declension in Rusyn is based on grammatical number, gender, and case. Like English, only two types of grammatical number are expressed: singular and plural. And like other Slavic languages, Rusyn has three grammatical genders: feminine, masculine, and neuter. Furthermore, like those languages, Rusyn uses a seven-case system of nominative, accusative, genitive, dative, locative, instrumental, and vocative cases.{{sfn|Pugh|2009|p=43-44}}

One final point of note is that the masculine gender (and only the masculine gender) is further subdivided into animate and inanimate types. While there are no suffixes specific to animacy, declension between the two differs in that for animates, the form of the accusative case copies that of the genitive case.{{sfn|Pugh|2009|p=43-44}}

As mentioned in the preceding section, Rusyn cases are similar to those of other Slavic languages. A very general summary of usage is given in the table below, though proper usage depends on a particular situation, prepositions, and verbs used, as well as other extenuating circumstances.{{sfn|Pugh|2009|p=43-44}}

Nouns will generally decline differently to indicate each case (e.g. English they/them/their/theirs). Based on how they decline, nouns can be grouped into one of four "types".

• Type I: feminine nouns ending in -а/-я in the nominative singular
• Type II:
• masculine nouns ending in a consonant in the nominative singular
• neuter and masculine nouns ending in a consonant or -o in the nominative singular
• neuters ending in -e or -а/-я in the nominative singular
• Type III:
• feminine nouns ending in a paired consonant (-cons.+ь),{{efn-lr|name=pairing}} an unpaired palato-alveolar consonant (-ш, -ч, щ, -ж, or -дж),{{efn-lr|name=hushers|Pugh refers to these collectively as "hushers".}} or -ов in the nominative singular
• the feminine noun {{langx|rue|label=none|translit-std=BGN/PCGN|мати|maty|mother}}
• Type IV: neuter nouns ending in -а/-я in the nominative singular

This type consists of grammatically feminine nouns ending in -а (hard) or -я (soft) in the nominative case. The table below includes four examples of such nouns. The first two represent the archetypal feminine paradigm, while the second two represent a "common" or "two-fold gender" paradigm.

It is important to note that this second paradigm has atypical dative, locative, and instrumental singular suffixes which are actually representative of the male/neuter declension paradigm (visible later in this article). According to Pugh, this peculiarity developed as a result of the societal roles of "judge" and "elder" being traditionally patriarchal. This phenomenon is in contrast to grammatically feminine nouns of ambiguous gender where a particular role was not historically male-oriented, such as {{langx|rue|label=none|сирота|orphan}}. In these cases, the typical feminine paradigm is maintained.{{sfn|Pugh|2009|p=43-49}}

{{notelist}}

This declension type encompasses a very large set of vocabulary as it contains nouns of both masculine and neuter genders, hard and soft stems, as well as animate and inanimate beings (for the masculine gender).{{sfn|Pugh|2009|p=49-50}}

This declension contains a large amount of identical forms (syncretism) between cases. Depending on the noun, the number of distinct forms may number from as few as 3 to as many as 6. For singular animate nouns, there is a single form for the accusative and genitive cases, as well as a single form for the dative and locative cases. Similarly, singular inanimate nouns share a form for nominative and locative cases.{{sfn|Pugh|2009|p=50}}

{{notelist|group=a}}

The following table demonstrates the declension paradigm for nouns with hard stems which end in -o in the nominative case. Though there are some masculine nouns in this category, these nouns are predominantly neuter.

{{notelist}}

{{notelist}}

All nouns in this type are feminine. The paradigm can be identified by the following suffixes in the nominative singular case: a paired consonant (-cons.+ь),{{efn-lr|name=pairing|The terms "paired" and "unpaired" refer to a consonant's use with the soft sign, the letter ь. Consonants that can be palatalized with the soft sign are referred to as "paired consonants", as in the case of н/нь. Others that are inherently hard or soft and never appear with ь are referred to as "unpaired consonants", as in the cases of the letters к or ч.{{sfn|Pugh|2009|p=33}}}} an unpaired palato-alveolar consonant (-ш, -ч, щ, -ж, or -дж),{{efn-lr|name=hushers}} or the suffix -ов. Additionally, the noun {{langx|rue|label=none|translit-std=BGN/PCGN|мати|maty|mother}} is also part of this type.

{{notelist}}

This declension paradigm is used very rarely. It entirely consists of grammatically neuter nouns. This paradigm can be identified by the -a suffix in the nominative and accusative cases, as well as the appearance of the affix -t- between the stem and suffix in other cases. There is no variation in this paradigm: all nouns decline in an identical manner.{{sfn|Pugh|2009|p=60}}

Type IV is predominantly made up of words referring to the young of animals and humans. However, this should not be taken as a hard rule as some nouns which historically declined differently (e.g. {{langx|rue|label=none|translit-std=BGN/PCGN|вымя|vŷmja|udder}} and {{langx|rue|label=none|translit-std=BGN/PCGN|горня|hornja|cup, mug}}), now decline according to this paradigm instead.{{sfn|Pugh|2009|p=60}}

{{notelist}}

{{Missing information|section|Lemko and Subcarpathian conjugation|date=January 2022}}

Verbs may be divided into two major conjugation types, which may be identified based on the "stem-marker" that appears during conjugation. The infinitive verb forms are often ambiguous and as such, there is no general system that allows an infinitive to be identified as either Type I or Type II. Some infinitive suffixes, however, are unique to at least Type I, i.e. -ути, -овати, -нути, etc. In the following sections, the stem-markers are given in Latin as Cyrillic often obscures the markers in the conjugated forms.{{sfn|Pugh|2009|p=110}}

Type I may be divided into several sub-types, the most notable of which are the vowel+j stem-markers: -uj-, -ij-, -yj-, etc. It is important to remember that in the infinitive and some conjugations that the consonant, -j-, is truncated when followed by another consonant, e.g. бісїдув-aj-ty → бісїдув-a-ty.{{sfn|Pugh|2009|p=111}}

The -uj- set of verbs can be divided into two groups based the presence of the suffixal markers -ova- or -uj- in the infinitive. The former group representing the overwhelming majority of verbs in this type.{{sfn|Pugh|2009|p=111}}

Verbs with stem formant -IJ- are typically derived from adjectives and thus indicate the acquisition of a given property i.e. {{langx|rue|label=none|translit-std=BGN/PCGN|зеленый|zelenŷj|green}} → {{langx|rue|label=none|translit-std=BGN/PCGN|зеленї́ти|zelenjity|to (turn) green}}. In the infinitive, these verbs are identical to those of Conjugation II, Type I. However, these two types of verbs are conjugated differently.{{sfn|Pugh|2009|p=114}}

There are very few verbs in this category, but the members that do belong to it, tend to be commonly used.{{sfn|Pugh|2009|p=115}}

{{notelist}}

This conjugation scheme works similarly to the previous one.{{sfn|Pugh|2009|p=115-116}}

The -AJ- stem type has variations within different Rusyn dialects and regions. In the Prešov Rusyn community, the -A(J)- type described below is the predominant conjugational pattern. However, in regions further east within Slovakia and in other Rusyn communities, a full-fledged "AJ" type conjugation exists, resembling the patterns found in the rest of East Slavic.

In the Prešov Rusyn community, the -A(J)- conjugation is recommended for the written system, while the -AJ- type is limited and occurs primarily with specific verb stems like "maj-", "znaj-", and "staj-". Both forms may coexist in speech and writing, but the "A(J)" type is more prevalent in the Prešov dialect.

In Lemko Rusyn, the conjugation system generally agrees with that of Prešov Rusyn; a fully-fledged -AJ- conjugation is limited to the third person singular of only three verb stems: "мати", "знати", and "познати". In Subcarpathian Rusyn, however, the -AJ- type is predominant, and the element "aj" can appear in all persons in the non-past paradigm.{{sfn|Pugh|2009|p=118-120}}

While this stem type follows a conjugation structure similar to other East Slavic languages, it is completely unique in that -j- (normally in the form of suffixes -ю, -єш, -є, -єме, -єте, -ют) is truncated—except for in the 3rd person plural. The absence of the connector vowel -e- in this conjugation type is a distinctive feature, likely influenced by West Slavic languages. The conjugational pattern is similar to other Slavic languages, particularly Slovak.{{sfn|Pugh|2009|p=116-118}}

This stem type also includes verbs with the suffix -ывати, a suffix which is often found in imperfective verbs.{{sfn|Pugh|2009|p=117}}

This conjugation type is marked by the presence of -AVA- in the infinitive. The conjugation scheme for these verbs vacillates depending on local dialect: sometimes being conjugated as if they were of the previously-discussed -AJ- stem type. A comparison between the two different conjugation schemes is given in the table below. The -AJ- conjugation scheme is preferred by the Prešov standard.{{sfn|Pugh|2009|p=120}}

Each of the Rusyn standard varieties has its own Cyrillic alphabet. The table below shows the Rusyn alphabet of the Prešov Standard, with notes on other varieties. The alphabets of the other Carpathian Rusyn varieties, Lemko Rusyn and Subcarpathian Rusyn, differ from the Prešov Standard in lacking ё and ї. For the Pannonian Rusyn alphabet, see {{section link|Pannonian Rusyn language|Alphabet}}.{{citation needed|date=May 2022}}

Romanization (transliteration) is given according to ALA-LC,{{Cite web|title=Rusyn / Carpatho-Rusyn (ALA-LC Romanization Tables)|url=https://www.loc.gov/catdir/cpso/romanization/rusyn.pdf|access-date=2010-10-10|website=The Library of Congress|archive-date=23 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200823205714/https://www.loc.gov/catdir/cpso/romanization/rusyn.pdf|url-status=live}} BGN/PCGN,{{Cite web|date=October 2017|title=Romanization of Rusyn: BGN/PCGN 2016 System|url=https://geonames.nga.mil/gns/html/Romanization/ROMANIZATION%20OF%20RUSYN.pdf|access-date=2020-10-10|website=NGA GEOnet Names Server|archive-date=26 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201026045117/https://geonames.nga.mil/gns/html/Romanization/ROMANIZATION%20OF%20RUSYN.pdf|url-status=live}} generic European,{{Citation needed|date=October 2020}} ISO/R9 1968 (IDS),{{Cite web|date=2001|title=IDS G: Transliterationstabellen 4. Transliteration der slavischen kyrillischen Alphabete|url=https://www.informationsverbund.ch/fileadmin/shared/kids/kids_deutsch/kapg4.pdf|access-date=2020-10-15|website=Informationsverbund Deutchschweiz (IDS)|edition=Version 15.10.01|archive-date=1 March 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170301180846/https://www.informationsverbund.ch/fileadmin/shared/kids/kids_deutsch/kapg4.pdf|url-status=dead}} and ISO 9.

|-

| Я || я || я

| i͡a || ja || ja/'a || ja || â || /{{IPA|ja, ʲa}}/

|-

| Ь {{ref label|d|d|1}} || ь || мнягкый знак
({{langx|en|soft sign}})
or ірь

| ′ || ’ || ' || ′ || ′ || {{IPAslink|ʲ|audio=yes}}

|-

|Ъ {{ref label|b|b|4}}{{ref label|e|e|1}}|| ъ || твердый знак (ір)

| ″ || ’ || " || – || ″ ||

|}

{{ Ordered list

| list_style_type=lower-alpha

| {{note label|a|a|1}}{{note label|a|a|2}} Not used in Lemko.

| {{note label|b|b|1}}{{note label|b|b|2}}{{note label|b|b|3}}{{note label|b|b|4}} Not used in Pannonian Rusyn.

| {{note label|c|c|1}} The Pannonian Rusyn alphabet places this letter directly after з, like the Ukrainian alphabet.

According to ALA–LC romanization, it is romanized i for Pannonian Rusyn and y otherwise.

| {{note label|d|d|1}} "Soft Sign": marks the preceding consonant as palatalized (soft)

| {{note label|e|e|1}} "Hard Sign": marks the preceding consonant as NOT palatalized (hard).

| In Ukraine, usage is found of the letters о̄ and ӯ.{{Cite web|last=Кушницькый|first=Мигаль|date=May 27, 2020|title=Carpatho-Rusyn Phonetics ep3 – О/Ō {{!}} Карпаторусинська фонетика №3|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cfc5AXqv7Ys&list=PLWYGLRSUwpVGDYVP6P7VNuOv1CYsAFRee&index=3|website=YouTube|access-date=31 July 2020|archive-date=28 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211028092204/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cfc5AXqv7Ys&list=PLWYGLRSUwpVGDYVP6P7VNuOv1CYsAFRee&index=3|url-status=live}}{{Cite web|last=Кушницькый|first=Мигаль|date=May 1, 2020|title=Carpatho-Rusyn phonetics. Ep#2 – і, ї, ӯ {{!}} Карпаторусинська фонетика. Другый епізод|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oO7dRV-cv90&list=PLWYGLRSUwpVGDYVP6P7VNuOv1CYsAFRee&index=2|website=YouTube|access-date=31 July 2020|archive-date=18 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220218214648/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oO7dRV-cv90&list=PLWYGLRSUwpVGDYVP6P7VNuOv1CYsAFRee&index=2|url-status=live}}{{Cite web|title=ruegrammatica|url=https://www.rueportal.eu/grammatica/grammar/azbuka/|website=rueportal.eu|access-date=31 July 2020|archive-date=6 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806221713/https://www.rueportal.eu/grammatica/grammar/azbuka/|url-status=live}}

| Until World War II, the letter ѣ (їть or yat') was used, and was pronounced {{IPA|/ji, ʲi/}} or {{IPAslink|i|audio=yes}}. This letter is still used in part of the articles in the Rusyn Wikipedia.

| The letters о̂ and ӱ are used formally.{{Cite web|author=Ecolinguist|date=March 16, 2020|title=Carpatho Rusyn Language {{!}} Can Ukrainian speakers understand? {{!}} #1{{!}} feat. @myhal-k|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zOzQFN5GBjA|website=Youtube}}

}}

The Prešov Rusyn alphabet of Slovakia has 36 letters. It includes all the letters of the Ukrainian alphabet plus ё, ы, and ъ.

The Lemko Rusyn alphabet of Poland has 34 letters. It includes all the Ukrainian letters with the exception of ї, plus ы and ъ.

The Pannonian Rusyn alphabet has 32 letters, namely all the Ukrainian letters except і.

The Rusyn alphabets all place ь after я, as the Ukrainian alphabet did until 1990. The vast majority of Cyrillic alphabets place ь before э (if present), ю, and я.

The Lemko and Prešov Rusyn alphabets place ъ at the very end, while the vast majority of Cyrillic alphabets place it after щ. They also place ы before й, while the vast majority of Cyrillic alphabets place it after ш, щ (if present), and ъ (if present).

In the Prešov Rusyn alphabet, і and ї come before и, and likewise, і comes before и in the Lemko Rusyn alphabet (which does not have ї). In the Ukrainian alphabet, however, и precedes і and ї, and the Pannonian Rusyn alphabet (which does not have і) follows this precedent by placing и before ї.

• Alexander Duchnovič's Theatre
• Eastern Slovak dialects
• Petro Trochanowski, contemporary Rusyn poet
• Metodyj Trochanovskij, Lemko Grammarian
• Iazychie
• Rusyn [https://www.lem.fm/minecraft-mozh-baviti-uzh-i-po-rusinsky/ was added] to Minecraft as an interface language option

{{More citations needed section|date=September 2017}}

• Amerikansky Russky Viestnik (defunct)
• Besida, a Lemko journal
• Karpatska Rus'
• Lem.fm,{{Cite web|title=Хыжа {{!}} lem.fm – Радийо Руской Бурсы|url=http://lem.fm/|access-date=2018-06-03|website=lem.fm – Радийо Руской Бурсы|language=en-US|archive-date=19 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180519235820/http://www.lem.fm/|url-status=live}} Gorlice, Poland
• Lemko, Philadelphia, US (defunct)
• Narodnȳ novynkȳ (Народны новинкы)
• Podkarpatská Rus (Подкарпатська Русь)
• Ruske slovo (Руске слово),{{Cite web|title=Руске слово|url=https://www.ruskeslovo.com/|website=Руске слово|access-date=20 February 2021|archive-date=26 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210226234517/https://www.ruskeslovo.com/|url-status=live}} Ruski Krstur, Serbia
• Rusnatsi u Shvetse (Руснаци у Швеце){{cite web |url=http://rdsa.tripod.com/hlasnjik.htm/ |title=Rusnaci u svece |publisher=tripod.lycos.com |access-date=2017-03-07 |archive-date=8 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170308134651/http://rdsa.tripod.com/hlasnjik.htm/ |url-status=live }}
• Rusynska besida (Русинська бесіда)

{{notelist-lr}}

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• {{Cite book|last=Plishkova|first=Anna|title=Language and National Identity: Rusyns South of Carpathians|year=2009|location=Boulder|publisher=East European Monographs|url=https://www.academia.edu/1373480|access-date=22 June 2021|archive-date=18 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220218214654/https://www.academia.edu/1373480|url-status=live}}
• {{Cite book|title=The Rusyn Language|last=Pugh|first=Stefan M.|year=2009|publisher=LINCOM GmbH|location=Munich, Germany|isbn=978-3-89586-940-2|url=https://www.deutsche-digitale-bibliothek.de/item/2WPXQMIRNX7WE2VPAI6JHAOSMXYMVH5P|access-date=15 December 2021|archive-date=15 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211215214401/https://www.deutsche-digitale-bibliothek.de/item/2WPXQMIRNX7WE2VPAI6JHAOSMXYMVH5P|url-status=live}}
• {{Cite book|editor-last1=Renoff|editor-first1=Richard|editor-last2=Reynolds|editor-first2=Stephen|title=Proceedings of the Conference on Carpatho-Ruthenian Immigration, 8 June 1974|year=1975|location=Cambridge, Mass.|publisher=Harvard Ukrainian Research Institute|isbn=9780916458003|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ePwhAAAAMAAJ|access-date=22 June 2021|archive-date=24 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210624211805/https://books.google.com/books?id=ePwhAAAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}
• {{Cite book|last=Rusinko|first=Elaine|title=Straddling Borders: Literature and Identity in Subcarpathian Rus'|year=2003|location=Toronto|publisher=University of Toronto Press|isbn=9780802037114|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XoT3hxJZ2lsC|access-date=28 June 2021|archive-date=15 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190515005604/https://books.google.com/books?id=XoT3hxJZ2lsC|url-status=live}}
• {{cite book |first=Gregory |last=Zatkovich |author-link1=Gregory Zatkovich |title= The Rusin Question in a Nutshell |oclc=22065508}}

{{refend}}

{{InterWiki|code=rue}}

{{InterWiki|code=rsk}}

{{Incubator|rue|wiktionary|language=Rusyn}}

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• [http://www.rusynacademy.sk/english/en_jazyk.html#Language_of_Carpatho-Rusyn_ The World Academy of Rusyn Culture: 'Language of Carpatho-Rusyn']
• [https://uk.wiktionary.org/wiki/Додаток:Русинсько-український_словник Rusyn-Ukrainian Dictionary]
• [http://lemkowski.revitalization.al.uw.edu.pl/?sem=1&topic=1 Lemko-Rusyn Language Course (in Polish and Lemko)]
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20080309101713/http://www.dzvoni.netfirms.com/index_files/english1.html Rusyn Greco Catholic Church in Novi Sad (Vojvodina-Serbia)]

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