Saltmarsh sparrow

The saltmarsh sparrow was formally described in 1788 by the German naturalist Johann Friedrich Gmelin in his revised and expanded edition of Carl Linnaeus's Systema Naturae. He placed it with the orioles in the genus Oriolus and coined the binomial name Oriolus caudacutus. He gave the locality as New York.{{ cite book | last=Gmelin | first=Johann Friedrich | author-link=Johann Friedrich Gmelin| year=1788 | title=Systema naturae per regna tria naturae : secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis | edition=13th | volume=1, Part 1 | language=Latin | location=Lipsiae [Leipzig] | publisher=Georg. Emanuel. Beer | page=394 | url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/2896994 }} Gmelin based his own description on those for the "sharp-tailed oriole" that had been described by John Latham in 1782 and by Thomas Pennant in 1785.{{cite book| last=Latham | first=John | year=1782 | author-link=John Latham (ornithologist) | title=A General Synopsis of Birds | volume=1, Part 2 | location=London | publisher=Printed for Benj. White | page=448, Plate 17 | url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/33727028 }}{{cite book | last=Pennant | first=Thomas | author-link=Thomas Pennant | year=1785 | title=Arctic Zoology | volume=2 | publisher=Printed by Henry Hughs | location=London | pages=261-262, n. 152 | url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/32122027 }} The saltmarsh sparrow is now one of four American sparrows placed in the genus Ammospiza that was introduced by Harry C. Oberholser in 1905.{{cite web| editor1-last=Gill | editor1-first=Frank | editor1-link=Frank Gill (ornithologist) | editor2-last=Donsker | editor2-first=David | editor3-last=Rasmussen | editor3-first=Pamela | editor3-link=Pamela C. Rasmussen | date=July 2023 | title=New World Sparrows, Bush Tanagers | work=IOC World Bird List Version 13.2 | url=https://www.worldbirdnames.org/bow/sparrows/ | publisher=International Ornithologists' Union | access-date=14 November 2023}} The genus name combines the Ancient Greek αμμος (ammos) meaning "sand" and σπιζα (spiza) meaning "finch". The specific epithet caudacuta is from Latin cauda meaning "tail" and acutus meaning "sharp".{{cite book | last=Jobling | first=James A. | year=2010| title=The Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names | publisher=Christopher Helm | location=London | isbn=978-1-4081-2501-4 | pages=[https://archive.org/stream/Helm_Dictionary_of_Scientific_Bird_Names_by_James_A._Jobling#page/n45/mode/1up 45], [https://archive.org/stream/Helm_Dictionary_of_Scientific_Bird_Names_by_James_A._Jobling#page/n94/mode/1up 94]}}

Its closest relatives are the Nelson's sparrow (Ammospiza nelsoni) and the seaside sparrow (Ammospiza maritima).{{Cite journal|last1=Robins|first1=Jerome D.|last2=Schnell|first2=Gary D.|date=1971|title=Skeletal Analysis of the Ammodramus-ammospiza Grassland Sparrow Complex: A Numerical Taxonomic Study|jstor=4083751|journal=The Auk|volume=88|issue=3|pages=567–590}}{{Cite journal|last1=Zink|first1=Robert M.|last2=Avise|first2=John C.|date=1990-06-01|title=Patterns of Mitochondrial DNA and Allozyme Evolution in the Avian Genus Ammodramus|journal=Systematic Zoology | volume=39 |issue=2| pages=148–161 |doi=10.2307/2992452|issn=1063-5157|jstor=2992452|s2cid=86467120}}

Two subspecies are recognised:

• A. c. caudacuta (Gmelin, JF, 1788) – breeding northeast USA
• A. c. diversa (Bishop, 1901) – breeding east USA

The saltmarsh sparrow and the Nelson's sparrow were once thought to be a single species, called the sharp-tailed sparrow. Mitochondrial DNA evidence suggests that the two species diverged about 600,000 years ago.{{Cite journal|last1=Rising|first1=James D.|last2=Avise|first2=John C.|date=1993|title=Application of Genealogical-Concordance Principles to the Taxonomy and Evolutionary History of the Sharp-Tailed Sparrow (Ammodramus caudacutus)|jstor=4088638|journal=The Auk|volume=110|issue=4|pages=844–856|doi=10.2307/4088638|s2cid=22137914}} A Pleistocene glaciation is thought to have separated the ancestral sharp-tailed sparrow into inland and coastal populations. The inland Nelson's sparrow became a specialist of non-tidal freshwater wetlands while the coastal saltmarsh sparrow became a specialist of tidal salt marshes.{{Cite journal|last=Greenlaw|first=Jon S.|date=1993|title=Behavioral and Morphological Diversification in Sharp-Tailed Sparrows (Ammodramus caudacutus) of the Atlantic Coast|jstor=4088557|journal=The Auk|volume=110|issue=2|pages=286–303}} Recently, the Nelson's sparrow has expanded its range to include coastal salt marshes, and interbreeding occurs where the two species overlap.{{Cite journal|last1=Shriver|first1=W. Gregory|last2=Gibbs|first2=James P.|last3=Vickery|first3=Peter D.|last4=Gibbs|first4=H. Lisle|last5=Hodgman|first5=Thomas P.|last6=Jones|first6=Peter T.|last7=Jacques|first7=Christopher N.|last8=Fleischer|first8=R. C.|date=2005-01-01|title=Concordance between morphological and molecular markers in assessing hybridization between sharp-tailed sparrows in New England|journal=The Auk|volume=122|issue=1|pages=94–107|doi=10.1642/0004-8038(2005)122[0094:CBMAMM]2.0.CO;2|s2cid=3736684 |issn=0004-8038|doi-access=free}}{{Cite journal|last1=Walsh|first1=Jennifer|last2=Kovach|first2=Adrienne I.|last3=Lane|first3=Oksana P.|last4=O'Brien|first4=Kathleen M.|last5=Babbitt|first5=Kimberly J.|date=2011-05-19|title=Genetic Barcode RFLP Analysis of the Nelson's and Saltmarsh Sparrow Hybrid Zone|journal=The Wilson Journal of Ornithology|volume=123|issue=2|pages=316–322|doi=10.1676/10-134.1|s2cid=86551697|issn=1559-4491}}

The saltmarsh sparrow measures {{convert|11|-|14|cm|in|abbr=on}} in length, has a wingspan of {{convert|17.8|-|21|cm|in|abbr=on}}, and weighs {{convert|14|-|23.1|g|oz|abbr=on}}.{{cite web|url=http://www.allaboutbirds.org/guide/saltmarsh_sparrow/lifehistory|title=Saltmarsh Sparrow, Life History, All About Birds - Cornell Lab of Ornithology|publisher=Allaboutbirds.org|access-date=2013-02-18}}CRC Handbook of Avian Body Masses by John B. Dunning Jr. (Editor). CRC Press (1992), {{ISBN|978-0849342585}}. Adults have brownish upperparts with a gray nape, white throat and belly, and pale orange breast and sides with brown streaking. The face is orange with gray cheeks, a gray median crown stripe, brown lateral crown stripes, and a brown eyeline. The tail feathers are short and sharply pointed.{{Cite book|title=The Sibley field guide to birds of eastern North America|author=Sibley, David|date=2003|publisher=Alfred A. Knopf|isbn=9780679451204|edition=1st|location=New York|oclc=52075784}} The subspecies A. c. diversa has more contrasting striping on its back and a darker crown than the nominate A. c. caudacuta.{{Cite journal|last=Smith|first=Fletcher M.|date=2011|title=Photo Essay: Subspecies of Saltmarsh Sparrow and Nelson's Sparrow|url=https://www.aba.org/nab/v65n2sparrows.pdf|journal=North American Birds|volume=65 |issue=2|pages=368–377}}

Only males sing. The song is a complex series of raspy, barely audible buzzes, trills, and gurgles. It is distinguishable from that of the Nelson's sparrow, which is a louder, hissing buzz followed by a buzzy chip. The high-pitched contact calls of both species are indistinguishable.

Distinguishing this species from closely related sparrows such as the Nelson's sparrow (Ammospiza nelsoni) can be difficult. The inland subspecies of the Nelson's sparrow can be differentiated by its fainter streaking and brighter orange breast and sides, while the coastal subspecies of the Nelson's sparrow can be differentiated by its paler, less-contrasting plumage. The saltmarsh sparrow also has a slightly longer beak than the Nelson's sparrow.

The saltmarsh sparrow is only found in tidal salt marshes along the Atlantic coast of the United States. It breeds along the northern coast, from Maine to the Chesapeake Bay, and winters along the southern coast, from North Carolina to Florida.{{Cite journal|last1=GREENLAW|first1=JON S.|last2=RISING|first2=JAMES D.|title=Saltmarsh Sharp-tailed Sparrow (Ammodramus caudacutus)|url=http://bna.birds.cornell.edu/BNA/account/Saltmarsh_Sharp-tailed_Sparrow/RECOMMENDED_CITATION.html|journal=The Birds of North America Online|doi=10.2173/bna.112|year=1994}} The saltmarsh sparrow prefers high marsh habitat, dominated by saltmeadow cordgrass (Sporobolus pumilus) and saltmarsh rush (Juncus gerardii), which does not flood as frequently as low marsh.{{Cite journal|last1=Greenlaw|first1=Jon S.|last2=Woolfenden|first2=Glen E.|date=2007-09-01|title=Wintering distributions and migration of saltmarsh and Nelson's sharp-tailed sparrows|journal=The Wilson Journal of Ornithology|volume=119|issue=3|pages=361–377|doi=10.1676/05-152.1|s2cid=85846189|issn=1559-4491}}

The saltmarsh sparrow forages on the ground along tidal channels or in marsh vegetation, sometimes probing in the mud at low tide. Over 80% of the diet of nestlings consists of flies, amphipods, grasshoppers, and moths, especially larval, pupal, and adult soldier flies. During the winter, adults consume seeds. The saltmarsh sparrow is an opportunistic feeder and food is rarely limiting.{{Cite journal|last1=Post|first1=William|last2=Greenlaw|first2=Jon S.|date=2006-10-01|title=Nestling diets of coexisting salt marsh sparrows: Opportunism in a food-rich environment|journal=Estuaries and Coasts|language=en|volume=29|issue=5|pages=765–775|doi=10.1007/BF02786527|bibcode=2006EstCo..29..765P |s2cid=84064446|issn=1559-2723}}

File:Saltmarsh sparrow nest with freshly hatched chick and eggs (50141128018).jpg

File:Saltmarsh sparrow chick (50141016208) (cropped).jpg

Saltmarsh sparrows are non-territorial and have large overlapping home ranges. Male home ranges are twice as large as those of females and may span {{convert|50|ha|acre}}.{{Cite journal|last1=Shriver|first1=W. Gregory|last2=Hodgman|first2=Thomas P.|last3=Gibbs|first3=James P.|last4=Vickery|first4=Peter D.|date=2010-05-12|title=Home Range Sizes and Habitat Use of Nelson's and Saltmarsh Sparrows|journal=The Wilson Journal of Ornithology|volume=122|issue=2|pages=340–345|doi=10.1676/09-149.1|s2cid=85887167|issn=1559-4491}} Saltmarsh sparrows are promiscuous, and the majority of broods exhibit mixed parentage.{{Cite journal|last1=Hill|first1=Christopher E.|last2=Gjerdrum|first2=Carina|last3=Elphick|first3=Chris S.|date=2010-04-01|title=Extreme Levels of Multiple Mating Characterize the Mating System of the Saltmarsh Sparrow (Ammodramus caudacutus)|journal=The Auk|volume=127|issue=2|pages=300–307|doi=10.1525/auk.2009.09055|s2cid=11340274|issn=0004-8038|doi-access=free}} During the nesting season, males roam long distances chasing and mounting females regardless of receptivity. Only females exhibit parental care, building the nest, incubating the eggs, and providing food to the young. The nest is an open cup constructed of grass, usually attached to saltmeadow cordgrass (Sporobolus pumilus) or saltmarsh rush (Juncus gerardii) at a height of {{convert|6|–|15|cm|in}}. Clutch size is 3 to 5. Incubation begins after the last egg is laid and takes 11–12 days. Young fledge 8–11 days after hatching but remain dependent on the mother for an additional 15–20 days.

The primary cause of nest mortality is flooding due to storm surges and periodic, exceptionally high spring tides which occur every 28 days during the new moon. The saltmarsh sparrow exhibits several adaptations to flooding, including nest repair, egg retrieval, rapid re-nesting, and synchronization of breeding with the lunar cycle.{{Cite journal|last1=Gjerdrum|first1=Carina|last2=Elphick|first2=Chris S.|last3=Rubega|first3=Margaret|date=2005-11-01|title=Nest site selection and nesting success in saltmarsh breeding sparrows: the importance of nest habitat, timing, and study site differences|journal=The Condor|volume=107|issue=4|pages=849–862|doi=10.1650/7723.1|s2cid=86061445|issn=0010-5422|doi-access=free}}{{Cite journal|last1=Shriver|first1=W. Gregory|last2=Vickery|first2=Peter D.|last3=Hodgman|first3=Thomas P.|last4=Gibbs|first4=James P.|last5=Sandercock|first5=B. K.|date=2007-04-01|title=Flood tides affect breeding ecology of two sympatric sharp-tailed sparrows|journal=The Auk|volume=124|issue=2|pages=552–560|doi=10.1642/0004-8038(2007)124[552:FTABEO]2.0.CO;2|s2cid=86291773 |issn=0004-8038|doi-access=free}} Nesting begins immediately following a spring tide, allowing young to fledge before the next spring tide. Two broods are typically raised per breeding season.

The saltmarsh sparrow is of high conservation concern due to habitat loss resulting in small fragmented populations.{{Cite journal|last1=DiQuinzio|first1=Deborah A.|last2=Paton|first2=Peter W. C.|last3=Eddleman|first3=William R.|last4=Brawn|first4=J.|date=2001-10-01|title=Site fidelity, philopatry, and survival of promiscuous saltmarsh sharp-tailed sparrows in Rhode Island|journal=The Auk|volume=118|issue=4|pages=888–899|doi=10.1642/0004-8038(2001)118[0888:SFPASO]2.0.CO;2|s2cid=45574106 |issn=0004-8038|url=http://digitalcommons.uri.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1012&context=nrs_facpubs|doi-access=free}} Salt marshes are one of the most threatened habitats worldwide due to their limited natural extent, long history of human modification, and anticipated sea level rise.{{Cite journal|last1=Gedan|first1=K. Bromberg|last2=Silliman|first2=B. R.|last3=Bertness|first3=M. D.|date=2009|title=Centuries of Human-Driven Change in Salt Marsh Ecosystems|journal=Annual Review of Marine Science|volume=1|issue=1|pages=117–141|doi=10.1146/annurev.marine.010908.163930|pmid=21141032|bibcode=2009ARMS....1..117G|citeseerx=10.1.1.319.6842}} The spread of the invasive reed Phragmites has also contributed to habitat loss.{{Cite journal|last1=Benoit|first1=Lori K.|last2=Askins|first2=Robert A.|date=1999-03-01|title=Impact of the spread of Phragmites on the distribution of birds in Connecticut tidal marshes|journal=Wetlands|language=en|volume=19|issue=1|pages=194–208|doi=10.1007/BF03161749|bibcode=1999Wetl...19..194B |s2cid=24161204|issn=0277-5212}} The saltmarsh sparrow is very sensitive to sea level rise because of the role of flooding in nest mortality.{{Cite journal|last1=Bayard|first1=Trina S.|last2=Elphick|first2=Chris S.|date=2011-04-01|title=Planning for Sea-Level Rise: Quantifying Patterns of Saltmarsh Sparrow (Ammodramus caudacutus) Nest Flooding Under Current Sea-Level Conditions|journal=The Auk|volume=128|issue=2|pages=393–403|doi=10.1525/auk.2011.10178|s2cid=86661955|issn=0004-8038|doi-access=free}} In addition, the saltmarsh sparrow is particularly susceptible to mercury bioaccumulation, but the effects of this on survival are unclear.{{Cite journal|last1=Lane|first1=Oksana P.|last2=O’Brien|first2=Kathleen M.|last3=Evers|first3=David C.|last4=Hodgman|first4=Thomas P.|last5=Major|first5=Andrew|last6=Pau|first6=Nancy|last7=Ducey|first7=Mark J.|last8=Taylor|first8=Robert|last9=Perry|first9=Deborah|date=2011-11-01|title=Mercury in breeding saltmarsh sparrows (Ammodramus caudacutus caudacutus)|journal=Ecotoxicology|language=en|volume=20|issue=8|pages=1984–91|doi=10.1007/s10646-011-0740-z|pmid=21792662|bibcode=2011Ecotx..20.1984L |s2cid=15429827|issn=0963-9292}}{{Cite journal|last1=Cristol|first1=Daniel A.|last2=Smith|first2=Fletcher M.|last3=Varian-Ramos|first3=Claire W.|last4=Watts|first4=Bryan D.|date=2011-11-01|title=Mercury levels of Nelson's and saltmarsh sparrows at wintering grounds in Virginia, USA|journal=Ecotoxicology|language=en|volume=20|issue=8|pages=1773–1779|doi=10.1007/s10646-011-0710-5|pmid=21698442|bibcode=2011Ecotx..20.1773C |s2cid=21720566|issn=0963-9292}}{{Cite journal|last=Winder|first=Virginia L.|date=2012-09-04|title=Characterization of Mercury and Its Risk in Nelson's, Saltmarsh, and Seaside Sparrows|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=7|issue=9|pages=e44446|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0044446|pmid=22962614|pmc=3433451|bibcode=2012PLoSO...744446W|issn=1932-6203|doi-access=free}}

Saltmarsh sparrow populations declined between 5% and 9% per year between the 1990s and 2010s, resulting in a total decline of over 75%.{{Cite journal|last1=Shriver|first1=W. Gregory|last2=O’Brien|first2=Kathleen M.|last3=Ducey|first3=Mark J.|last4=Hodgman|first4=Thomas P.|date=2016-01-01|title=Population abundance and trends of Saltmarsh (Ammodramus caudacutus) and Nelson's (A. nelsoni) Sparrows: influence of sea levels and precipitation|journal=Journal of Ornithology|language=en|volume=157|issue=1|pages=189–200|doi=10.1007/s10336-015-1266-6|s2cid=17586419|issn=2193-7192}} Without management intervention, the saltmarsh sparrow is projected to become extinct by 2050. The saltmarsh sparrow was listed on the 2016 State of North America's Birds Watch List with a concern score of 19 out of 20,{{Cite news|url=http://www.stateofthebirds.org/2016/resources/species-assessments/|title=Species Assessment Summary and Watch List|work=State of North America's Birds 2016|access-date=2017-10-02|language=en-US}} and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service is currently undertaking a status review to determine whether the species should be listed under the Endangered Species Act.{{cite web|url=https://www.fws.gov/species/saltmarsh-sparrow-ammodramus-caudacutus|title=Saltmarsh Sparrow|website=U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service|access-date=23 February 2023}}{{Cite web|url=https://www.fws.gov/media/saltmarsh-sparrow-peer-review-plan-ssa|title=Saltmarsh Sparrow (Ammospiza caudacuta) Peer Review Plan|publisher=U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service|last=Gifford|first=Krishna|year=2019|access-date=23 February 2023}} Its total population was estimated to be 53,000 in 2016.{{Cite journal|last1=Wiest|first1=Whitney A.|last2=Correll|first2=Maureen D.|last3=Olsen|first3=Brian J.|last4=Elphick|first4=Chris S.|last5=Hodgman|first5=Thomas P.|last6=Curson|first6=David R.|last7=Shriver|first7=W. Gregory|date=2016-03-16|title=Population estimates for tidal marsh birds of high conservation concern in the northeastern USA from a design-based survey|journal=The Condor|volume=118|issue=2|pages=274–288|doi=10.1650/CONDOR-15-30.1|issn=0010-5422|doi-access=free}}

{{Reflist}}

• [https://web.archive.org/web/20120123091626/http://www.aba.org/nab/v65n2sparrows.pdf A photo-essay at North American Birds]
• [http://www.audubon.org/news/the-saltmarsh-sparrow-creeping-dangerously-close-extinction Audubon News: Saving the Saltmarsh Sparrow]

{{Taxonbar|from=Q1588239}}

saltmarsh sparrow

saltmarsh sparrow

Category:Native birds of the Northeastern United States

Category:Endemic birds of the Eastern United States

saltmarsh sparrow

saltmarsh sparrow