Settler colonialism#Settler colonialism in the United States

{{Short description|Form of colonialism seeking population replacement with settlers}}

File:European_colonization_of_the_United_States.gif in the 19th century]]

Settler colonialism is a logic and structure of displacement by settlers, using colonial rule, over an environment for replacing it and its indigenous peoples with settlements and the society of the settlers.{{cite journal |last1=Carey |first1=Jane |last2=Silverstein |first2=Ben |date=2 January 2020 |title=Thinking with and beyond settler colonial studies: new histories after the postcolonial |journal=Postcolonial Studies |volume=23 |issue=1 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.1080/13688790.2020.1719569 |s2cid=214046615 |quote=The key phrases Wolfe coined here – that invasion is a 'structure not an event'; that settler colonial structures have a 'logic of elimination' of Indigenous peoples; that 'settlers come to stay' and that they 'destroy to replace' – have been taken up as the defining precepts of the field and are now cited by countless scholars across numerous disciplines. |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free |hdl=1885/204080 |issn=1368-8790}}{{cite book |last1=Veracini |first1=Lorenzo |title=The Routledge Handbook of the History of Settler Colonialism |date=2017 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-74216-0 |editor1-last=Cavanagh |editor1-first=Edward |page=4 |language=en |chapter=Introduction: Settler colonialism as a distinct mode of domination |quote=Settler colonialism is a relationship. It is related to colonialism but also inherently distinct from it. As a system defined by unequal relationships (like colonialism) where an exogenous collective aims to locally and permanently replace indigenous ones (unlike colonialism), settler colonialism has no geographical, cultural or chronological bounds. It is culturally nonspecific{{nbs}}... It can happen at any time, and everyone is a settler if they are part of a collective and sovereign displacement that moves to stay, that moves to establish a permanent homeland by way of displacement. |editor-last2=Veracini |editor-first2=Lorenzo |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KiglDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA4}}{{cite journal |last1=McKay |first1=Dwanna L. |last2=Vinyeta |first2=Kirsten |last3=Norgaard |first3=Kari Marie |date=September 2020 |title=Theorizing race and settler colonialism within U.S. sociology |url=https://compass.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/soc4.12821 |journal=Sociology Compass |language=en |volume=14 |issue=9 |doi=10.1111/soc4.12821 |issn=1751-9020 |s2cid=225377069 |url-access=subscription |quote=Settler-colonialism describes the logic and operation of power when colonizers arrive and settle on lands already inhabited by another group. Importantly, settler colonialism operates through a logic of elimination, seeking to eradicate the original inhabitants through violence and other genocidal acts and to replace the existing spiritual, epistemological, political, social, and ecological systems with those of the settler society.}}

Settler colonialism is a form of exogenous (of external origin, coming from the outside) domination typically organized or supported by an imperial authority, which maintains a connection or control to the territory through the settler's colonialism.{{cite web |last1=LeFevre |first1=Tate |title=Settler Colonialism |url=http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780199766567/obo-9780199766567-0125.xml |access-date=19 October 2017 |website=oxfordbibliographies.com |publisher=Tate A. LeFevre |quote=Though often conflated with colonialism more generally, settler colonialism is a distinct imperial formation. Both colonialism and settler colonialism are premised on exogenous domination, but only settler colonialism seeks to replace the original population of the colonized territory with a new society of settlers (usually from the colonial metropole).}} Settler colonialism contrasts with exploitation colonialism, where the imperial power conquers territory to exploit the natural resources and gain a source of cheap or free labor. As settler colonialism entails the creation of a new society on the conquered territory, it lasts indefinitely unless decolonisation occurs through departure of the settler population or through reforms to colonial structures, settler-indigenous compacts and reconciliation processes.{{Efn|Example reconciliation programmes include: Reconciliation in Australia, and truth and reconciliation commissions in Canada, Norway and South Africa.}}{{Cite journal |last=Veracini |first=Lorenzo |date=October 2007 |title=Settler Colonialism and Decolonisation |url=https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A553004478/AONE?u=qut&sid=bookmark-AONE&xid=1b698e4e |journal=Borderlands |volume=6 |issue=2 |url-access=subscription}}

Settler colonial studies has often focused on former British colonies in North America, Australia and New Zealand, which are close to the complete, prototypical form of settler colonialism.{{cite journal |last1=Englert |first1=Sai |date=2020 |title=Settlers, Workers, and the Logic of Accumulation by Dispossession |journal=Antipode |volume=52 |issue=6 |pages=1647–1666 |bibcode=2020Antip..52.1647E |doi=10.1111/anti.12659 |s2cid=225643194 |hdl-access=free |hdl=1887/3220822}} However, settler colonialism is not restricted to any specific culture and has been practised by non-Europeans. According to certain genocide scholars, including Raphael Lemkin – the individual who coined the term genocide – colonization is intimately connected with genocide.{{cite journal |last=Bryant |first=Michael |title=Canaries in the Mineshaft of American Democracy: North American Settler Genocide in the Thought of Raphaël Lemkin |journal=Genocide Studies and Prevention |volume=14 |issue=1 |date=2020 |issn=1911-0359 |doi=10.5038/1911-9933.14.1.1632 |doi-access=free |pages=21–39 |url=https://digitalcommons.usf.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1632&context=gsp |access-date=January 24, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211203044955/https://digitalcommons.usf.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi%3Farticle%3D1632&context%3Dgsp |archive-date=December 3, 2021}}

Origins as a theory

During the 1960s, settlement and colonization were perceived as separate phenomena from colonialism. Settlement endeavours were seen as taking place in empty areas, downplaying the Indigenous inhabitants. Later on in the 1970s and 1980s, settler colonialism was seen as bringing high living standards in contrast to the failed political systems associated with classical colonialism. Beginning in the mid-1990s, the field of settler colonial studies was established{{sfn|Veracini|2013|p=}}{{pn|date=July 2024}} distinct but connected to Indigenous studies.{{cite web |last=Shoemaker |first=Nancy |date=1 October 2015 |title=A Typology of Colonialism {{!}} Perspectives on History |url=https://www.historians.org/publications-and-directories/perspectives-on-history/october-2015/a-typology-of-colonialism |access-date=28 April 2022 |website=American Historical Association}} Although often credited with originating the field, Australian historian Patrick Wolfe stated that "I didn't invent Settler Colonial Studies. Natives have been experts in the field for centuries."{{cite journal |last1=Kauanui |first1=J. Kēhaulani |date=3 April 2021 |title=False dilemmas and settler colonial studies: response to Lorenzo Veracini: 'Is Settler Colonial Studies Even Useful?' |journal=Postcolonial Studies |language=en |volume=24 |issue=2 |pages=290–296 |doi=10.1080/13688790.2020.1857023 |issn=1368-8790 |s2cid=233986432}} Additionally, Wolfe's work was preceded by others that have been influential in the field, such as Fayez Sayegh's Zionist Colonialism in Palestine and Settler Capitalism by Donald Denoon.{{sfn|Veracini|2013|p=}}{{pn|date=July 2024}}

Definition and concept

Settler colonialism is a logic and structure, and not a mere occurrence. Settler colonialism takes claim of environments for replacing existing conditions and members of that environment with those of the settlement and settlers. Intrinsically connected to this is the displacement or elimination of existing residents, particularly through destruction of their environment and society.{{cite journal | last=Whyte | first=Kyle | title=Settler Colonialism, Ecology, and Environmental Injustice | journal=Environment and Society | volume=9 | issue=1 | date=2018-09-01 | issn=2150-6779 | doi=10.3167/ares.2018.090109 | pages=125–144| bibcode=2018ESAR....9..125W }} As such, settler colonialism has been identified as a form of environmental racism.{{cite journal | last1=Van Sant | first1=Levi | last2=Milligan | first2=Richard | last3=Mollett | first3=Sharlene | title=Political Ecologies of Race: Settler Colonialism and Environmental Racism in the United States and Canada | journal=Antipode | volume=53 | issue=3 | date=2021 | issn=0066-4812 | doi=10.1111/anti.12697 | pages=629–642| bibcode=2021Antip..53..629V }}

Some scholars describe the process as inherently genocidal, considering settler colonialism to entail the elimination of existing peoples and cultures,{{cite book |last1=Short |first1=Damien |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ywE1EAAAQBAJ&q=inherently+genocidal&pg=PP1 |title=Redefining Genocide: Settler Colonialism, Social Death and Ecocide |date=2016 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-1-84813-546-8 |page=69 |language=en}} and not only their displacement (see genocide, "the intentional destruction of a people in whole or in part").{{cn|date=September 2024}} However, the opposite argument has also been made by Lorenzo Veracini, who argues that all genocide is settler colonial in nature.{{cite book |last1=Veracini |first1=Lorenzo |author1-link=Lorenzo Veracini |title=Civilian-Driven Violence and the Genocide of Indigenous Peoples in Settler Societies |date=2021 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-000-41177-5 |language=en |chapter=Colonialism, Frontiers, Genocide: Civilian-Driven Violence in Settler Colonial Situations|quote=not only is genocide necessarily settler colonial (even though settler colonialism is not always genocidal or even successful)}}

Depending on the definition, it may be enacted by a variety of means, including mass killing of the previous inhabitants, removal of the previous inhabitants and/or cultural assimilation.{{cite journal |last1=Wolfe |first1=Patrick |author1-link=Patrick Wolfe |date=2006 |title=Settler colonialism and the elimination of the native |journal=Journal of Genocide Research |volume=8 |issue=4 |pages=387–409 |doi=10.1080/14623520601056240 |s2cid=143873621 |issn=1462-3528 |doi-access=free}}

Therefore, colonial settling has been called an invasion or occupation, emphazising the violent reality of colonization and its settling, instead of the more domestic meaning of settling.{{cite web | last=Kilroy | first=Peter | title=Discovery, settlement or invasion? The power of language in Australia's historical narrative | website=The Conversation | date=2024-05-22 | url=https://theconversation.com/discovery-settlement-or-invasion-the-power-of-language-in-australias-historical-narrative-57097 | access-date=2024-08-14}}

Settler colonialism is distinct from replacement migration due to integration of immigrants into an existing society and not replacement with a parallel society.{{sfn|Veracini|2015|p=40}}{{Sfn|Mamdani|2020|p=253}} Mahmood Mamdani writes, "Immigrants are unarmed; settlers come armed with both weapons and a nationalist agenda. Immigrants come in search of a homeland, not a state; for settlers, there can be no homeland without a state."{{Sfn|Mamdani|2020|p=253}} Nevertheless, the difference is often elided by settlers who minimize the voluntariness of their departure, claiming that settlers are mere migrants, and some pro-indigenous positions which militantly simplify, claiming that all migrants are settlers.{{sfn|Veracini|2015|p=35}}

A settler state is an autonomous or independent political entity established through settler colonialism by and for settlers. This occurs when a migrant settler society assumes a politically dominant position over the indigenous peoples and forms a self-sustaining state that operates independently of the metropole, the homeland of a colonial empire. Countries that have been described as settler states include the United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Israel, and Taiwan, and formerly South Africa, Liberia, and Rhodesia.{{Cite book |last=Weitzer |first=Ronald |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LVHhEAAAQBAJ |title=Transforming Settler States: Communal Conflict and Internal Security in Northern Ireland and Zimbabwe |date=2023-11-15 |publisher=Univ of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-33328-4 |pages=24–30 |language=en}}{{Cite journal |last=Liu |first=Sung-ta |date=2013-04-01 |title=Settler urban legacies: A case study of Taipei City |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S026427511200114X |journal=Cities |volume=31 |pages=239–247 |doi=10.1016/j.cities.2012.06.018 |issn=0264-2751}}{{Cite journal |last=Bratton |first=Michael |date=1979 |title=Settler State, Guerrilla War and Rural Underdevelopment in Rhodesia |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1166943 |journal=Issue: A Journal of Opinion |volume=9 |issue=1/2 |pages=56–62 |doi=10.2307/1166943 |jstor=1166943 |issn=0047-1607}}

Examples

File:Settlement colonies for Europeans 1914.png

The settler colonial paradigm has been applied to a wide variety of conflicts around the world, including New Caledonia,{{cite news |date=3 October 2020 |title=New Caledonia set for 2nd referendum on independence from France |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/10/3/new-caledonia-set-for-2nd-referendum-on-independence-from-france |work=Al Jazeera}} Western New Guinea,{{cite news |last1=McNamee |first1=Lachlan |date=15 May 2020 |title=Indonesian Settler Colonialism in West Papua |url=https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3601528 |ssrn=3601528}} the Andaman Islands, Argentina,{{cite book |last=Larson |first=Carolyne R. |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/book/78336 |title=The Conquest of the Desert: Argentina's Indigenous Peoples and the Battle for History |publisher=University of New Mexico Press |year=2020 |isbn=9780826362087 |page=}} Australia, British Kenya, the Canary Islands,{{cite journal |last1=Adhikari |first1=Mohamed |author-link=Mohamed Adhikari |date=7 September 2017 |title=Europe's First Settler Colonial Incursion into Africa: The Genocide of Aboriginal Canary Islanders |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/17532523.2017.1336863 |journal=African Historical Review |volume=49 |issue=1 |pages=1–26 |doi=10.1080/17532523.2017.1336863 |s2cid=165086773 |access-date=7 May 2022}} Fiji, French Algeria,{{cite journal |last1=Barclay |first1=Fiona |last2=Chopin |first2=Charlotte Ann |last3=Evans |first3=Martin |date=12 January 2017 |title=Introduction: settler colonialism and French Algeria |journal=Settler Colonial Studies |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=115–130 |doi=10.1080/2201473X.2016.1273862 |s2cid=151527670 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free |hdl=1893/25105}} Generalplan Ost, Hawaii,{{cite journal |last=Takumi |first=Roy |date=1994 |title=Challenging U.S. Militarism in Hawai'i and Okinawa |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41555279 |journal=Race, Poverty & the Environment |volume=4/5 |issue=4/1 |pages=8–9 |issn=1532-2874 |jstor=41555279}} Ireland,Connolly, S. (2017). Settler colonialism in Ireland from the English conquest to the nineteenth century. In E. Cavanagh, & L. Veracini (Eds.), The Routledge Handbook of the History of Settler Colonialism (pp. 49-64). Article 4 Routledge. Israel/Palestine, Italian Libya and East Africa,{{cite journal |last1=Ertola |first1=Emanuele |date=15 March 2016 |title='Terra promessa': migration and settler colonialism in Libya, 1911–1970 |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/2201473X.2016.1153251 |journal=Settler Colonial Studies |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=340–353 |doi=10.1080/2201473X.2016.1153251 |s2cid=164009698 |access-date=7 May 2022}}{{cite journal |last1=Veracini |first1=Lorenzo |date=Winter 2018 |title=Italian Colonialism through a Settler Colonial Studies Lens |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/712080 |journal=Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History |volume=19 |issue=3 |doi=10.1353/cch.2018.0023 |s2cid=165512037 |access-date=7 May 2022}} Kashmir,{{cite journal |last=Raman |first=Anita D. |year=2004 |title=Of Rivers and Human Rights: The Northern Areas, Pakistan's forgotten colony in Jammu and Kashmir. |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/24675261 |journal=International Journal on Minority and Group Rights |volume=11 |issue=1/2 |pages=187–228 |doi=10.1163/157181104323383929 |jstor=24675261}}{{cite journal |last1=Mushtaq |first1=Samreen |last2=Mudasir |first2=Amin |date=16 October 2021 |title='We will memorise our home': exploring settler colonialism as an interpretive framework for Kashmir |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/01436597.2021.1984877 |journal=Third World Quarterly |volume=42 |issue=12 |pages=3012–3029 |doi=10.1080/01436597.2021.1984877 |s2cid=244607271 |access-date=7 May 2022}} Hokkaido, Korea and Manchukuo,{{cite journal |last1=Lu |first1=Sidney Xu |date=June 2019 |title=Eastward Ho! Japanese Settler Colonialism in Hokkaido and the Making of Japanese Migration to the American West, 1869–1888 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-asian-studies/article/abs/eastward-ho-japanese-settler-colonialism-in-hokkaido-and-the-making-of-japanese-migration-to-the-american-west-18691888/540D1FCAC210EBAC61BE93712B01A6AB |journal=The Journal of Asian Studies |volume=78 |issue=3 |pages=521–547 |doi=10.1017/S0021911819000147 |s2cid=197847093 |access-date=7 May 2022}}{{cite book |last=Uchida |first=Jun |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1x07x37 |title=Brokers of Empire: Japanese Settler Colonialism in Korea, 1876–1945 |date=3 March 2014 |publisher=Harvard University Asia Center |isbn=978-0674492028 |volume=337 |doi=10.2307/j.ctt1x07x37 |jstor=j.ctt1x07x37 |s2cid=259606289}} Latin America, Liberia, New Zealand, northern Afghanistan,{{cite journal |author=Christian Bleuer |year=2012 |title=State-building, migration and economic development on the frontiers of northern Afghanistan and southern Tajikistan |journal=Journal of Eurasian Studies |volume=3 |pages=69–79 |doi=10.1016/j.euras.2011.10.008 |doi-access=free}}{{cite web |last=Bleuer |first=Christian |date=October 17, 2014 |title=From 'Slavers' to 'Warlords': Descriptions of Afghanistan's Uzbeks in Western Writing |url=https://www.afghanistan-analysts.org/from-slavers-to-warlords-descriptions-of-afghanistans-uzbeks-in-western-writing/ |publisher=Afghanistan Analysts Network}}{{cite web |last1=Mundt |first1=Alex |last2=Schmeidl |first2=Susanne |last3=Ziai |first3=Shafiqullah |date=June 1, 2009 |title=Between a Rock and a Hard Place: The Return of Internally Displaced Persons to Northern Afghanistan |url=http://www.brookings.edu/research/opinions/2009/06/01-afghanistan-mundt |publisher=Brookings Institution}}{{cite web |date=April 2002 |title=Paying for the Taliban's Crimes: Abuses Against Ethnic Pashtuns in Northern Afghanistan |url=https://www.hrw.org/reports/2002/afghan2/afghan0402.pdf |publisher=Human Rights Watch}} North America, Posen and West Prussia and German South West Africa,{{cite journal |last1=Lerp |first1=Dörte |date=11 October 2013 |title=Farmers to the Frontier: Settler Colonialism in the Eastern Prussian Provinces and German Southwest Africa |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/03086534.2013.836361 |journal=Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History |volume=41 |issue=4 |pages=567–583 |doi=10.1080/03086534.2013.836361 |s2cid=159707103 |access-date=7 May 2022}} Rhodesia, Sápmi,{{cite book |last=Adhikari |first=Mohamed |author-link=Mohamed Adhikari |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ht9dEAAAQBAJ |title=Destroying to Replace: Settler Genocides of Indigenous Peoples |date=25 July 2022 |publisher=Hackett Publishing Company |isbn=978-1647920548 |location=Indianapolis |pages=1–32}}{{sfn|Veracini|2013|p=}}{{pn|date=July 2024}}{{cite journal |last1=Browning |first1=Christopher R. |date=8 February 2022 |title=Yehuda Bauer, the Concepts of Holocaust and Genocide, and the Issue of Settler Colonialism |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/25785648.2021.2012985 |journal=The Journal of Holocaust Research |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=30–38 |doi=10.1080/25785648.2021.2012985 |s2cid=246652960 |access-date=30 April 2022}}{{cite book |last1=Rahman |first1=Smita A. |title=Globalizing Political Theory |last2=Gordy |first2=Katherine A. |last3=Deylami |first3=Shirin S. |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=2022 |isbn=9781000788884}} South Africa, South Vietnam,{{cite book |last=Salemink |first=Oscar |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2_zKFyHlBk0C&pg=PA35 |title=The Ethnography of Vietnam's Central Highlanders: A Historical Contextualization, 1850–1990 |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-8248-2579-9 |pages=35–336}}{{cite book |last=Nguyen |first=Duy Lap |title=The unimagined community: Imperialism and culture in South Vietnam |publisher=Manchester University Press |year=2019 |isbn=978-1-52614-398-3}}{{cite web |last=Schweyer |first=Anne-Valérie |year=2019 |title=The Chams in Vietnam: a great unknown civilization |url=http://www.gis-reseau-asie.org/en/chams-vietnam-great-unknown-civilization |website=French Academic Network of Asian Studies |access-date=31 October 2023 |archive-date=2 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220702153040/http://www.gis-reseau-asie.org/en/chams-vietnam-great-unknown-civilization |url-status=dead }} and Taiwan.{{Cite thesis |title=Re-conceptualizing Taiwan: Settler Colonial Criticism and Cultural Production |url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/30h7d8r5 |publisher=UCLA |date=2019 |language=en |first=Lin-chin |last=Tsai}}

= Africa =

{{Seealso|White Africans of European ancestry|French conquest of Algeria}}

File:Colonial Africa 1913 map.svg colonial empires in 1913, shown with current national boundaries

{{Legend|#f6f6f6|Independent}}]]

[[File:European settlement in Africa map1962.png|thumb|Geographic distribution of Europeans and their descendants on the African continent in 1962{{cite book|last=Cowan|first=L. Gray|title=The Dilemmas of African Independence|date=1964|pages=42–55, 105 |publisher=Walker & Company, Publishers|location=New York|asin=B0007DMOJ0}}

{{colend}}]]

== Canary Islands ==

During the fifteenth century, the Kingdom of Castile sponsored expeditions by conquistadors to subjugate under Castilian rule the Macaronesian archipelago of the Canary Islands, located off the coast of Morocco and inhabited by the Indigenous Guanche people. Beginning with the start of the conquest of the island of Lanzarote on 1 May 1402 and ending with the surrender of the last Guanche resistance on Tenerife on 29 September 1496 to the now-unified Spanish crown, the archipelago was subject to a settler colonial process involving systematic enslavement, mass murder, and deportation of the Guanches, who were replaced with Spanish settlers, in a process foreshadowing the Iberian colonisation of the Americas that followed shortly thereafter. Also like in the Americas, Spanish colonialists in the Canaries quickly turned to the importation of slaves from mainland Africa as a source of labour due to the decimation of the already small Guanche population by a combination of war, disease, and brutal forced labour. Historian Mohamed Adhikari has labelled the conquest of the Canary Islands as the first overseas European settler colonial genocide.

== Moroccan-occupied Western Sahara ==

File:Grüner_Marsch_Karte-es.png in 1975]]

Since 1975, the Kingdom of Morocco has sponsored settlement schemes that have encouraged several thousand Moroccan citizens to settle Moroccan-occupied Western Sahara as part of the Western Sahara conflict. On 6 November 1975, the Green March took place, during which about 350,000 Moroccan citizens crossed into Saguia al-Hamra in the former Spanish Sahara after having received a signal from King Hassan II.{{cite web |last=Hamdaoui |first=Neijma |date=31 October 2003 |title=Hassan II lance la Marche verte |trans-title=Hassan II launches the Green March |url=http://www.jeuneafrique.com/jeune_afrique/article_jeune_afrique.asp?art_cle=LIN02113hassaetreve0 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060103155727/https://www.jeuneafrique.com/jeune_afrique/article_jeune_afrique.asp?art_cle=LIN02113hassaetreve0 |archive-date=3 January 2006 |access-date=21 April 2015 |website=JeuneAfrique.com |language=fr}} As of 2015, it is estimated that Moroccan settlers constitute two-thirds of the population of Western Sahara.{{cite news |last=Shefte |first=Whitney |date=6 January 2015 |title=Western Sahara's stranded refugees consider renewal of Morocco conflict |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/jan/06/morocco-western-sahara-referendum-delay |work=The Guardian}}

Under international law, the transfer of Moroccan citizens into the occupied territory constitutes a direct violation of Article 49 of the Fourth Geneva Convention ({{Text|cf. Turkish settlers in Northern Cyprus and Israeli settlers in the Palestinian territories}}).{{Cite web |title=Mixed Reviews for Morocco as Fourth Committee Hears Petitioners on Western Sahara, Amid Continuing Decolonization Debate | Meetings Coverage and Press Releases |url=https://www.un.org/press/en/2018/gaspd664.doc.htm |publisher=United Nations}}

== South Africa ==

File:Boer_Family_with_a_wagon_-_false_colour_image.jpg family traveling by covered wagon circa 1900]]

In 1652, the arrival of Europeans sparked the beginning of settler colonialism in South Africa. The Dutch East India Company was set up at the Cape, and imported large numbers of slaves from Africa and Asia during the mid-seventeenth century.{{Cite book |last=Cavanagh |first=E |title=Settler colonialism and land rights in South Africa: Possession and dispossession on the Orange River |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-137-30577-0 |location=United Kingdom |pages=10–16}} The Dutch East India Company established a refreshment station for ships sailing between Europe and the east. The initial plan by Dutch East India Company officer Jan van Riebeeck was to maintain a small community around the new fort, but the community continued to spread and settle further than originally planned.{{Cite journal |last=Fourie |first=J |date=2014 |title=Settler Skills and Colonial Development: The Huguenot Wine-Makers in Eighteenth-Century Dutch South Africa |journal=Economic History Review |volume=67 |issue=4 |pages=932–963 |doi=10.1111/1468-0289.12033 |s2cid=152735090}} There was a historic struggle to achieve the intended British sovereignty that was achieved in other parts of the Commonwealth. State sovereignty belonged to the Union of South Africa (1910–1961), followed by the Republic of South Africa (1961–1994) and finally the modern day Republic of South Africa (1994–present day).

In 1948, the policy of Apartheid was introduced South Africa in order to segregate the races and ensure the domination of the Afrikaner minority over non-whites, politically, socially and economically.{{cite book |last=Mayne |first=Alan |title=From Politics Past to Politics Future: An Integrated Analysis of Current and Emergent Paradigms |date=1999 |publisher=Praeger |isbn=978-0-275-96151-0 |location=Westport, Connecticut |page=52}} As of 2014, the South African government has re-opened the period for land claims under the Restitution of Land Rights Amendment Act.{{Cite journal |last=Weinberg |first=T |date=2015 |title=The Griqua Past and the Limits of South African History, 1902–1994; Settler Colonialism and Land Rights in South Africa: Possession and Dispossession on the Orange River |journal=Journal of Southern African Studies |volume=41 |pages=211–214 |doi=10.1080/03057070.2015.991591 |s2cid=144750398}}

== Liberia ==

Liberia is often regarded by scholars as a unique example of settler colonialism and the only known instance of Black settler colonialism.{{Cite journal |last=Spence |first=David M. |date=2021 |title=From Victims to Colonizers |url=https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/35322/1/Spence_From%20Victims%20to%20Colonizers.pdf |journal=The SOAS Journal of Postgraduate Research}} It is frequently described as an African American settler colony tasked with establishing a Western form of governance in Africa.{{Cite thesis |last=Parkins |first=Daniel |date=2019 |title=Colonialism, Postcolonialism, and the Drive for Social Justice: A Historical Analysis of Identity Based Conflicts in the First Republic of Liberia |url=https://digitalcollections.sit.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=4202&context=capstones |publisher=SIT Graduate Institute}}

Liberia was founded as the private colony of Liberia in 1822 by the American Colonization Society, a White American-run organization, to relocate free African Americans to Africa, as part of the Back-to-Africa movement.{{Cite web |title=Founding of Liberia, 1847 |url=https://history.state.gov/milestones/1830-1860/liberia |access-date=24 May 2024 |website=Office of the Historian}} This settlement scheme stemmed from fears that free African Americans would assist slaves in escaping, as well as the widespread belief among White Americans that African Americans were inherently inferior and should thus be relocated.Nicholas Guyatt, “[https://www.aaihs.org/the-american-colonization-society-200-years-of-the-colonizing-trick/; The American Colonization Society: 200 Years of the “Colonizing Trick]”, Black Perspectives, African American Intellectual History Society, December 22, 2016; Nicholas Guyatt, “[https://blog.oup.com/2016/12/american-colonization-society-abolish-slavery The American Colonization Society’s plans for abolishing slavery],” Oxford University Press’s Academic Insights for the Thinking World, December 22, 2016, /. U.S. presidents Thomas Jefferson and James Madison publicly endorsed and funded the project.

Between 1822 and the early 20th century, around 15,000 African Americans colonized Liberia on lands acquired from the region's indigenous African population. The African American elite monopolized the government and established minority rule over the locals. As they possessed Western culture, they felt superior to the natives, whom they dominated and oppressed.{{Cite journal |last=Akpan |first=M. B. |date=10 March 2014 |title=Black Imperialism: Americo-Liberian Rule over the African Peoples of Liberia, 1841–1964 |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00083968.1973.10803695 |journal=Canadian Journal of African Studies |language=fr |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=217–236 |doi=10.1080/00083968.1973.10803695 |issn=0008-3968}} Indigenous revolts against the Americo-Liberian elite such as the Grebo Revolt in 1909–1910 and Kru Revolt in 1915 were quelled with U.S. military support.{{Cite news |title=Liberia: The African-American settler colony that parallels Israel |url=https://www.middleeasteye.net/opinion/israel-liberia-apartheid-zionism-antisemitism |access-date=2024-05-24 |work=Middle East Eye |language=en}}

=North America =

==Canada==

File:Numbered-Treaties-Map.svg signed between 1871–1921 transferred large tracts of land from the First Nations to Canada in return for different promises laid out in each treaty.]]

Attempts to assimilate the Indigenous peoples of what is now Canada were rooted in imperial colonialism centred around European worldviews and cultural practices, and a concept of land ownership based on the discovery doctrine.{{cite web | title=The Doctrine of Discovery | website=CMHR | date=November 2, 2022 | url=https://humanrights.ca/story/doctrine-discovery | access-date=November 21, 2024}} Original assimilation efforts were religiously-oriented, beginning in the 17th century with the arrival of French missionaries in New France.{{cite web|last1=Gourdeau|first1=Claire|title=Population – Religious Congregations|url=http://www.historymuseum.ca/virtual-museum-of-new-france/population/religious-congregations/|work=Virtual Museum of New France|publisher=Canadian Museum of History|accessdate=July 1, 2016|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160708131814/http://www.historymuseum.ca/virtual-museum-of-new-france/population/religious-congregations/|archivedate=July 8, 2016}} Although not without conflict, European Canadians' early interactions with First Nations and Inuit populations were relatively peaceful.{{Cite book |last=Preston |first=David L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L-9N6-6UCnoC&pg=PA43 |title=The Texture of Contact: European and Indian Settler Communities on the Frontiers of Iroquoia, 1667–1783 |publisher=University of Nebraska Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-8032-2549-7 |pages=43–44 |access-date=February 10, 2019 |archive-date=March 16, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230316173811/https://books.google.com/books?id=L-9N6-6UCnoC&pg=PA43 |url-status=live}} First Nations and Métis peoples (of mixed European and Indigenous ancestry) played a critical part in the development of European colonies in Canada, particularly for their role in assisting European coureur des bois and voyageurs in their explorations of the continent during the North American fur trade.{{Cite book |last=Miller |first=J. R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TcPckf7snr8C&pg=PT34 |title=Compact, Contract, Covenant: Aboriginal Treaty-Making in Canada |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4426-9227-5 |page=34 |access-date=February 10, 2019 |archive-date=March 16, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230316173822/https://books.google.com/books?id=TcPckf7snr8C&pg=PT34 |url-status=live}}

The early European interactions with First Nations would change from Peace and Friendship Treaties to dispossession of lands through treaties and displacement legislation such as the Gradual Civilization Act,{{cite web |title=Gradual Civilization Act, 1857 |url=http://caid.ca/GraCivAct1857.pdf |publisher=Government of Canada |access-date=October 17, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240324051032/http://caid.ca/GraCivAct1857.pdf |archive-date=March 24, 2024}} the Indian Act, {{cite web |title=Indian Act |website=Site Web de la législation (Justice) |date=August 15, 2019 |url=https://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/i-5/ |access-date=September 2, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240526125409/https://www.laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/I-5/ |archive-date=May 26, 2024}} the Potlatch ban,{{cite encyclopedia |title=Potlatch Ban |encyclopedia=The Canadian Encyclopedia |date=January 11, 2024 |url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/potlatch-ban |access-date=September 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240816232746/https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/potlatch-ban |archive-date=August 16, 2024}} and the pass system,{{cite report |title=What We Have Learned: Principles of Truth and Reconciliation |url=http://www.trc.ca/assets/pdf/Principles%20of%20Truth%20and%20Reconciliation.pdf |isbn=978-0-660-02073-0 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210607124229/http://www.trc.ca/assets/pdf/Principles%20of%20Truth%20and%20Reconciliation.pdf |archive-date=June 7, 2021 |date=2015 |pages=192}} that focused on European ideals of Christianity, sedentary living, agriculture, and education.{{multiref2|

|{{cite book |last=Williams |first=L. |title=Indigenous Intergenerational Resilience: Confronting Cultural and Ecological Crisis |publisher=Routledge |series=Routledge Studies in Indigenous Peoples and Policy |year=2021 |isbn=978-1-000-47233-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HehEEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT51 |page=51 |access-date=February 23, 2023 |archive-date=February 23, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230223140054/https://books.google.com/books?id=HehEEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT51 |url-status=live}}

|{{cite book |last=Turner |first=N. J. |title=Plants, People, and Places: The Roles of Ethnobotany and Ethnoecology in Indigenous Peoples' Land Rights in Canada and Beyond |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |series=McGill-Queen's Indigenous and Northern Studies |year=2020 |isbn=978-0-2280-0317-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JVjZDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA14 |page=14 |access-date=February 23, 2023 |archive-date=February 23, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230223140056/https://books.google.com/books?id=JVjZDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA14 |url-status=live}}

|{{Cite book |last=Asch |first=Michael |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9Uae4mTTyYYC&pg=PA28 |title=Aboriginal and Treaty Rights in Canada: Essays on Law, Equity, and Respect for Difference |publisher=University of British Columbia Press |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-7748-0581-0 |page=28}}

|{{Cite book |last1=Kirmayer |first1=Laurence J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AXYDxvx3zSAC&pg=PA9 |title=Healing Traditions: The Mental Health of Aboriginal Peoples in Canada |last2=Guthrie |first2=Gail Valaskakis |publisher=University of British Columbia Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-7748-5863-2 |page=9}}

|{{cite web | title=Indigenous Peoples and Government Policy in Canada | website=The Canadian Encyclopedia | date=Jun 6, 1944 | url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/aboriginal-people-government-policy | access-date=Nov 20, 2024}}}}

Indigenous groups in Canada continue to suffer from racially motivated discrimination, despite living in one of the most progressive countries in the world.{{cite journal |first1=Corey |last1=Snelgrove |first2=Rita Kaur |last2=Dhamoon |first3=Jeff |last3=Corntassel |title=Unsettling settler colonialism: The discourse and politics of settlers, and solidarity with Indigenous nations |journal=Decolonization: Indigeneity, Education & Society |volume=3 |number=2 |date=2014 |pages=11–12 |url=https://nycstandswithstandingrock.files.wordpress.com/2016/10/snelgrove-dhamoon-corntassel-2014.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170104164929/https://nycstandswithstandingrock.files.wordpress.com/2016/10/snelgrove-dhamoon-corntassel-2014.pdf |archive-date=January 4, 2017}} Discriminatory practices such as criminal justice inequity, police brutality, high incarnation rates, and high rates of violence against Indigenous women have been subject to legal and political review.{{cite web | title=Understanding the Overrepresentation of Indigenous People | website=State of the Criminal Justice System Dashboard | date=Jun 11, 2024 | url=https://www.justice.gc.ca/socjs-esjp/en/ind-aut/uo-cs | access-date=Nov 21, 2024}}

==United States==

File:U.S._Territorial_Acquisitions.png in the 19th century]]

File:Indian_Land_for_Sale.jpg

In colonial America, European powers created economic dependency and imbalance of trade, incorporating Indigenous nations into spheres of influence and controlling them indirectly with the use of Christian missionaries and alcohol.{{cite book |last1=Dunbar-Ortiz |first1=Roxanne |title=An Indigenous Peoples' History of the United States |date=2014 |publisher=Beacon Press |isbn=978-0-8070-0040-3 |location=Boston}} With the emergence of an independent United States, desire for land and the perceived threat of permanent Indigenous political and spatial structures led to violent relocation of many Indigenous tribes to the American West, in what is known as the Trail of Tears.

In response to American encroachment on native land in the Great Lakes region, the Pan-Indian confederacies of the Northwest Confederacy and Tecumseh's Confederacy emerged. Despite initial victories in both cases, such as St. Clair's defeat or the siege of Detroit, both eventually lost, thereby paving the way for American control over the region. Settlement into conquered land was rapid. Following the 1795 Treaty of Greenville, American settlers poured into southern Ohio, such that by 1810 it had a population of 230,760.{{Cite web| title=Census 1810–2010: Celebrating 200 Years of the Census in Ohio | url=https://www.issuelab.org/resources/3973/3973.pdf | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308115827/https://www.issuelab.org/resources/3973/3973.pdf | archive-date=2021-03-08}} The defeat of the confederacies in the Great Lakes paved the way for large land loss in the region, via treaties such as the Treaty of Saginaw which saw the loss of more than 4,000,000 acres of land.{{cite web |date=26 November 2019 |title=The 1819 Treaty of Saginaw |url=https://blogs.cmich.edu/library/2019/11/26/the-1819-treaty-of-saginaw/}}

Frederick Jackson Turner, the father of the "frontier thesis" of American history, noted in 1901: "Our colonial system did not start with Spanish War; the U.S. had had a colonial history from the beginning...hidden under the phraseology of 'interstate migration' and territorial organization'". While the United States government and local state governments directly aided this dispossession through the use of military forces, ultimately this came about through agitation by settler society in order to gain access to Indigenous land. Especially in the US South, such land acquisition built plantation society and expanded the practice of slavery.

= Asia =

== China ==

File:Qing_Empire_circa_1820_EN.svg of China]]

Near the end of their rule the Qing dynasty attempted to colonize Xinjiang, Tibet, and other parts of the imperial frontier. To accomplish this goal, they began resettling Han Chinese on the frontier.{{Cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Ju-Han Zoe |last2=Roche |first2=Gerald |date=March 16, 2021 |title=Urbanizing Minority Minzu in the PRC: Insights from the Literature on Settler Colonialism |url=https://figshare.com/articles/journal_contribution/14776011 |journal=Modern China |language=en |volume=48 |issue=3 |pages=593–616 |doi=10.1177/0097700421995135 |issn=0097-7004 |s2cid=233620981}} This policy of settler colonialism was renewed by the People's Republic of China, led by Chinese Communist Party,{{Citation |last=Brooks |first=Jonathan |title=Settler Colonialism, Primitive Accumulation, and Biopolitics in Xinjiang, China |date=2021 |language=en |doi=10.2139/ssrn.3965577 |issn=1556-5068 |ssrn=3965577 |doi-access=free}}{{Cite journal |last=Clarke |first=Michael |date=2021-02-16 |title=Settler Colonialism and the Path toward Cultural Genocide in Xinjiang |journal=Global Responsibility to Protect |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=9–19 |doi=10.1163/1875-984X-13010002 |issn=1875-9858 |s2cid=233974395}} and is being practiced today according to some academics and researchers.{{Cite journal |last=Ramanujan |first=Shaurir |date=2022-12-09 |title=Reclaiming the Land of the Snows: Analyzing Chinese Settler Colonialism in Tibet |journal=The Columbia Journal of Asia |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=29–36 |doi=10.52214/cja.v1i2.10012 |issn=2832-8558 |doi-access=free}}{{Cite journal |last=Finley |first=Joanne Smith |date=2022-09-01 |title=Tabula rasa: Han settler colonialism and frontier genocide in "re-educated" Xinjiang |journal=HAU: Journal of Ethnographic Theory |language=en |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=341–356 |doi=10.1086/720902 |issn=2575-1433 |s2cid=253268699 |doi-access=}}{{Cite book |last1=McGranahan |first1=Carole |title=Frontier Tibet: Patterns of Change in the Sino-Tibetan Borderlands |date=2019-12-17 |publisher=Amsterdam University Press |isbn=978-90-485-4490-5 |editor-last=Gros |editor-first=Stéphane |pages=517–540 |chapter=Chinese Settler Colonialism: Empire and Life in the Tibetan Borderlands |doi=10.2307/j.ctvt1sgw7.22 |jstor=j.ctvt1sgw7.22 |doi-access=free |jstor-access=free}}

== Israel ==

File:West_Bank_Access_Restrictions.pdf in Palestine as the archetype of the definition.{{Cite magazine |last=Powell |first=Michael |date=2024-01-05 |title=The Curious Rise of 'Settler Colonialism' and 'Turtle Island' |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2024/01/curious-rise-settler-colonialism-and-turtle-island/677005/ |access-date=2024-05-22 |magazine=The Atlantic |language=en}} Map of Israeli settlements (magenta) in the occupied West Bank in 2020. The Australian historian Patrick Wolfe, credited with originating the field, famously defined Israel as the foremost example of a settler colonialist state today. However, this notion has also received significant criticism.{{cite journal |last1=Troen |first1=S. Ilan |year=2007 |title=De-Judaizing the Homeland: Academic Politics in Rewriting the History of Palestine |journal=Israel Affairs |volume=13 |issue=4 |pages=872–884 |doi=10.1080/13537120701445372 |s2cid=216148316}}]]

Zionism has been characterized by scholars such as the New Historians as a form of settler colonialism concerning the region of Palestine and the Israeli–Palestinian conflict.{{Cite journal |last=Sabbagh-Khoury |first=Areej |date=2022 |title=Tracing Settler Colonialism: A Genealogy of a Paradigm in the Sociology of Knowledge Production in Israel |journal=Politics & Society |volume=50 |issue=1 |pages=44–83 |doi=10.1177/0032329221999906 |s2cid=233635930}}{{Cite journal |last=Jamal |first=Amal |date=2017 |title=Neo-Zionism and Palestine: The Unveiling of Settler-Colonial Practices in Mainstream Zionism |url=https://www.euppublishing.com/doi/10.3366/hlps.2017.0152 |journal=Journal of Holy Land and Palestine Studies |language=en |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=47–78 |doi=10.3366/hlps.2017.0152 |issn=2054-1988}} This framework has also been embraced by activists.{{Cite journal |last=Tawil-Souri |first=Helga |date=2016 |title=Response to Elia Zureik's Israel's Colonial Project in Palestine: Brutal Pursuit |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.13169/arabstudquar.38.4.0683 |url-status=live |journal=Arab Studies Quarterly |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=683–687 |doi=10.13169/arabstudquar.38.4.0683 |issn=0271-3519 |jstor=10.13169/arabstudquar.38.4.0683 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220609085442/https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.13169/arabstudquar.38.4.0683 |archive-date=9 June 2022 |access-date=9 June 2022 |quote=Calling Israel a settler colonial regime is an argument increasingly gaining purchase in activist and, to a lesser extent, academic circles.}}{{Cite news |last=Schuessler |first=Jennifer |date=2024-01-22 |title=What Is 'Settler Colonialism'? |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2024/01/22/arts/what-is-settler-colonialism.html |access-date=2024-07-07 |work=The New York Times |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}{{Cite news |last=Kirsch |first=Adam |date=2023-10-26 |title=Campus Radicals and Leftist Groups Have Embraced the Idea of 'Settler Colonialism' |url=https://www.wsj.com/world/middle-east/campus-radicals-and-leftist-groups-have-embraced-the-deadly-idea-of-settler-colonialism-b8e995be |access-date=2024-07-07 |work=The Wall Street Journal}} This viewpoint has been criticised by other scholars due to its perceived denial of the historical Jewish connection to Palestine, among other reasons.{{Cite news |last=Cohen |first=Roger |date=2023-12-10 |title=Who's a 'Colonizer'? How an Old Word Became a New Weapon |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2023/12/10/world/europe/colonialist-word-gaza-ukraine.html |access-date=2024-07-07 |work=The New York Times |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}} Many of the founding fathers of Zionism themselves described the project as colonization, such as Vladimir Jabotinsky, who said "Zionism is a colonization adventure."{{Cite book |last=Hart |first=Alan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1zbb81ZuVCkC |title=Zionism: The Real Enemy of the Jews |volume=1: The False Messiah |date=2010-08-13 |publisher=SCB Distributors |isbn=978-0-932863-78-2 |language=en |quote=A voluntary reconciliation with the Arabs is out of the question either now or in the future. If you wish to colonize a land in which people are already living, you must provide a garrison for the land, or find some rich man or benefactor who will provide a garrison on your behalf. Or else-or else, give up your colonization, for without an armed force which will render physically impossible any attempt to destroy or prevent this colonization, colonization is impossible, not difficult, not dangerous, but IMPOSSIBLE!... Zionism is a colonization adventure and therefore it stands or falls by the question of armed force. It is important... to speak Hebrew, but, unfortunately, it is even more important to be able to shoot – or else I am through with playing at colonizing.}}{{cite web |last=Jabotinsky |first=Ze'ev |date=4 November 1923 |title=The Iron Wall |url=http://en.jabotinsky.org/media/9747/the-iron-wall.pdf |quote="Colonisation can have only one aim, and Palestine Arabs cannot accept this aim. It lies in the very nature of things, and in this particular regard nature cannot be changed...Zionist colonisation must either stop, or else proceed regardless of the native population."}} Theodor Herzl, the founder of the World Zionist Organization, described the Zionist project as "something colonial" in a letter to Cecil Rhodes in 1902.{{cite book |editor1-first=Mark H. |editor1-last=Gelber |editor2-first=Vivian |editor2-last=Liska |title=Theodor Herzl: From Europe to Zion |date=2012 |publisher=De Gruyter |pages=100–101}}

In 1967, the French historian Maxime Rodinson wrote an article later translated and published in English as Israel: A Colonial Settler-State?,Rodinson, Maxime. "Israel, fait colonial?" Les Temps Moderne, 1967. Republished in English as Israel: A Colonial Settler-State?, New York, Monad Press, 1973. but it was not until the 1990s that this viewpoint became more common in Israeli scholarship,{{efn|Sabbagh-Khoury writes: "The settler colonial paradigm, linked to Israeli critical sociology, post-Zionism, and postcolonialism, reemerged following changes in the political landscape from the mid-1990s that reframed the history of the Nakba as enduring, challenged the Jewish definition of the state, and legitimated Palestinians as agents of history. Palestinian scholars in Israel lead the paradigm's reformulation."}}{{sfn|Jamal|2017|pp=47–8}} in part coinciding with increased support for a two state solution. The Australian historian Patrick Wolfe, whose work is considered defining on the subject of settler colonialism, has classified Israel as a modern form of settler colonialism.

Lorenzo Veracini describes Israel as a "settler colonial polity", and writes that it could celebrate its anticolonial struggle in 1948 because it had colonial relationships inside and outside Israel's new borders.{{cite journal|last=Veracini|first=Lorenzo|date=2007|title=Settler Colonialism and Decolonisation|url=http://www.borderlands.net.au/vol6no2_2007/veracini_settler.htm|journal=Borderlands e-Journal|volume=6|issue=2|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200330030659/http://www.borderlands.net.au/vol6no2_2007/veracini_settler.htm|archive-date=30 March 2020|quote=Israel could celebrate its anticolonial/anti-British struggle exactly because it was able to establish a number of colonial relationships within and without the borders of 1948.}} Veracini believes the possibility of an Israeli disengagement is always latent and this relationship could be severed through a one state solution.{{efn|Veracini says this could be an "accommodation of a Palestinian Israeli autonomy within the institutions of the Israeli state".{{cite book |last=Veracini |first=Lorenzo |title=Israel and Settler Society |location=London |publisher=Pluto Press |date=2006 |page=}}{{pn|date=July 2024}}}} Other commentators, such as Daiva Stasiulis, Nira Yuval-Davis,[http://search.barnesandnoble.com/Unsettling-Settler-Societies/Daiva-K-Stasiulis/e/9780803986947 Unsettling Settler Societies: Articulations of Gender, Race, Ethnicity and Class, Vol. 11], Nira Yuval-Davis (Editor), Daiva K Stasiulis (Editor), Paperback 352pp, {{ISBN|978-0-8039-8694-7}}, August 1995 SAGE Publications. and Joseph Massad have included Israel in their global analysis of settler societies."Post Colonial Colony: time, space and bodies in Palestine/Israel in the persistence of the Palestinian Question", Routledge, NY, (2006) and "The Pre-Occupation of Post-Colonial Studies" ed. Fawzia Afzal-Khan and Kalpana Rahita Seshadri. (Durham: Duke University Press) Ilan Pappé describes Zionism and Israel in similar terms.[http://kingsreview.co.uk/articles/the-palestinian-enclaves-struggle-an-interview-with-ilan-pappe/ The Palestinian Enclaves Struggle: An Interview with Ilan Pappé] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170519175348/http://kingsreview.co.uk/articles/the-palestinian-enclaves-struggle-an-interview-with-ilan-pappe/ |date=19 May 2017 }}, King's Review – MagazineVideo: [https://www.antiwar.com/blog/2017/04/05/ilan-pappe-on-viewing-israel-palestine-through-the-lens-of-settler-colonialism/ Decolonizing Israel. Ilan Pappé on Viewing Israel-Palestine Through the Lens of Settler-Colonialism]. Antiwar.com, 5 April 2017 Scholar Amal Jamal, from Tel Aviv University, has stated, "Israel was created by a settler-colonial movement of Jewish immigrants".{{cite book |author=Amal Jamal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pWLCpqnsoLQC&pg=PA48 |title=Arab Minority Nationalism in Israel: The Politics of Indigeneity |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-136-82412-8 |page=48}} Damien Short has accused Israel of carrying out genocide against Palestinians during the Israeli–Palestinian conflict since its inception within a settler colonial context.{{Cite journal |last=Short |first=Damien |date=December 2012 |title=Genocide and settler colonialism: can a Lemkin-inspired genocide perspective aid our understanding of the Palestinian situation? |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/258433114 |journal=The International Journal of Human Rights}}

Critics of the paradigm argue that Zionism does not fit the traditional framework of colonialism. S. Ilan Troen views Zionism as the return of an indigenous population to its historic homeland, distinct from imperial expansion.{{cite journal |last1=Troen |first1=S. Ilan |year=2007 |title=De-Judaizing the Homeland: Academic Politics in Rewriting the History of Palestine |journal=Israel Affairs |volume=13 |issue=4 |pages=872–884 |doi=10.1080/13537120701445372 |s2cid=216148316}} Moses Lissak says that the settler-colonial thesis denies the idea that Zionism is the modern national movement of the Jewish people, seeking to reestablish a Jewish political entity in their historical territory. Lissak argues that Zionism was both a national movement and a settlement movement at the same time, so it was not, by definition, a colonial settlement movement.Moshe Lissak, "'Critical' Sociology and 'Establishment' Sociology in the Israeli Academic Community: Ideological Struggles or Academic Discourse?" Israel Studies 1:1 (1996), 247-294.

== Russia and the Soviet Union ==

{{main|Circassian genocide|Ethnic Russians in post-Soviet states|Population transfer in the Soviet Union}}

File:Rus1500-1900.PNG

Some scholars describe Russia as a settler colonial state, particularly in its expansion into Siberia and the Russian Far East, during which it displaced and resettled Indigenous peoples, while practicing settler colonialism.{{Cite journal |last=Sunderland |first=Willard |date=2000 |title=The 'Colonization Question': Visions of Colonization in Late Imperial Russia |journal=Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas |volume=48 |issue=2 |pages=210–232 |jstor=41050526}}{{Cite book |last=Forsyth |first=James |url=http://archive.org/details/historyofpeoples00fors |title=A history of the peoples of Siberia |date=1992 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-0-521-40311-5 |pages=201–228, 241–346}}{{Cite book |last1=Lantzeff |first1=George V. |title=Eastward to Empire: Exploration and Conquest on the Russian Open Frontier to 1750 |last2=Pierce |first2=Richard A. |date=1973 |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |doi=10.2307/j.ctt1w0dbpp |jstor=j.ctt1w0dbpp}} The annexation of Siberia and the Far East to Russia was resisted by the Indigenous peoples, while the Cossacks often committed atrocities against them.{{Cite web |last=Hill |first=Nathaniel |date=25 October 2021 |title=Conquering Siberia: The Case for Genocide Recognition |url=https://www.genocidewatchblog.com/post/conquering-siberia-the-case-for-genocide-recognition |access-date=2023-04-03 |website=www.genocidewatchblog.com}} During the Cold War, new forms of Indigenous repression were practiced.{{Cite journal |last1=Bartels |first1=Dennis |last2=Bartels |first2=Alice L. |date=2006 |title=Indigenous Peoples of the Russian North and Cold War Ideology |journal=Anthropologica |volume=48 |issue=2 |pages=265–279 |doi=10.2307/25605315 |jstor=25605315}}

This colonization continued even during the Soviet Union in the 20th century.{{harvnb|Veracini|2013|p=}}: "The domination of Latin America, North America, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, and the Asian part of the Soviet Union by European powers all involved the migration of permanent settlers from the European country to the colonies. These places were colonized."{{pn|date=July 2024}} The Soviet policy also sometimes included the deportation of the native population, as in the case of the Crimean Tatars.{{cite journal |last1=Pohl |first1=Otto |date=2015 |title=The Deportation of the Crimean Tatars in the Context of Settler Colonialism |url=http://www.lituanus.org/1998/98_3_02.htm |journal=International Crimes and History |issue=16 |archive-date=9 August 2022 |access-date=4 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220809105743/http://www.lituanus.org/1998/98_3_02.htm |url-status=dead }}

== Taiwan ==

According to a PhD thesis by Lin-chin Tsai, current ethnic makeup of Taiwan is largely the result of Chinese settler colonialism beginning in the seventeenth century.{{cite thesis |last1=Tsai |first1=Lin-chin |degree=PhD |title=Re-conceptualizing Taiwan: Settler Colonial Criticism and Cultural Production |date=2019 |url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/30h7d8r5 |access-date=20 May 2023 |publisher=University of California |language=en |quote=Taiwan, an island whose indigenous inhabitants are Austronesian, has been a de facto settler colony due to large-scale Han migration from China to Taiwan beginning in the seventeenth century.}}

=Australia{{anchor |au}}=

File:European Australians from 1947 to 1966.gif

Europeans explored and settled Australia, displacing Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples. The Indigenous Australian population was estimated at 795,000 at the time of European settlement.Statistics compiled by Ørsted-Jensen for Frontier History Revisited (Brisbane 2011), page 15. The population declined steeply for 150 years following settlement from 1788, due to casualties from infectious disease, the Australian frontier wars and forced re-settlement and cultural disintegration.{{cite paper |last=Page |first=A. |date=September 2015 |url=http://www.apsa2015.org/uploads/4/5/1/9/45190879/alexander_page_-_the_australian_settler_state_indigenous_agency_and_the_indigenous_sector_in_the_twenty_first_century.pdf |title=The Australian Settler State, Indigenous Agency, and the Indigenous Sector in the Twenty First Century |publisher=Australian Political Studies Association Conference |archive-date=10 September 2016 |access-date=15 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160910082243/http://www.apsa2015.org/uploads/4/5/1/9/45190879/alexander_page_-_the_australian_settler_state_indigenous_agency_and_the_indigenous_sector_in_the_twenty_first_century.pdf |url-status=dead }}{{cite journal |last1=Page |first1=A. |last2=Petray |first2=T. |date=2015 |title=Agency and Structural Constraints: Indigenous Peoples and the Settler-State in North Queensland |journal=Settler Colonial Studies |volume=5 |number=2}}

Responses

Settler colonialism exists in tension with indigenous studies. Some indigenous scholars believe that settler colonialism as a methodology can lead to overlooking indigenous responses to colonialism; however, other practitioners of indigenous studies believe that settler colonialism has important insights that are applicable to their work. Settler colonialism as a theory has also been criticized from the standpoint of postcolonial theory. Antiracism has been criticized on the basis that it does not provide a special status for indigenous claims, and in response settler colonial theory has been criticized for potentially contributing to the marginalization of racialized immigrants.{{sfn|Veracini|2015|p=44}}

Political theorist Mahmoud Mamdani suggested that settlers could never succeed in their effort to become native, and therefore the only way to end settler colonialism was to erase the political significance of the settler–native dichotomy.

According to Chickasaw scholar Jodi Byrd, in contrast to settler, the term arrivant refers to enslaved Africans transported against their will, and to refugees forced into the Americas due to the effects of imperialism.{{Cite book |last=Byrd |first=Jodi A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3_JNcXnUjZkC |title=The Transit of Empire: Indigenous Critiques of Colonialism |date=2011-09-06 |publisher=University of Minnesota Press |isbn=978-1-4529-3317-7 |pages=xix |language=en}}

In his book Empire of the People: Settler Colonialism and the Foundations of Modern Democratic Thought, political scientist Adam Dahl states that while it has often been recognized that "American democratic thought and identity arose out of the distinct pattern by which English settlers colonized the new world", histories are missing the "constitutive role of colonial dispossession in shaping democratic values and ideals".{{sfn|Dahl|2018|p=1}}

Notes

References

= Works cited =

{{cite book |last1=Dahl |first1=Adam |title=Empire of the People: Settler Colonialism and the Foundations of Modern Democratic Thought |date=2018 |publisher=University Press of Kansas |isbn=978-0-7006-2607-6 |language=en}}
{{cite journal |last1=Veracini |first1=Lorenzo |date=2013 |title='Settler Colonialism': Career of a Concept |journal=The Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History |volume=41 |issue=2 |pages=313–333 |doi=10.1080/03086534.2013.768099 |s2cid=159666130 |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/03086534.2013.768099 |access-date=7 May 2022|hdl=1959.3/353066 |hdl-access=free }}

External links

[https://westernamericanliterature.com/2020/06/07/settler-colonialism/ Articles on Settler Colonialism in Western American Literature]

Category:Cultural geography

Colonialism