Tell Abyad

In antiquity, Tell Abyad and the surrounding region were ruled by the Assyrian Empire and settled by Arameans. Tell Abyad could have been the site of the neo-Assyrian–era Aramean inhabited settlement of Baliḫu, mentioned in 814 BC.{{cite book|author=Edward Lipiński|title=The Aramaeans: Their Ancient History, Culture, Religion|year=2000|publisher=Peeters Publishers|isbn=978-90-429-0859-8|pages=122–|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rrMKKtiBBI4C&pg=PA122}} Later, various empires ruled the area, such as the Romans, Byzantines, Sassanids, Umayyads, Abbasids and finally the Ottoman Empire. Tell Abyad remained Ottoman until the end of World War I, when it was incorporated in the French mandate of Syria during the partition of the Ottoman Empire.

The modern town was founded by French mandate authorities to control the border with Turkey, with first inhabitants being Armenian refugees from Anatolia,{{cite web |last=Balanche |first=Fabrice |author-link=Fabrice Balanche |date=21 December 2018 |title=Tal Abyad: Achilles Heel of the Syrian Kurdish Belt |url=https://www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/view/tal-abyad-achilles-heel-of-the-syrian-kurdish-belt |access-date=14 October 2019 |website=The Washington Institute}} survivors of the deportations conducted during the Armenian genocide, with around 250 Armenian families living in the city prior to the Syrian civil war.{{cite news |last=Taştekin |first=Fehim |date= October 29, 2015 |title=Is Turkey setting a Kurdish trap? |url=http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2015/10/turkey-syria-isis-kurds-pyd-ankara-looking-for-border-cause.html |newspaper=Al-Monitor }} After Armenians, the Baggara Arab tribe arrived as members of the French Levant army, and decided to stay and settle in the area.

After the Syrian civil war started in 2011, Tell Abyad was captured by the Free Syrian Army in September 2012,{{Cite web|url=https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2012/10/27/the-next-battlefield|title=The next battlefield|via=The Economist}} On July 30, 2013, Tell Abyad was captured by the al-Nusra Front and the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL), who raised their flag at the border crossing with Turkey.{{cite news|url=http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2014/06/daloglu-isis-syria-iraq-mosul-caliphate-flag-border.html |title=ISIS [sic] raises flag at Turkish border |author=Tulin Daloglu |date=2014-06-30 |access-date=2015-09-10 |newspaper=Al-Monitor}} After ISIL defeated the Kurdish forces, the YPG and Kurdish Front, ISIL fighters announced from the minarets of the local mosques that all Kurds had to leave Tell Abyad or else be killed. Thousands of civilians, including Turkmen and Arab families, fled on 21 July.{{cite web|title=Selected testimonies from victims of the Syrian conflict: Twenty-seventh session|url=http://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/HRC/RegularSessions/Session27/Documents/A-HRC-27-CRP1.pdf|website=UN Human Rights Council}}{{cite web|title=Report of the Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic: Twenty-seventh session|url=http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/HRBodies/HRCouncil/CoISyria/HRC_CRP_ISIS_14Nov2014.doc|website=UN Human Rights Council}} ISIL fighters systematically looted and destroyed the property of Kurds and resettled displaced Arab Sunni families from the Qalamoun area (Rif Damascus), Deir ez-Zor, and Raqqa in abandoned Kurdish homes. According to Liz Sly of the Washington Post, ISIL also collected a tax from the Christians, a so called Jizya of about $100 every six months. While ISIL controlled the border towards Turkey in Tell Abyad, it was a major source for supplies coming in from Turkey.{{Cite news|last=Salih|first=Cale|date=2015-06-16|title=Is Tal Abyad a turning point for Syria's Kurds?|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-33146515|access-date=2020-06-25}}

On July 21, 2013, the sounds of the minarets suddenly rose from the mosques of Tal Abyad, broadcasting a message calling on Kurdish civilians to leave their homes within a period of “10” minutes, and thus the city witnessed the largest forced displacement process.{{Cite web |title=A special report covering the events and violations that the city of Tal Abyad witnessed in July 2013 |url=https://vdc-nsy.com/archives/31413 |website=Center for Documentation of Violations}}

In the June 2015 Tell Abyad Campaign against the Islamic State, the town was besieged and in June 2015 taken over by forces of the Euphrates Volcano, the Kurdish YPG and their allies within the Free Syrian Army.{{cite news|author1=Lefteris Pitarakis And Bassem Mrque|title=Thousands of Syrians flee into Turkey amid intense fighting|url=http://bigstory.ap.org/article/7f62663318e94589bf6097825914a088/kurds-nearing-key-islamic-state-held-syrian-border-town|access-date=June 15, 2015|work=AP The Big Story|agency=Associated Press|date=June 14, 2014}}{{cite web|url=http://www.syriahr.com/en/2015/06/ypg-and-rebels-take-full-control-on-tal-abiad-city/|title=YPG and rebels take full control on Tal Abiad city|author=Master|work=Syrian Observatory For Human Rights|access-date=June 30, 2015}}

After the capture of the Tell Abyad district, Kurdish YPG fighters have been accused by Syrian rebels of deliberately displacing thousands of Arabs and Turkmens from the areas they captured from ISIL forces in northern Syria{{cite web|title=Kurds accused of "ethnic cleansing" by Syria rebels|url=http://www.cbsnews.com/news/kurds-accused-ethnic-cleansing-syria-rebels-isis/|access-date=June 22, 2015|website=cbsnews}}{{cite web|title=Syrian rebels accuse Kurdish forces of 'ethnic cleansing' of Sunni Arabs|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/11676808/Syrian-rebels-accuse-Kurdish-forces-of-ethnic-cleansing-of-Sunni-Arabs.html/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150616034332/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/11676808/Syrian-rebels-accuse-Kurdish-forces-of-ethnic-cleansing-of-Sunni-Arabs.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=June 16, 2015|access-date=June 22, 2015|website=The Telegraph}} — a charge strongly denied by the Kurds.{{cite web|title=Kurdish Fighters Seize Large Parts of IS Border Stronghold|url=https://www.nytimes.com/aponline/2015/06/15/world/middleeast/ap-islamic-state.html?_r=0|website=The New York Times}} The accusation was not backed by any evidence of ethnic or sectarian killings. The head of Syrian Observatory for Human Rights said the people who had fled into Turkey were escaping fighting and there was no systematic effort to force people out.{{cite web|title=Syrian Kurds battle Islamic State for town at Turkish border|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-idUSKBN0OU0LI20150614|website=Reuters}} A report published by KurdWatch also accused the PYD of displacements{{cite web|title=New Report: Ethnic Cleansing in Tall Abyad? Characteristics of YPG and PYD rule in the areas captured from the IS|url=http://www.kurdwatch.org/?e3775|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160322211843/http://kurdwatch.org/?e3775|url-status=usurped|archive-date=March 22, 2016|website=KurdWatch}} while Liz Sly of the Washington Post reported: {{Quote|text="The Kurds formally renamed Tal Abyad with a Kurdish name, "Gire Spi", and proclaim its new identity in signs throughout the town — written in the Latin script used by Turkish Kurds but not readily understood by Syrian Kurds or Arabs. They have also unilaterally detached it from the existing Syrian province of Raqqa and made it a part of their newly formed autonomous enclave, carved from areas traditionally inhabited by Kurds but steadily encroaching also on territories that were historically Arab."}}

According to KurdWatch, repressive measures have been taken out in first line against persons with ties to the Islamic State or other political opponents.

However, many of the tens of thousands of Arab residents — namely those tribes that allegedly took part in the expulsion of the local Kurdish population in 2013{{cite news |date=8 November 2016 |title=In Raqqa offensive, Kurds seek 'insurance' against Turkish attack |publisher=France24 |url=http://www.france24.com/en/20161108-raqqa-offensive-kurds-sdf-ypg-turkey-islamic-state-group}} — who fled the advancing Kurdish force have not returned, for fear of retribution from the YPG.{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/the-challenges-of-governing-after-the-islamic-state/2015/10/30/8985938c-7673-11e5-a5e2-40d6b2ad18dd_story.html|title= They freed a Syrian town from ISIS. Now they have to govern it|newspaper=The Washington Post|date=2015 |access-date= 30 October 2015 }} There were reports that Kurds were forcibly removing the local Arab population,{{Cite news|last=Iraq|first=Sam Dagher in Beirut and Ben Kesling in Sinjar|date=2015-11-25|title=Arabs Accuse Kurds of Exploiting War With Islamic State to Grab Land|language=en-US|work=Wall Street Journal|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/ethnic-tensions-flare-in-iraqi-city-of-sinjar-after-kurdish-led-offensive-pushes-islamic-state-out-1448361003|access-date=2020-06-24|issn=0099-9660}} but the accusations were rejected by local Kurdish officials{{Cite news |last=Pamuk |first=Humeyra |date=2015-07-16 |title=As Syrian Kurds advance against Islamic State, other ethnic groups flee |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/uk-mideast-crisis-turkey-refugees-idUKKCN0PQ1WQ20150716 |access-date=2022-08-25}} as well as the United Nations.{{cite web|title=UN says no ethnic cleansing by Kurds in northern Syria|url=http://aranews.net/2017/03/un-says-no-ethnic-cleansing-by-kurds-in-northern-syria/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170315003623/http://aranews.net/2017/03/un-says-no-ethnic-cleansing-by-kurds-in-northern-syria/|url-status=dead|archive-date=March 15, 2017|website=ARA News}}

The Tell Abyad canton was established on 21 October 2015{{Cite journal|last=Radpey|first=Loqman|date=September 2016|title=Kurdish Regional Self-rule Administration in Syria: A new Model of Statehood and its Status in International Law Compared to the Kurdistan Regional Government (KRG) in Iraq|journal=Japanese Journal of Political Science|language=en|volume=17|issue=3|pages=468–488|doi=10.1017/S1468109916000190|issn=1468-1099|doi-access=free}} and included into the de facto autonomous Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria (AANES), declared by a council including representatives of local Arab, Kurdish, Turkmen and Armenian communities. The entity was neither formally recognized by the Syrian Government of Bashar al-Assad nor by any other country of the United Nations. The 178-member higher council that governed Tell Abyad, elected mixed-gender co-mayors, as mandated under Rojava rules. The elected co-mayors were ethnic Arab Mansour Seloum (later elected co-chairperson for the executive committee to organize a new constitution for Rojava, and replaced by ethnic Arab Hamdan al-Abad) and ethnic Kurd Layla Mohammed. The latter was 27 years old and the first female mayor of Tell Abyad ever.{{cite news|author=Wladimir van Wilgenburg|date=2016-07-01|title=Young female mayor breaks boundaries in Syrian town freed from Islamic State|publisher=Middle East Eye|url=http://www.middleeasteye.net/in-depth/features/young-female-mayor-breaks-boundaries-syrian-town-freed-552711157|access-date=2016-07-01}} Schools in which Arabs and Kurds each could learn in their own language were set up during their administration.

On 27 February 2016, Tell Abyad came under attack from ISIL militants. YPG militias and Asayish police forces repelled the attack and eliminated all of the ISIL militants, but more than 40 security forces and around 20 civilians were left dead. A YPG spokesman claimed that ISIL militants had crossed from Turkey to attack the town. Turkey quickly denied this claim. According to the Syrian Observatory for Human Rights, there was not any infiltration from the Turkish border but dormant IS sleeper cells and others entered the town on the eve of the offensive dressed in YPG uniforms.{{cite web|title=By Caliphate Cubs and Self-Defense Uniforms, IS Makes a Big Operation |url=http://www.syriahr.com/?p=159012/|access-date=February 28, 2016|language=ar|website=syriahr}} There have been multiple other instances of ISIL terror attacks in Tell Abyad, for example on 29 June and 8 July 2016 two bombings that each claimed ten civilian lives.{{cite news|title=ISIS attack kills ten in Kurdish-held Syrian town|url=http://aranews.net/2016/07/isis-attack-kills-ten-kurdish-held-syrian-town/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160708114506/http://aranews.net/2016/07/isis-attack-kills-ten-kurdish-held-syrian-town/|url-status=dead|archive-date=July 8, 2016|publisher=ARA News|date=2016-07-01|access-date=2016-07-09}}{{cite news|title=Islamic State jihadis threaten civil peace in Syria's Tell Abyad|url=http://aranews.net/2016/07/islamic-state-jihadis-threaten-civil-peace-syrias-tel-abyad-2/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160711005626/http://aranews.net/2016/07/islamic-state-jihadis-threaten-civil-peace-syrias-tel-abyad-2/|url-status=dead|archive-date=July 11, 2016|publisher=ARA News|date=2016-07-08|access-date=2016-07-09}}

On 15 September 2016, the flag of the United States was raised over several public institutional buildings in Tell Abyad.{{cite web|url=http://www.kurdistan24.net/en/news/0a1ecbb5-7db6-4a75-a6a5-c5313e8002e9/US-flags-raised-in-Syrian-Kurdish-held-town-of-Tal-Abyad|title=US flags raised in Syrian Kurdish-held town of Tal Abyad|work=Kurdistan24|date=16 September 2016}} The United States Department of Defense confirmed that U.S. Special Operation Forces were flying U.S. flags in the town of Tell Abyad to deter Turkish harassment shelling or attacks against Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF) there.{{cite news|url=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/us-flags-northern-syria_us_57e138efe4b08cb14097dfa0|publisher=Huffington Post|title=Mysterious American Flags In Northern Syria Were Planted By U.S. Troops, Pentagon Says|date=20 September 2016|access-date=20 September 2016}} Notwithstanding, the Turkish military shelled the area on 22 September.{{cite web |url= http://www.aranews.net/2016/09/turkey-bombs-kurdish-positions-near-syrias-tel-abyad |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160923184851/http://aranews.net/2016/09/turkey-bombs-kurdish-positions-near-syrias-tel-abyad/ |url-status= dead |archive-date= September 23, 2016 |title= Turkey bombs Kurdish positions near Syria's Tel-Abyad |work= AraNews |date= 22 September 2016}} Tell Abyad was also a hub for Combined Joint Task Force – Operation Inherent Resolve training of new SDF recruits in the fight against ISIL in Syria.{{cite news|date=7 January 2017|title=U.S. military aid is fueling big ambitions for Syria's leftist Kurdish militia|newspaper=The Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/us-military-aid-is-fueling-big-ambitions-for-syrias-leftist-kurdish-militia/2017/01/07/6e457866-c79f-11e6-acda-59924caa2450_story.html}} On 27 November 2018, as a part of a deconfliction initiative with Turkish forces in the area, the US set up an observation post in Tal Abyad.{{cite news|date=27 November 2018|title=Kurdistan 24 captures completion of first US observation post on Syria-Turkey border|work=Kurdistan 24|url=http://www.kurdistan24.net/en/news/d1868d74-26e6-4609-917d-325b8f1d9a21}}

In October 2017, it was reported that Tell Abyad was to be included into the Euphrates Region, consisting of the Kobane Canton and the Tell Abyad Canton.{{Cite web|date=2017-08-18|title=Euphrates region within the administrative division {{!}} ANHA|url=http://en.hawarnews.com/euphrates-region-within-the-administrative-division/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170818030323/http://en.hawarnews.com/euphrates-region-within-the-administrative-division/|url-status=dead|archive-date=2017-08-18|access-date=2020-06-26}} Tell Abyad stayed a part of the canton until the Turkish offensive into north-eastern Syria.{{Cite web|title=US-Turkish Joint Patrol East of Gire Spi Canton Archives|url=https://pydrojava.org/english/tag/us-turkish-joint-patrol-east-of-gire-spi-canton/|access-date=2021-02-24|website=Democratic Union Party (PYD)|language=en-US}} The SDF announced the creation of the Military Council of Tell Abyad in June 2019.{{Cite web|last=sdf1|date=2019-06-17|title=The forces of Tal Abyad announced the establishment of their military council|url=https://sdf-press.com/en/2019/06/the-forces-of-tal-abyad-announced-the-establishment-of-their-military-council/|access-date=2020-07-03|language=en-US}}

File:Barış Pınarı Hârekatı'nda Tel Abyad bombalanıyor.jpg.]]

As part of the Turkish offensive into north-eastern Syria, Turkey launched airstrikes and fired artillery at SDF position inside the town. Social media images posted displayed Syrians fleeing the town. Two civilians were killed and others were wounded as part of the offensive according to The New York Times.{{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/10/09/world/middleeast/turkey-attacks-syria.html|title=Turkey Launches Offensive Against U.S.-Backed Syrian Militia|website=The New York Times|date=11 October 2019}}

On 13 October 2019, as part of the 2019 Turkish offensive into north-eastern Syria, Turkish Armed Forces and the Syrian National Army captured Tell Abyad, and many villages in the district from the SDF.{{cite web|url=https://www.dailysabah.com/war-on-terror/2019/10/13/turkish-army-liberates-tel-abyads-suluk-village-from-terrorists|title=Turkish army liberates Tel Abyad's Suluk village from terrorists|work=Daily Sabah|access-date=October 13, 2019}} On October 28, a local council was formed.{{Cite web|url=http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/local-council-set-up-in-terror-free-tal-abyad-148021|title=Local council set up in terror-free Tal Abyad in Syria - World News|website=Hürriyet Daily News}}

Following the capture of Tell Abyad, Turkey imposed direct rule over the town{{Cite book|url=https://www.ecfr.eu/publications/summary/a_new_gaza_turkeys_border_policy_in_northern_syria|title=A new Gaza: Turkey's border policy in northern Syria|language=en}} and the Governor of Sanlıurfa has appointed a Turkish led administration to Tell Abyad.{{Cite web|title=Turkey appoints governors in recently invaded northern Syrian towns – Rudaw|url=https://ahvalnews.com/syria/turkey-appoints-governors-recently-invaded-northern-syrian-towns-rudaw|access-date=2020-06-22|website=Ahval|language=en}} The Governorate also stated it would provide a Syrian police trained by the Turkish authorities to the area.{{Cite web|title=Turkey to appoint 4,000 police officers to Syria|url=https://ahvalnews.com/turkey-syria/turkey-appoint-4000-police-officers-syria|access-date=2020-06-22|website=Ahval|language=en}} The UN High Commissioner on Human Rights Michelle Bachelet, reported that in Tell Abyad the forces supported by Turkey would incur in widespread human rights violations and urged Turkey to initiate an investigation of the matter.{{Cite web|date=2020-09-18|title=UN rights chief calls for Turkey to probe violations in northern Syria|url=https://news.un.org/en/story/2020/09/1072752|access-date=2020-09-21|website=UN News|language=en}}

On April 30, 2023, During the diffusion of explosives planted by PKK, two Turkish and one Syrian policemen lost their lives, and 11 policemen, 7 of them Turkish, were injured.{{Cite web |date=30 April 2023 |title=Suriye'nin Tel Abyad kentinde patlama: 2 polis şehit |url=https://t24.com.tr/haber/suriye-nin-tel-abyad-kentinde-patlama-2-polis-sehit,1107107 |access-date=30 April 2023 |website=T24 |language=Turkish}}

File:Tal Abyad nahiyah.svg and the Tell Abyad District.]]

According to multiple sources, the majority of the inhabitants of Tell Abyad and Tell Abyad District are Arabs,{{cite web |url=http://carnegieendowment.org/syriaincrisis/?fa=55607|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140703224231/http://carnegieendowment.org/syriaincrisis/?fa=55607|url-status=dead|archive-date=July 3, 2014|title= Arab Tribes Split Between Kurds And Jihadists|publisher=Carnegie Endowment for International Peace|date=2015 |access-date= 26 June 2015 }} with a Kurdish,{{cite web|title=Kurds eye new corridor to Mediterranean|url=http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2015/06/turkey-syria-kurdish-corridor-in-the-making-kobane.html|website=Al-Monitor}} Turkmen{{cite web|title=US Expresses Concerns About PYD Human Rights |url=http://www.basnews.com/en/news/2015/06/13/us-expresses-concerns-about-pyd-human-rights-violations-in-syrian-kurdistan/ |website=BasNews |access-date=26 June 2015 |url-status=unfit |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150806022120/http://www.basnews.com/en/news/2015/06/13/us-expresses-concerns-about-pyd-human-rights-violations-in-syrian-kurdistan/ |archive-date=August 6, 2015 }} and Armenian minority.{{cite news|title=PanARMENIAN.Net - Mobile|url=http://panarmenian.net/m/eng/news/194632|access-date=14 May 2016|work=panarmenian.net}}{{cite news|title=Surviving Aleppo: An Interview with Nerses Sarkissian|url=http://armenianweekly.com/2015/12/09/surviving-aleppo/|access-date=14 May 2016|work=Armenian Weekly|date=9 December 2015}}{{cite news|title=BasNews |url=http://www.basnews.com/en/news/2015/06/13/us-expresses-concerns-about-pyd-human-rights-violations-in-syrian-kurdistan/ |access-date=11 May 2016 |date=6 August 2015 |url-status=unfit |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150806022120/http://www.basnews.com/en/news/2015/06/13/us-expresses-concerns-about-pyd-human-rights-violations-in-syrian-kurdistan/ |archive-date=August 6, 2015 }}

The Germany-based internet portal KurdWatch reports that Tell Abyad is mainly populated by Arabs, and estimates that in the environs of Tell Abyad, 15% of the population is Turkmen, 10% Kurdish, and the rest being Arabs.{{cite web|title=Ethnic cleansing in Tall Abyad?|url=http://www.kurdwatch.org/pdf/KurdWatch_A011_en_TallAbyad.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160404201040/http://www.kurdwatch.org/pdf/KurdWatch_A011_en_TallAbyad.pdf|url-status=usurped|archive-date=April 4, 2016|website=Kurdwatch|access-date=14 May 2016|date=January 2016}} Other sources claim that Kurds make up 25%-30%.{{cite news|title=YPG's greatest challenge: Kurdish-Arab relations in Syria|url=http://www.middleeasteye.net/in-depth/features/ypgs-greatest-challenge-kurdish-arab-relations-northern-syria-1000464050|access-date=14 May 2016|work=Middle East Eye}} In addition, there are many Turkmen families residing in the city center.Günümüzde Suriye Türkmenleri {{in lang|tr}} — [https://web.archive.org/web/20151005153702/http://www.orsam.org.tr/tr/trUploads/Yazilar/Dosyalar/2013320_83t.pdf Suriye’de Değişimin Ortaya Çıkardığı Toplum: Suriye Türkmenleri, p. 20] ORSAM Rapor № 83. ORSAM – Ortadoğu Türkmenleri Programı Rapor № 14. Ankara — November 2011, 33 pages. The Kurdish minority is concentrated in the west of the town and two small pockets in the countryside immediately to the east and west of town, while a small pocket of Turkman minority exists to the south of the town.

The Arab residents of the town itself belong mainly to the Baggara tribe. Several Arab tribes live in the countryside surrounding the town; Naim (to the east), Annaza (to the southeast), Jays (to the southeast, south and west) and Hannada (immediate south of the town). The Jays tribe is a powerful tribe in the town with strong ties to Turkey and a former political ally of Bashar al Assad.

The Democratic Union Party (PYD) formed a council of elders in Tell Abyad which has the task to administer the region and which is said to be "a fair representation of the ethnic composition of the town" and the Arab majority population. It consisted of 15 people, of which were ten Arabs, three Kurds and respectively one Armenian and one Turkmen.{{Dead link|date=August 2022}}

The town was connected with Istanbul and Baghdad through the Baghdad Railway.{{Cite book|last=Christensen|first=Peter H.|title=Germany and the Ottoman Railways: Art, Empire, and Infrastructure|date=2017-10-24|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-22847-2|pages=22|language=en}}{{Cite book|last=Kerr|first=Stanley Elphinstone|title=The Lions of Marash|date=1973-01-01|publisher=SUNY Press|isbn=978-1-4384-0882-8|pages=215|language=en}}

• Tell Sabi Abyad

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