Turkish occupation of northern Syria

{{Further|Turkish involvement in the Syrian civil war|Islamic State-related terrorist attacks in Turkey}}

File:Rojava february2014 2.png (light blue) for several years.]]

Turkey and the Syrian opposition proposed the creation of a safe zone, that includes some regions of northern Syria as early as May 2011.{{cite news |title=Suriyeli muhalifler Antalya'da buluşuyor |url=https://www.cnnturk.com/dunya/suriyeli-muhalifler-antalyada-bulusuyor |access-date=7 December 2022 |publisher=CNN Türk |date=31 May 2011}} However the United States and the other western states were not willing to accept these plans.{{cite web|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/europe/2013/05/201351076615828.html|title=Turkey PM 'will support' Syria no-fly zone|access-date=31 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160801215110/http://www.aljazeera.com/news/europe/2013/05/201351076615828.html|archive-date=1 August 2016|url-status=live}}{{cite web|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2012/08/2012812233833353319.html|title=Syrian opposition calls for no-fly zone|access-date=31 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304132736/http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2012/08/2012812233833353319.html|archive-date=4 March 2016|url-status=live}} After the 2014 advancements of ISIL in Iraq, Turkey and United States negotiated a 'safe zone', while US accepted 'ISIL-free zone', US officials were reluctant to accept a no fly zone.{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/jul/27/syrian-safe-zone-us-relents-to-turkish-demands-border-crisis-kurd-uk-military|title=Syrian safe zone: US relents to Turkish demands after border crisis grows|first=Simon|last=Tisdall|website=TheGuardian.com|date=27 July 2015|access-date=31 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160505212814/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/jul/27/syrian-safe-zone-us-relents-to-turkish-demands-border-crisis-kurd-uk-military|archive-date=5 May 2016|url-status=live}}{{cite web|url=http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/us-and-turkey-agree-to-forge-isil-free-zone-in-syria-official-confirms.aspx?pageID=238&nID=86010&NewsCatID=510|title=DIPLOMACY – US and Turkey agree to forge 'ISIL-free zone' in Syria, official confirms|date=29 July 2015 |access-date=31 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160722212206/http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/us-and-turkey-agree-to-forge-isil-free-zone-in-syria-official-confirms.aspx?pageID=238&nID=86010&NewsCatID=510|archive-date=22 July 2016|url-status=live}}

After the attacks of ISIL in Syria, tens of thousands of Syrians fled to Turkey. In the beginning of 2015, refugees began to cross the Greece–Turkey border, escaping to European countries in large numbers. The huge refugee flow resulted in reconsidering the creation of a safe zone for civilians in Syria.{{cite web|url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/try-it-now/try-it-now-world-insider/?contentRedirect=true&articleId=26323797&referrer=https://www.google.com.tr/|title=Solution to refugee crisis is to end Syria's civil war, UN official says|website=The Globe and Mail|access-date=31 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170410215840/http://www.theglobeandmail.com/try-it-now/try-it-now-world-insider/?contentRedirect=true&articleId=26323797&referrer=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com.tr%2F|archive-date=10 April 2017|url-status=live}} In February 2016, Chancellor of Germany Angela Merkel said, "In the current situation it would be helpful if there could be such an area where none of the parties are allowed to launch aerial attacks – that is to say, a kind of no-fly zone".{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/feb/16/turkey-safe-zone-syria-refugees-russian-airstrikes|title=Turkey revives plan for safe zone in Syria to stem flow of refugees|first=Patrick|last=Wintour|website=TheGuardian.com|date=16 February 2016|access-date=31 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160517201946/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/feb/16/turkey-safe-zone-syria-refugees-russian-airstrikes|archive-date=17 May 2016|url-status=live}}

{{Further|Northern Syria Buffer Zone}}

The creation of the safe zone failed in early 2016 due to disagreements between the United States and Turkish governments, primarily on which actor is to be eliminated first. While Turkey wanted the Syrian government to be overthrown as soon as possible, the US prioritized the war against ISIL. The US also feared that the Syrian Air Force would bomb the area, which would make the idea of a safe zone impracticable. The government rejected the safe zone for being a safe haven for both civilians and rebels.{{Cite web |title=Country Reports on Terrorism 2019 |url=https://www.state.gov/reports/country-reports-on-terrorism-2019/ |access-date=2025-02-05 |website=United States Department of State |language=en-US}}

File:Turkish Army Captured Afrin 01.jpg and Syrian National Army fighters at the building in Afrin that had hosted the PYD-led government of Afrin Region, 18 March 2018]]

The outline of the safe zone was another reason for the disagreement. According to Turkey, the safe zone should include a no fly zone, whereas the US rejected establishing a no-fly zone, which would bring a conflict with the Syrian government.{{cite web|url=http://nationalsecurityzone.org/site/u-s-reluctant-to-declare-safe-zone-along-turkey-syria-border/|title=National Security Zone|work=Medill National Security Zone |date=24 August 2015 |access-date=31 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925025324/http://nationalsecurityzone.org/site/u-s-reluctant-to-declare-safe-zone-along-turkey-syria-border/|archive-date=25 September 2015|url-status=live}}

Turkey designates the Kurdish YPG to be a threat, due to its strong ties with the PKK. On the other hand, the US said that although they deem the PKK as a terrorist organisation, the YPG is a distinct actor, constituting one of the main allies of the US in its war against ISIL.{{cite web|url=http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/tr/originals/2014/09/turkey-kurdistan-iraq-syria-us-isis-pkk-global-legitimacy.html|title=Fight against IS helps PKK gain global legitimacy – Al-Monitor: the Pulse of the Middle East|date=16 September 2014|access-date=31 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304092342/http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/tr/originals/2014/09/turkey-kurdistan-iraq-syria-us-isis-pkk-global-legitimacy.html|archive-date=4 March 2016|url-status=live}}

Another debate was about the name of the safe zone. While Turkey called the zone a 'safe zone from ISIS, the Syrian regime and YPG,' the US, however, declared that they will only accept an 'ISIS-free zone'.{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-turkey-usa-idUSKCN0QG1UG20150811|title=U.S. denies reaching agreement with Turkey on Syria 'safe zone'|date=11 August 2015|access-date=31 May 2016|newspaper=Reuters|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160312171638/http://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-turkey-usa-idUSKCN0QG1UG20150811|archive-date=12 March 2016|url-status=live}}

{{Missing information|Operation Euphrates Shield, Olive Branch and Dawn of Freedom|date=December 2024}}

{{main|2019 Turkish offensive into north-eastern Syria}}

On 30 March 2018, Turkey's president Recep Tayyip Erdoğan stated that Turkey had started preparations to clear northern Syria's "Ayn al-Arab" (Kobane), Ras al-Ain, Tell Abyad and Al-Hasakah regions from militants (referring to the mainly Kurdish YPG forces) up to the Iraqi border, adding that it would also clear militants from Iraq (this time referring to the Kurdish terrorist organisation, PKK).{{Cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/reuters/2018/03/30/world/europe/30reuters-mideast-crisis-syria-turkey-erdogan.html|title=Turkey Started Preparations for Further Operations in Northern Syria: Erdoğan, New York Times, March 30th, 2018.|website=The New York Times|access-date=31 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180331104836/https://www.nytimes.com/reuters/2018/03/30/world/europe/30reuters-mideast-crisis-syria-turkey-erdogan.html|archive-date=31 March 2018|url-status=live}}

On 7 October 2019, the President Trump ordered the withdrawal of US military troops stationed on the Syria–Turkey border. This withdrawal of military support was ordered by President Trump with the disapproval of the Pentagon and the US Intelligence community.{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=7 October 2019|title=US begins troop withdrawal from northeastern Syria ahead of Turkish offensive|url=https://www.dw.com/en/us-begins-troop-withdrawal-from-northeastern-syria-ahead-of-turkish-offensive/a-50719681|access-date=30 July 2021|website=Deutsche Welle|language=en-GB|archive-date=30 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210730103057/https://www.dw.com/en/us-begins-troop-withdrawal-from-northeastern-syria-ahead-of-turkish-offensive/a-50719681|url-status=live}}{{Cite news|last1=Barnes|first1=Julian E.|last2=Schmitt|first2=Eric|date=13 October 2019|title=Trump Orders Withdrawal of U.S. Troops From Northern Syria|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/10/13/us/politics/mark-esper-syria-kurds-turkey.html|access-date=30 July 2021|issn=0362-4331}} The US president ordered the withdrawal of military troops under the premise that Turkey would not invade the region being held by Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF); however Turkey attacked the SDF within two days of US military withdrawal from the region.{{Cite web|date=9 October 2019|title=Turkey unleashes airstrikes against Kurds in north-east Syria|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/oct/09/turkey-launches-military-operation-in-northern-syria-erdogan|access-date=30 July 2021|website=the Guardian|language=en|archive-date=9 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191009140114/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/oct/09/turkey-launches-military-operation-in-northern-syria-erdogan|url-status=live}}

{{main|Operation Spring Shield}}

A cross-border military operation began on 27 February 2020 by the Turkish Armed Forces (TSK) against the Syrian Armed Forces and allied militias in the Idlib Governorate of northwestern Syria{{cite web|url=https://www.dailysabah.com/politics/turkey-launches-operation-spring-shield-in-syrias-idlib/news|title=Turkey launches Operation Spring Shield against regime aggression in Syria|location=Istanbul|publisher=Daily Sabah|date=1 March 2020|access-date=7 June 2022|archive-date=1 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200301113800/https://www.dailysabah.com/politics/turkey-launches-operation-spring-shield-in-syrias-idlib/news|url-status=live}} in response to the Balyun airstrikes which lead to the deaths of 34 Turkish military servicemen.{{cite web|url=https://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2020/03/operation-spring-shield-clash-turkey-syrian-arab-army-idlib.html|title=Turkey launches Operation Spring Shield against Syrian forces|author=Amberin Zaman|publisher=Al-Monitor|date=1 March 2020|access-date=7 June 2022|archive-date=13 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210313185651/https://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2020/03/operation-spring-shield-clash-turkey-syrian-arab-army-idlib.html|url-status=live}}{{cite web|url=https://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2020/03/turkeys-operation-spring-shield-delivers-blow-to-hezbollah.php|title=Turkey's Operation "Spring Shield" delivers blow to Hezbollah|publisher=Longwarjournal.org|date=5 March 2020|author=Joe Truzman|access-date=7 June 2022|archive-date=30 May 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220530090108/https://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2020/03/turkeys-operation-spring-shield-delivers-blow-to-hezbollah.php|url-status=live}} Turkish Defense Minister Hulusi Akar said that the purpose of the operation had been within the framework of the Astana talks, to ensure a ceasefire agreement in the Second Northern Syria Buffer Zone and to prevent migration from Idlib towards the Turkish border. On 5 March, Turkey and Russia signed a ceasefire agreement in Moscow.{{cite web|url=https://www.milliyet.com.tr/gundem/rusyadan-idlib-aciklamasi-ateskes-duzenlemesine-genel-olarak-uyuluyor-6164473|title=Rusya'dan İdlib açıklaması: Ateşkes düzenlemesine genel olarak uyuluyor|date=12 March 2020|location=Ankara|publisher=Milliyet|language=tr|access-date=7 June 2022|archive-date=7 June 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220607082456/https://www.milliyet.com.tr/gundem/rusyadan-idlib-aciklamasi-ateskes-duzenlemesine-genel-olarak-uyuluyor-6164473|url-status=live}}

In May 2022 Turkish and opposition Syrian officials said that Turkey's Armed Forces and the Syrian National Army are planning a new operation against the SDF, composed mostly of the YPG/YPJ.{{Cite web |date=5 June 2022 |title=Turkey planned Syria military operation after Russia withdrawal, sources reveal |url=https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20220605-turkey-planned-syria-military-operation-after-russia-withdrawal-sources-reveal/ |access-date=8 June 2022 |website=Middle East Monitor |language=en-GB |archive-date=5 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220605082611/https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20220605-turkey-planned-syria-military-operation-after-russia-withdrawal-sources-reveal/ |url-status=live }}{{Cite web |title=Syria: US-backed SDF 'open' to working with Syrian troops to fight off Turkey invasion |url=http://www.middleeasteye.net/news/syria-sdf-open-working-syrian-troops-fight-turkey-invasion |access-date=8 June 2022 |website=Middle East Eye |language=en |archive-date=5 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220605135451/http://www.middleeasteye.net/news/syria-sdf-open-working-syrian-troops-fight-turkey-invasion |url-status=live }} The new operation is set to resume efforts to create 30-kilometer (18.6-mile) wide "safe zones" along Turkey's border with Syria, President Erdoğan said in a statement.{{Cite web |last=Agencies |date=7 June 2022 |title=Russian, regime forces boosted after Turkey signals Syria operation |url=https://www.dailysabah.com/politics/diplomacy/russian-regime-forces-boosted-after-turkey-signals-syria-operation |access-date=8 June 2022 |website=Daily Sabah |language=en-US |archive-date=7 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220607153400/https://www.dailysabah.com/politics/diplomacy/russian-regime-forces-boosted-after-turkey-signals-syria-operation |url-status=live }} The operation aims at the Tal Rifaat and Manbij regions west of the Euphrates and other areas further east. Meanwhile, Ankara is in talks with Moscow over the operation. President Erdoğan reiterated his determination for the operation on 8 August 2022.{{Cite web |title=President Erdoğan reiterates determination for Syria operation – Türkiye News |url=https://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/president-erdogan-reiterates-determination-for-syria-operation-175967 |access-date=9 August 2022 |website=Hürriyet Daily News |date=8 August 2022 |language=en |archive-date=8 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220808160100/https://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/president-erdogan-reiterates-determination-for-syria-operation-175967 |url-status=live }}{{update inline|date=February 2023}}

{{Main|Turkish offensive in northern Syria (2024–present)}}

Turkey and the Turkish-backed Syrian National Army (SNA) launched an offensive against the Kurdish-led Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF) amid the fall of the Assad regime. Beginning on 30 November 2024 with Operation Dawn of Freedom, the offensive aims to expand Turkish-controlled territory. Major battles include the 2024 Manbij offensive and the 2024 Kobani clashes, with ongoing fighting into 2025.{{cite news |title='We are still at war': Syria's Kurds battle Turkey months after Assad's fall |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/c4g0w0x28yxo |work=BBC |date=25 February 2025}}

The territory of the Turkish-occupied region is located within the northern areas of Aleppo, Raqqa and Hasakah governorates. On 26 February 2018, the territory connected with the mostly rebel-held Idlib Governorate.{{Cite web|url=http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/turkey-reconnects-opposition-held-areas-in-northern-syria-127949|title=Turkey reconnects opposition-held areas in northern Syria – Turkey News|website=Hürriyet Daily News|date=27 February 2018 |access-date=12 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180919064714/http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/turkey-reconnects-opposition-held-areas-in-northern-syria-127949|archive-date=19 September 2018|url-status=live}}

The Syrian National Army captured an area of 2,225 square kilometres during Operation Euphrates Shield.{{Cite web|url=http://www.aljazeera.com.tr/haber/el-bab-kontrol-altina-alinmistir|title=El Bâb kontrol altına alınmıştır|website=Al Jazeera Turk – Ortadoğu, Kafkasya, Balkanlar, Türkiye ve çevresindeki bölgeden son dakika haberleri ve analizler|date=3 May 2017 |access-date=12 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181009052759/http://www.aljazeera.com.tr/haber/el-bab-kontrol-altina-alinmistir|archive-date=9 October 2018|url-status=live}} Areas captured during the operation included villages between Azaz and al-Rai, such as Kafr Kalbin; Kafrah; Sawran; Ihtaimlat; Dabiq; Turkman Bareh; Kafr Elward; Ghoz; Ghaytun; Akhtarin; Baruza; Tall Tanah; Kaljibrin; Qebbet al-Turkmen; Ghandoura; Arab Hassan Sabghir; Mahsenli; Qabasin and Halwanji.

Following Operation Olive Branch, Syrian National Army extended the region with the capture of the entire Afrin District.{{Cite web|url=http://www.middleeasteye.net/news/turkey-takes-full-control-syrias-afrin-region-reports-say|title=Turkey takes full control of Syria's Afrin region, reports say|website=Middle East Eye|access-date=12 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191014030816/https://www.middleeasteye.net/news/turkey-takes-full-control-syrias-afrin-region-reports-say|archive-date=14 October 2019|url-status=live}} In addition to its administrative centre Afrin, the district includes settlements such as Bulbul, Maabatli, Rajo, Jindires, Sharran and Shaykh al-Hadid. According to the 2004 Syrian census, the district had a population of 172,095 before the war.{{cite web |title=General Census of Population and Housing 2004 |url=http://www.cbssyr.sy/General%20census/census%202004/pop-man.pdf |publisher=Syrian Central Bureau of Statistics |language=ar |access-date=15 October 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208115353/http://www.cbssyr.sy/General%20census/census%202004/pop-man.pdf |archive-date=8 December 2015 }} Also available in English: {{cite web |title=2004 Census Data |url=https://www.humanitarianresponse.info/en/operations/syria/dataset/syrian-arab-republic-other |publisher=UN OCHA |access-date=15 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117015407/https://www.humanitarianresponse.info/en/operations/syria/dataset/syrian-arab-republic-other |archive-date=17 November 2015 |url-status=live }}

During Operation Peace Spring, Turkish Armed Forces and its allies captured a total area of between {{convert|3412|km2}}{{Cite web|url=http://www.syriahr.com/en/?p=145689|title=The Turkish forces and the factions advance and take control of about 10 villages in Abu Rasin area (Zarkan) amid the continuation of fierce clashes against the regime forces and tens of casualties and wounded in the ranks of both parties|date=29 October 2019|access-date=2 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191207135905/http://www.syriahr.com/en/?p=145689|archive-date=7 December 2019|url-status=live}} and {{convert|4220|km2}},{{Cite web|url=https://www.aa.com.tr/en/turkey/ypg-pkk-terror-group-as-dangerous-as-daesh-erdogan/1625176|title=YPG/PKK terror group as dangerous as Daesh: Erdogan|access-date=2 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191026151100/https://www.aa.com.tr/en/turkey/ypg-pkk-terror-group-as-dangerous-as-daesh-erdogan/1625176|archive-date=26 October 2019|url-status=live}} and 68 settlements, including Ras al-Ayn, Tell Abyad, Suluk, Mabrouka and Manajir and cut the M4 highway.{{Cite web|url=http://www.syriahr.com/en/?p=144313|title=8 days of Operation "Peace Spring": Turkey controls 68 areas, "Ras al-Ain" under siege, and 416 dead among the SDF, Turkish forces and Turkish-backed factions|date=17 October 2019|access-date=2 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191220053236/http://www.syriahr.com/en/?p=144313|archive-date=20 December 2019|url-status=live}}{{Cite news|url=http://www.syriahr.com/?p=342499|title=القوات التركية والفصائل تحاصر مدينة رأس العين (سري كانييه) بشكل كامل، ولا صحة لسيطرة "النظام السوري" على سجون قوات سوريا الديمقراطية ضمن المناطق التي انتشرت بها|website=SOHR|language=Arabic|date=17 October 2019|access-date=2 November 2019|archive-date=10 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191110014044/http://www.syriahr.com/?p=342499|url-status=live}}{{Cite web|url=http://www.syriahr.com/?p=343053|title=قوات سوريا الديمقراطية تنسحب من كامل مدينة رأس العين (سري كانييه) • المرصد السوري لحقوق الإنسان|date=20 October 2019|access-date=2 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191026002207/http://www.syriahr.com/?p=343053|archive-date=26 October 2019|url-status=live}} SNA forces captured 3 villages in the Manbij countryside shortly after the launch of the operation.{{Cite web|url=https://www.yenisafak.com/dunya/menbice-operasyon-basladi-3-koy-ypgden-temizlendi-3510373|title=Menbiç'e operasyon başladı: 3 köy YPG'den temizlendi|date=14 October 2019|website=Yeni Şafak|access-date=2 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191110014020/https://www.yenisafak.com/dunya/menbice-operasyon-basladi-3-koy-ypgden-temizlendi-3510373|archive-date=10 November 2019|url-status=live}}

There are further intentions by the Turkish government to include the areas captured by the Syrian Democratic Forces during their offensive west of the Euphrates into the safe zone, which includes settlements such as Manbij and Arima.{{Cite news|last=|first=|date=|title=EU Concerned Over Politicians Detention in Turkey|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/europe/eu-concerned-over-politicians-detention-in-turkey/2016/10/26/5a761f12-9b52-11e6-b552-b1f85e484086_story.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181203154447/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/europe/eu-concerned-over-politicians-detention-in-turkey/2016/10/26/5a761f12-9b52-11e6-b552-b1f85e484086_story.html|archive-date=3 December 2018|access-date=10 April 2017|newspaper=Washington Post}}{{Cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-turkey-idUSKBN1H42QW|title=Turkey says will take action if militants do not leave Syria's Manbij|newspaper=Reuters|date=28 March 2018|via=www.reuters.com|access-date=10 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191010085722/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-turkey-idUSKBN1H42QW|archive-date=10 October 2019|url-status=live}}

Northern Syria, including the Turkish-controlled region, has historically been ethnically highly diverse, inhabited predominately by Arabs, Kurds, Turkmens, Yazidis, and Circassians.{{sfnp|Morton|2020|pp=122–123, 167}}{{sfnp|Vanly|1992|p=116}} As of 2020, Arabs constituted a majority in the Turkish-controlled areas.{{cite web |url=https://ecfr.eu/publication/a_new_gaza_turkeys_border_policy_in_northern_syria/ |title=A new Gaza: Turkey's border policy in northern Syria |author=Asli Aydıntaşbaş |date=28 May 2020 |accessdate=10 February 2021 |archive-date=12 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210112191602/https://ecfr.eu/publication/a_new_gaza_turkeys_border_policy_in_northern_syria/ |url-status=live }} Before the Turkish occupation, the al-Bab area had an Arab majority, while the Afrin area had a Kurdish majority.{{cite web |url=https://cadmus.eui.eu/bitstream/handle/1814/63745/MED_2019_10.pdf?sequence=3&isAllowed=y |title=Afrin Under Turkish Control: Political, Economic and Social Transformations |author=Khayrallah al-Hilu |date=2019 |accessdate=10 February 2021 |archive-date=26 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201226164258/https://cadmus.eui.eu/bitstream/handle/1814/63745/MED_2019_10.pdf?sequence=3&isAllowed=y |url-status=live }}{{cite journal |url=https://www.swp-berlin.org/10.18449/2020C01/ |title=Repatriation to Turkey's "Safe Zone" in Northeast Syria |date=1 January 2020 |doi=10.18449/2020C01 |accessdate=10 February 2021 |last1=Adar |first1=Sinem |author2=Stiftung Wissenschaft Und Politik |journal=SWP Comment |archive-date=23 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210123234130/https://www.swp-berlin.org/10.18449/2020C01/ |url-status=live }} Tell Abyad was mostly Arab,{{cite web |url=https://www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/tal-abyad-achilles-heel-syrian-kurdish-belt |title=The district's ethnic composition and wartime migrations make it the weakest point of the YPG defense system, and the most likely entryway for Turkish troops and their proxies. |author=Fabrice Balanche |date=21 December 2018 |accessdate=10 February 2021 |archive-date=11 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210211105702/https://www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/tal-abyad-achilles-heel-syrian-kurdish-belt |url-status=live }} while Ras al-Ayn was dominated by Kurds.{{cite web |url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2019/12/19/who-exactly-is-turkey-resettling-in-syria/ |title=Who Exactly Is Turkey Resettling in Syria? |author=Tessa Fox |date=19 December 2019 |accessdate=10 February 2021 |archive-date=3 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210203152206/https://foreignpolicy.com/2019/12/19/who-exactly-is-turkey-resettling-in-syria/ |url-status=live }} However, all these areas were strongly affected by refugee shifts and population movement due to the civil war, making accurate demographic estimates difficult.{{cite web |url=https://carnegieendowment.org/sada/2019/02/turkeys-lack-of-vision-in-syria?lang=en |title=Turkey's Lack of Vision in Syria |author=Ferhat Gurini |work=Carnegie Endowment for International Peace |date=26 February 2019 |access-date=10 February 2021 |archive-date=2 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210302031054/https://carnegieendowment.org/sada/78450 |url-status=live }} Great numbers of Syrian refugees moved voluntarily or involuntarily into these areas after the Turkish intervention.

The population of the Turkish-dominated territories is generally Muslim, with the Euphrates Shield zone as well as Tell Abyad being deeply conservative in regards to religion. There were some Christian communities in the later Turkish-occupied areas: A small Evangelical Christian community existed in Afrin, while Christians (mostly Syrian Armenians and Assyrians) lived in Tell Abyad and Ras al-Ayn. These Christians generally fled in advance for fear of reprisal.{{cite web |url=https://www.nationalreview.com/2019/10/turkey-invades-northeast-syria-christians-there-are-on-the-brink/ |title=As Turkey Invades Northeast Syria, Christians There Are on the Brink. |author=Sam Sweeney |website=National Review |date=31 October 2019 |accessdate=18 March 2022 |archive-date=19 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220319002206/https://www.nationalreview.com/2019/10/turkey-invades-northeast-syria-christians-there-are-on-the-brink/ |url-status=live }}{{cite news |url=https://www.npr.org/2019/10/09/768697873/evangelical-christian-leaders-push-back-on-turkish-invasion-of-northern-syria?t=1612977917626 |title=Christian Leaders Say Turkish Invasion Of Syria Raises Risk Of 'Genocide' |author=Tom Gjelten |newspaper=NPR.org |date=9 October 2019 |accessdate=10 February 2021 |archive-date=3 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211103230039/https://www.npr.org/2019/10/09/768697873/evangelical-christian-leaders-push-back-on-turkish-invasion-of-northern-syria?t=1612977917626 |url-status=live }}

{{Further|Human rights violations during the Syrian civil war|Turkish war crimes}}

After the Turkish-led forces had captured Afrin District (Afrin Canton) in early 2018, they began to implement a resettlement policy by moving their mostly Arab fighters{{cite web |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/syria-yazidis-isis-islam-conversion-afrin-persecution-kurdish-a8310696.html |title=Yazidis who suffered under Isis face forced conversion to Islam amid fresh persecution in Afrin |author=Patrick Cockburn |work=The Independent |date=18 April 2018 |access-date=23 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190613173746/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/syria-yazidis-isis-islam-conversion-afrin-persecution-kurdish-a8310696.html |archive-date=13 June 2019 |url-status=live }} and refugees from southern Syria{{cite web |url=https://syriadirect.org/news/seizing-lands-from-afrin%e2%80%99s-displaced-kurds-turkish-backed-militias-offer-houses-to-east-ghouta-families/ |title=Seizing lands from Afrin's displaced Kurds, Turkish-backed militias offer houses to East Ghouta families |author1=Ammar Hamou |author2=Barrett Limoges |work=SYRIA:direct |date=1 May 2018 |access-date=23 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190413194307/https://syriadirect.org/news/seizing-lands-from-afrin%E2%80%99s-displaced-kurds-turkish-backed-militias-offer-houses-to-east-ghouta-families/ |archive-date=13 April 2019 |url-status=live }} into the empty homes that belonged to displaced locals.{{cite news |title=Syria's war of ethnic cleansing: Kurds threatened with beheading by Turkey's allies if they don't convert to extremism |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/syria-civil-war-assad-regime-turkey-afrin-kurds-eastern-ghouta-us-allies-militia-a8252456.html |work=The Independent |date=12 March 2018 |access-date=16 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190605203754/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/syria-civil-war-assad-regime-turkey-afrin-kurds-eastern-ghouta-us-allies-militia-a8252456.html |archive-date=5 June 2019 |url-status=live }} The previous owners, most of them Kurds or Yazidis, were often prevented from returning to Afrin. Though some Kurdish militias of the SNA and the Turkish-backed civilian councils opposed these resettlement policies, most SNA units fully supported them. Refugees from Eastern Ghouta, Damascus, said that they were part of "an organised demographic change" which was said to replace the Kurdish population of Afrin with an Arab majority. More than 200,000 people fled from Afrin District during the Turkish intervention by March 2018,"[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-afrin-official/more-than-200000-people-fled-syrias-afrin-have-no-shelter-kurdish-official-idUSKBN1GV177 More than 200,000 people fled Syria's Afrin, have no shelter: Kurdish official] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181125012207/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-afrin-official/more-than-200000-people-fled-syrias-afrin-have-no-shelter-kurdish-official-idUSKBN1GV177 |date=2018-11-25 }}". Reuters. 19 March 2018. while 458,000 displaced persons from other parts of Syria were settled in Afrin following the Turkish intervention.{{cite news |title=Afrin: Kurdish population more than halved since 2018 offensive, says rights group |url=https://www.rudaw.net/english/middleeast/syria/20042020 |access-date=6 May 2020 |publisher=Rudaw |date=20 April 2020 |archive-date=29 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200429170921/https://www.rudaw.net/english/middleeast/syria/20042020 |url-status=live }}

A report of the Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic,https://undocs.org/en/A/HRC/45/31 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200923115638/https://undocs.org/en/A/HRC/45/31 |date=23 September 2020 }}. Report of the Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic, 2020 submitted to the UN Human Rights Council pursuant to its resolution 43/28 for consideration at the 45th session of the Human Rights Council (commencing 14 September 2020), the Independent International Commission presents evidence of numerous human rights abuses against civilian population, and especially Kurdish civilian population, by the Turkish state and "non-state factions" such as the Syrian National Army, acting as de facto agents of Turkey. In paragraph 47, the Report addresses looting and property appropriation, noting that "{{Not a typo|[t]hroughout}} the Afrin region, multiple accounts indicate that the property of Kurdish owners was looted and appropriated by Syrian National Army members in a coordinated manner. For example, in September 2019, civilians in the Shaykh al-Hadid subdistrict (of the Afrin region) described how members of Division 14, Brigade 142 (the Suleiman Shah Brigade) of the Syrian National Army had gone from door to door instructing Kurdish families with fewer than three members to vacate their houses to accommodate individuals arriving from outside of Afrin."

It was reported that Yazidi and other Kurdish women and girls have been kidnapped by the SNA since the occupation of Afrin began in early 2018, either for ransom, rape, forced marriage, or because of perceived links to the Democratic Union Party.{{Cite web|url=https://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2020/06/syria-afrin-kidnappings-investigation-turkey-backed-rebels.html|title='An insult to women' everywhere: Afrin kidnappings prompt calls for investigation of Turkey-backed rebels|first=Elizabeth|last=Hagedorn|date=2 June 2020|website=Al-Monitor|access-date=31 July 2020|archive-date=7 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807054237/https://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2020/06/syria-afrin-kidnappings-investigation-turkey-backed-rebels.html|url-status=live}}{{Cite web |url=https://www.arabnews.com/node/1785076/middle-east |title=Abuses against Kurdish women in Afrin under Turkish Parliament radar |website=Syrians for Truth & Justice |date=31 December 2020 |access-date=23 March 2021 |archive-date=9 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210409071954/https://www.arabnews.com/node/1785076/middle-east |url-status=live }} It was alleged that many of them were later killed.{{Cite web|url=https://www.jpost.com/middle-east/kurdish-woman-reported-murdered-in-turkish-occupied-afrin-630705|title=Kurdish woman reportedly murdered in Turkish-occupied Afrin|website=The Jerusalem Post | JPost.com|date=8 June 2020 |access-date=31 July 2020|archive-date=31 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200731043820/https://www.jpost.com/middle-east/kurdish-woman-reported-murdered-in-turkish-occupied-afrin-630705|url-status=live}}{{Cite web|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/extremism-watch_rights-groups-concerned-about-continued-abuses-afrin/6190898.html|title=Rights Groups Concerned About Continued Abuses in Afrin|website=Voice of America|date=10 June 2020|access-date=31 July 2020|archive-date=7 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807103511/https://www.voanews.com/extremism-watch/rights-groups-concerned-about-continued-abuses-afrin|url-status=live}} This activity has been interpreted as part of an Islamist policy of discouraging women from leaving their homes and to remove them from the civic activity they had been encouraged to take part in under the Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria, as well as part of a broader plan to discourage the return of Yazidi and other Kurdish refugees who fled Afrin in 2018.{{Cite web|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/voices/erdogan-turkey-kurds-border-syria-war-trump-ethnic-cleansing-a9204581.html|title=Patrick Cockburn: Erdogan's ethnic cleansing of the Kurds is still happening now – and we have Trump to thank|date=15 November 2019|website=The Independent|access-date=31 July 2020|archive-date=25 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200825201300/https://www.independent.co.uk/voices/erdogan-turkey-kurds-border-syria-war-trump-ethnic-cleansing-a9204581.html|url-status=live}}{{Cite web|url=https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/north-africa-west-asia/looming-genocide-against-kurds-history-should-not-repeat-itself/|title=The looming genocide against the Kurds: history should not repeat itself|website=openDemocracy|access-date=31 July 2020|archive-date=21 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200721112218/https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/north-africa-west-asia/looming-genocide-against-kurds-history-should-not-repeat-itself/|url-status=live}}

This list includes some of the largest cities and towns in the region.

File:Mosque in A'zaz.jpg

{{further|Syrian Interim Government}}

The occupation zone is formally governed by the Syrian Interim Government, an alternative government of the Syrian opposition based in Azaz. Despite this, the area is governed by a number of autonomous local councils which work closely with Turkey.{{cite web |url=https://spectator.org/in-syria-its-either-reconciliation-or-annexation/ |title=In Syria, It's Either Reconciliation or Annexation |author=Aymenn Jawad Al-Tamimi |work=The American Spectator |date=23 August 2018 |access-date=26 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180826150221/https://spectator.org/in-syria-its-either-reconciliation-or-annexation/ |archive-date=26 August 2018 |url-status=live }}{{cite news |url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2018/07/13/turkey-has-made-a-quagmire-for-itself-in-syria/ |title=Turkey Has Made a Quagmire for Itself in Syria |author=Borzou Daragahi |work=Foreign Policy |date=13 July 2018 |access-date=28 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190410183816/https://foreignpolicy.com/2018/07/13/turkey-has-made-a-quagmire-for-itself-in-syria/ |archive-date=10 April 2019 |url-status=live }} These councils operate as a "Turkish-European style government". In general, Turkey exerts a direct influence on the region's government,{{cite news |url=http://syriadirect.org/news/what%E2%80%99s-next-for-post-islamic-state-syria-a-primer/ |title=What's next for post-Islamic State Syria? A month-long reporting series from Syria Direct |author1=Barrett Limoges |author2=Justin Clark |author3=Avery Edelman |work=Syria Direct, Konrad Adenauer Foundation |date=29 July 2018 |access-date=30 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180729204443/http://syriadirect.org/news/what%e2%80%99s-next-for-post-islamic-state-syria-a-primer/ |archive-date=29 July 2018 |url-status=live }} and Turkish civilian officials such as governors have been appointed to oversee the area.{{cite web |url=http://www.kurdistan24.net/en/news/67120420-5af6-4a57-bf58-de1c7c683049 |title=Turkish sub-governor found dead at office in Syria's occupied Jarabulus |author=Rawa Barwari |work=Kurdistan24 |date=13 January 2019 |access-date=14 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190114210120/http://www.kurdistan24.net/en/news/67120420-5af6-4a57-bf58-de1c7c683049 |archive-date=14 January 2019 |url-status=live }} Turkish officials mostly act as advisors, allowing the councils to run the day-to-day government and collect their own taxes. Overall, Turkey is in the process of forming a proto-state in northern Syria, and regional expert Joshua Landis has said that the country "is prepared to, in a sense, quasi-annex this region" to prevent it from being retaken by the Syrian government.{{cite web |url=https://syriadirect.org/news/as-syria%e2%80%99s-proxies-converge-on-idlib-what%e2%80%99s-next-for-turkey%e2%80%99s-northern-state-within-a-state/ |title=As Syria's proxies converge on Idlib, what's next for Turkey's northern state-within-a-state? |author=Madeline Edwards |work=SYRIA:direct and Konrad Adenauer Foundation |date=6 August 2018 |access-date=16 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180816130156/https://syriadirect.org/news/as-syria%e2%80%99s-proxies-converge-on-idlib-what%e2%80%99s-next-for-turkey%e2%80%99s-northern-state-within-a-state/ |archive-date=16 August 2018 |url-status=live }} Turkish Minister of the Interior Süleyman Soylu declared in January 2019 that northern Syria is "part of the Turkish homeland" per the Misak-ı Millî of 1920.

File:Bataille d'al-Bab 22 février 2017 (1).jpg has striven to rebuild destroyed areas under its control (pictured: devastated neighborhood of al-Bab) and restore civil society. ]]

Since the establishment of the occupation zone, the Turkish authorities have striven to restore civil society in the areas under their control{{Cite news |url=https://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2017/09/syrian-operation-euphrates-shield-fsa-armed-presence.html |title=FSA relocating to outside Syria's liberated areas |author=Khaled al-Khateb |work=al-Monitor |date=12 September 2017 |access-date=2 January 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180103013227/https://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2017/09/syrian-operation-euphrates-shield-fsa-armed-presence.html |archive-date=3 January 2018 |url-status=live }} and to also bind the region more closely to Turkey.{{cite web |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-turkey-currency/falling-lira-hits-syrian-enclave-backed-by-turkey-idUSKCN1LD195 |title=Falling lira hits Syrian enclave backed by Turkey |author=Khalil Ashawi |work=Reuters |date=28 August 2018 |access-date=31 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180831075700/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-turkey-currency/falling-lira-hits-syrian-enclave-backed-by-turkey-idUSKCN1LD195 |archive-date=31 August 2018 |url-status=live }}{{cite web |url=https://english.enabbaladi.net/archives/2018/08/from-afrin-to-jarabulus-a-small-replica-of-turkey-in-the-north/ |title=From Afrin to Jarabulus: A small replica of Turkey in the north |author=Enab Baladi's Investigation Team |work=Enab Baladi |date=29 August 2018 |access-date=31 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180831174629/https://english.enabbaladi.net/archives/2018/08/from-afrin-to-jarabulus-a-small-replica-of-turkey-in-the-north/ |archive-date=31 August 2018 |url-status=live }} As part of these efforts, towns and villages have been demilitarized by dismantling military checkpoints and moving the local militias to barracks and camps outside areas populated by civilians. However, some members of the military remain influential in the governance of the zone; for example, Hamza Division commander Sayf Balud serves as de facto military governor of al-Bab since 2017.{{sfn|Heras|2018|pp=14–15}}

Turkey also funds education and health services, supports the region's economy, and has trained a new police force. It has constructed a new hospital in al-Bab. Some locals describe these developments as "Turkification" of the region. However, many locals have accepted or even welcomed this, as they said that the area is better off economically, politically, and socially under a Turkish protectorate. The White Helmets volunteers entered Afrin region after Turkey occupied the area.{{cite news |title=White Helmets return to Afrin to mixed reception |url=https://www.kurdistan24.net/en/news/5820a186-bc70-40af-836a-7555811f145a |work=Kurdistan 24 |date=26 August 2018 |access-date=5 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191105084212/https://www.kurdistan24.net/en/news/5820a186-bc70-40af-836a-7555811f145a |archive-date=5 November 2019 |url-status=live }} For Turkish officials, restoring order and improving the situation in northern Syria was a "justice of fraternity" stemming from Ottoman times, as one deputy governor explained. The presence of Turkish soldiers prevents a Syrian government offensive into the area.{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/02/16/world/middleeast/syria-turkey-erdogan-afrin.html |title=In Turkey's Safe Zone in Syria, Security and Misery Go Hand in Hand |author=Carlotta Gall |work=New York Times |date=16 February 2021 |access-date=16 February 2021 |archive-date=16 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210216105846/https://www.nytimes.com/2021/02/16/world/middleeast/syria-turkey-erdogan-afrin.html |url-status=live }}

Following the conquest of Afrin District, civilian councils were appointed to govern and rebuild the area. A temporary council was organised by the Turkish-backed Syrian Kurds Independent Association in March 2018, to oversee aid, education and media in the area.{{cite web |url=https://syriadirect.org/news/interim-governing-council-formed-to-tackle-%e2%80%98disaster%e2%80%99-in-afrin-after-turkish-backed-offensive/ |title=Interim governing council formed to tackle 'disaster' in Afrin after Turkish-backed offensive |author1=Mohammad Abdulssattar Ibrahim |author2=Alice Al Maleh |author3=Tariq Adely |work=SYRIA:direct |date=26 March 2018 |access-date=23 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180824183324/https://syriadirect.org/news/interim-governing-council-formed-to-tackle-%e2%80%98disaster%e2%80%99-in-afrin-after-turkish-backed-offensive/ |archive-date=24 August 2018 |url-status=live }} It was later replaced by an interim council that was appointed in Afrin city on 12 April.{{Cite web|url=https://www.aa.com.tr/en/middle-east/interim-local-council-established-in-syria-s-afrin/1116152|title=Interim local council established in Syria's Afrin|website=www.aa.com.tr|access-date=10 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191010085718/https://www.aa.com.tr/en/middle-east/interim-local-council-established-in-syria-s-afrin/1116152|archive-date=10 October 2019|url-status=live}}{{Cite web|url=http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/interim-local-council-established-in-syrias-afrin-130227|title=Interim local council established in Syria's Afrin – World News|website=Hürriyet Daily News|date=12 April 2018 |access-date=12 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180906040455/http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/interim-local-council-established-in-syrias-afrin-130227|archive-date=6 September 2018|url-status=live}} The latter council, appointed by city elders, included eleven Kurds, eight Arabs and one Turkmen. While Zuheyr Haydar, a Kurdish representative who was appointed to serve as president of the council, stated that a more democratic election would take place if displaced citizens return, this has yet to take place. PYD officials have criticized the council and said it was working with an "occupying force".{{Cite news|url=https://ahvalnews.com/afrin/turkey-backed-council-take-over-afrin-suspicion-abound|title=Turkey-backed council is to take over Afrin, suspicion abound|website=Ahval|date=11 April 2018|access-date=12 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180616053546/https://ahvalnews.com/afrin/turkey-backed-council-take-over-afrin-suspicion-abound|archive-date=16 June 2018|url-status=live|last1=Kajjo|first1=Sirwan}}

On 19 April 2018, a local council was appointed in Jindires.{{Cite web|url=https://www.timeturk.com/cinderes-te-yerel-meclis-olusturuldu/haber-884975|title=Cinderes'te yerel meclis oluşturuldu|website=Timeturk.com|access-date=20 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181118154812/https://www.timeturk.com/cinderes-te-yerel-meclis-olusturuldu/haber-884975|archive-date=18 November 2018|url-status=live}} During Operation Peace Spring, similar appointed councils were established in Tell Abyad{{Cite web |url=http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/local-council-set-up-in-terror-free-tal-abyad-148021 |title=Local council set up in terror-free Tal Abyad in Syria – World News |date=28 October 2019 |access-date=2 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191105045440/http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/local-council-set-up-in-terror-free-tal-abyad-148021 |archive-date=5 November 2019 |url-status=live }} and Ras al-Ayn.{{Cite web |url=https://www.aa.com.tr/en/middle-east/syria-council-set-up-in-terror-free-ras-al-ayn/1638803 |title=Syria: Council set up in terror-free Ras al-Ayn |access-date=9 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191109125426/https://www.aa.com.tr/en/middle-east/syria-council-set-up-in-terror-free-ras-al-ayn/1638803 |archive-date=9 November 2019 |url-status=live }} Turkish-backed administrators have refused to register people with Kurdish names, and insist that Christian and other minority women wear an Islamic veil before being issued documents.{{Cite web|url=https://www.jpost.com/middle-east/turkeys-occupation-of-syria-slammed-for-ethnic-cleansing-631255|title=Turkey's occupation of Syria slammed for ethnic cleansing|website=The Jerusalem Post | JPost.com|date=13 June 2020 |access-date=31 July 2020|archive-date=31 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200731043802/https://www.jpost.com/middle-east/turkeys-occupation-of-syria-slammed-for-ethnic-cleansing-631255|url-status=live}} An August 2020 US Department of Defense report criticised Turkey and the SNA for "arbitrary detentions, extra-judicial killings, seizure and resettlement of new populations in private properties" and "the repeated and deliberate shutting off of water access to half a million civilians".{{Cite web|url=https://www.dodig.mil/reports.html/Article/2298912/lead-inspector-general-for-operation-inherent-resolve-quarterly-report-to-the-u/|title=Lead Inspector General for Operation Inherent Resolve Quarterly Report to the United States|website=Department of Defense Office of Inspector General|access-date=5 August 2020|archive-date=5 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200805225049/https://www.dodig.mil/reports.html/Article/2298912/lead-inspector-general-for-operation-inherent-resolve-quarterly-report-to-the-u/|url-status=live}}

{{main|Syrian National Army}}

File:Bataille d'al-Bab 22 février 2017 (3).jpg in 2016]]

On 30 May 2017,{{cite web|url=http://www.trtworld.com/mea/turkey-backed-opposition-to-form-new-army-in-northern-syria-367931|title=Turkey-backed opposition to form new army in northern Syria|access-date=6 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170704165920/http://www.trtworld.com/mea/turkey-backed-opposition-to-form-new-army-in-northern-syria-367931|archive-date=4 July 2017|url-status=live}} the Syrian National Army (SNA) composed of primarily Syrian Turkmen as well as Syrian Arabs rebels operating in northern Syria was formed, mostly being a part of Operation Euphrates Shield or groups active in the area that are allied to the groups participating in the operation.{{cite web|first=Sirwan|last=Kajjo|website=Voice of America|title=Who are the Turkey backed Syrian Rebels?|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/backed-turkey-syrian-rebels-take-fight-islamic-state-kurds/3481582.html|date=25 August 2016|access-date=6 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170219172433/http://www.voanews.com/a/backed-turkey-syrian-rebels-take-fight-islamic-state-kurds/3481582.html|archive-date=19 February 2017|url-status=live}} The general aim of the group is to assist Turkey in creating a "safe zone" in Syria and to establish a National Army, which will operate in the land gained as a result of Turkish military intervention{{cite web|title=Turkey-backed rebels could push further south in Syria, Erdogan says|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-turkey-erdogan-idUSKCN11P0HL|date=19 September 2016|first1=Orhan|last1=Coskun|first2=Seda|last2=Sezer|website=Reuters|access-date=6 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170729103828/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-turkey-erdogan-idUSKCN11P0HL|archive-date=29 July 2017|url-status=live}} and answer to the Syrian Interim Government.

By August 2018, the SNA was stated to be an "organized military bloc" that had largely overcome the chronic factionalism which had traditionally affected the Syrian rebels. Military colleges had been set up, and training as well as discipline had been improved. Though clashes and inter-unit violence still happened, they were no longer as serious as in the past. A military court had been established in al-Bab, a military police was organized to oversee discipline, and local civilian authorities were given more power over the militant groups. Nevertheless, most militias have attempted to maintain their autonomy to some degree, with the Interim Government having little actual control over them. To achieve the formation of a new national army without risking a mutiny, Turkey has applied soft pressure on the different groups while punishing only the most independent-minded and disloyal among them. The FSA units in the zone have accepted the Istanbul-based "Syrian Islamic Council" as religious authority. SNA fighters are paid salaries by the Turkish government, though the falling value of Turkish lira began to cause resentment among the SNA by mid-2018. One fighter said that "when the Turkish lira began to lose value against the Syrian pound our salaries became worthless".

File:Combined Joint U.S., Turkey Patrols.jpg

By July 2018, the Turkish Armed Forces (TAF) have built "at least" six military bases in the zone, "raising concerns that [the TAF] may be settling in for a long-term presence in northern Syria".

After the establishment of Turkish control in the region, a number of streets, squares and villages have been renamed. Examples are the villages Kastal Mekdad, Kutana and the city of Ra'i, which are officially called Selçuk obası, Zafer obası and Çobanbey. The Saraya Square in Afrin bears the name Erdoğan Square. Signs with both Turkish and Arabic name stress the former with a bigger font.{{cite journal |last1=Baker |first1=Rauf |date=September 2021 |title=When will Turkey annex Northern Syria? |url=https://www.meforum.org/62607/when-will-turkey-annex-northern-syria |journal=Middle East Quarterly |volume=Fall 2021 |issue= |pages= |doi= |access-date=1 November 2021 |archive-date=1 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211101010818/https://www.meforum.org/62607/when-will-turkey-annex-northern-syria |url-status=live }}

Turkey has organized a new law enforcement authority in the zone in early 2017, the "Free Police" which is divided into the National Police and Public Security Forces. The Free Police includes both male as well as female officers.{{Cite news |url=https://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2017/12/syria-aleppo-women-police-turkey-training.html |title=Women join opposition police forces in Aleppo's liberated areas |author=Khaled al-Khateb |work=al-Monitor |date=1 December 2017 |access-date=2 January 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180103011720/https://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2017/12/syria-aleppo-women-police-turkey-training.html |archive-date=3 January 2018 |url-status=live }} It is trained, equipped, and paid by Turkish authorities, and consequently loyal to the Turkish state.{{cite web |last1=Stein |first1=Aaron |last2=Abouzahr |first2=Hossam |last3=Komar |first3=Rao |title=How Turkey Is Governing in Northern Aleppo |url=https://www.newsdeeply.com/syria/community/2017/07/20/how-turkey-is-governing-in-northern-aleppo |website=Syria Deeply |date=20 July 2017 |access-date=14 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170914200819/https://www.newsdeeply.com/syria/community/2017/07/20/how-turkey-is-governing-in-northern-aleppo |archive-date=14 September 2017 |url-status=live }}{{Cite news |url=https://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2017/01/turkish-police-video-syria.htm |title=Syria's new national security force pledges loyalty to Turkey |author=Amberin Zaman |work=al-Monitor |date=25 January 2017 |access-date=2 January 2018 |archive-date=5 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200505185633/https://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2017/01/turkish-police-video-syria.htm |url-status=live }}

The National Police, headed by Maj. Gen. Abdul Razzaq Aslan, is further divided into the Civil Police Force and the Special Forces. Most of the police members are trained in the Turkish National Police Academy. To maintain security in Afrin District, Turkey has also employed former members of the Free East Ghouta Police who had relocated to northern Syria after the end of the Siege of Eastern Ghouta.{{cite web |url=https://syriadirect.org/news/hidden-explosives-stunt-movement-frighten-afrin-residents-two-months-into-pro-turkish-rule/ |title=Hidden explosives stunt movement, frighten Afrin residents two months into pro-Turkish rule |author1=Bahira al-Zarier |author2=Justin Clark |author3=Mohammad Abdulssattar Ibrahim |author4=Ammar Hamou |work=SYRIA:direct |date=14 May 2018 |access-date=16 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180816162047/https://syriadirect.org/news/hidden-explosives-stunt-movement-frighten-afrin-residents-two-months-into-pro-turkish-rule/ |archive-date=16 August 2018 |url-status=live }}

In addition, Turkey has established several courts in the zone which employ Syrian judges and follow Syria's judicial code, while being overseen and supported by Turkish judges and prosecutors. A special "terrorism court" was established in Azaz, while a correction facility was organized in al-Bab.

{{Expand section|date=July 2018}}

By July 2018, Turkey was playing an "increasingly prominent—and contentious—role in the region's local economy." It invested heavily in the zone, providing work opportunities and helping to rebuild the economy. Turkish-led development projects restored infrastructure such as dams, electricity and roads. Turkish private companies, such as PTT, Türk Telekom, the Independent Industrialists and Businessmen Association, and ET Energy launched projects in the area, as did a number of Syrian firms and businessmen. One problematic result of Turkey's economic influence was that the country's currency and debt crisis has also affected the zone, as Turkey pays salaries and services with Turkish lira whose value greatly dropped in course of 2018, harming the local economy.

{{further|Tourism in Syria}}

As result of the Turkish-led invasion, Afrin's tourism sector which had survived the civil war up to that point, collapsed. After open combat between the SDF and pro-Turkish forces had mostly concluded, Turkey attempted to restabilize the region and revive local tourism. It removed the tight control over visitors and passers that had previously existed under the PYD-led administration, and the new local councils and the Free Police attempted to provide stability and incentives for tourists to return. By July 2018, these measures began to have an effect, with some visitors coming to Afrin's popular recreational areas, such as Maydanki Lake.{{cite news |url=https://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2018/07/picnickers-return-to-afrin.html |title=Day trippers flock to Afrin's orchards as Aleppo restores security |author=Khaled al-Khateb |work=al-Monitor |date=26 July 2018 |access-date=29 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180729074024/https://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2018/07/picnickers-return-to-afrin.html |archive-date=29 July 2018 |url-status=live }}

Turkey has taken "full control over the educational process" in the zone, and funds all education services. Thousands of teachers in the zone are paid by Turkey. Several schools have been restored or newly built, with their curricula partially adjusted to education in Turkey: Though the curricula of the Syrian Ministry of Education still provide the basis, certain parts have been modified to fit the Turkish point of view in regard to history, for example replacing "Ottoman occupation" with "Ottoman rule". Turkish is taught as foreign language since first class and those who attend schools in the occupation zones can subsequently attend universities in Turkey.

{{Expand section|date=April 2018}}

The Syrian government under Bashar al-Assad has criticized Turkish presence in Northern Syria on multiple occasions and called for their withdrawal.{{Cite web |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2016/08/24/middleeast/turkish-troops-isis-syria-operation/ |title=Turkey sends tanks into Syria to battle ISIS |date=24 August 2016 |access-date=2 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191102125211/https://edition.cnn.com/2016/08/24/middleeast/turkish-troops-isis-syria-operation/ |archive-date=2 November 2019 |url-status=live }}Elements of pro-government NDF militias.[https://www.almasdarnews.com/article/syrian-govt-slams-new-turkish-operation-in-syria/] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191029204933/https://www.almasdarnews.com/article/syrian-govt-slams-new-turkish-operation-in-syria/|date=29 October 2019}}{{Cite web |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2018/03/syrian-government-demands-turkish-troops-leave-afrin-180320093628861.html |title=Syrian government demands Turkish troops leave Afrin |access-date=2 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191102125212/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2018/03/syrian-government-demands-turkish-troops-leave-afrin-180320093628861.html |archive-date=2 November 2019 |url-status=live }}{{Cite web |url=https://sana.sy/en/?p=131157 |title=Syria: Turkish regime forces occupation of Afrin illegitimate act |date=19 March 2018 |access-date=2 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180320110145/https://sana.sy/en/?p=131157 |archive-date=20 March 2018 |url-status=live }}{{Cite news |url=https://ahvalnews.com/afrin/syria-expects-turkey-withdraw-its-soil |title=Syria expects Turkey to withdraw from its soil |newspaper=Ahval |date=6 April 2018 |access-date=2 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180407054424/https://ahvalnews.com/afrin/syria-expects-turkey-withdraw-its-soil |archive-date=7 April 2018 |url-status=live }}{{Cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/09/28/world/middleeast/syria-war.html |title=Syria Demands Immediate Withdrawal of U.S. And Turkish Forces, Again |newspaper=The New York Times |date=28 September 2019 |access-date=2 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191102125211/https://www.nytimes.com/2019/09/28/world/middleeast/syria-war.html |archive-date=2 November 2019 |url-status=live |last1=Virella |first1=Kelly }}

File:Claimed and de facto territory of Rojava.png-controlled territory (green) and Turkish-controlled territory (red) in October 2019]] Syrian Opposition groups have expressed mixed, but generally positive opinions over the Turkish offensives. The Syrian Opposition Coalition expressed support for Turkish intervention and called for Turkey to help the Free Syrian Army launch offensives in the region.{{Cite web|date=14 June 2021|title=SOC's President Calls on Turkey to Intervene alongside SNA to Force PYD from Tal Rifaat & Manbij|url=https://en.etilaf.org/all-news/news/socs-president-calls-on-turkey-to-intervene-alongside-sna-to-force-pyd-from-tal-rifaat-manbij|access-date=19 October 2021|website=Syrian National Coalition Of Syrian Revolution and Opposition Forces|language=en-US|archive-date=16 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211016015810/https://en.etilaf.org/all-news/news/socs-president-calls-on-turkey-to-intervene-alongside-sna-to-force-pyd-from-tal-rifaat-manbij|url-status=live}} Other Opposition groups, such as Syria's Tomorrow Movement have condemned the intervention.{{Cite web|last=admin|date=17 June 2021|title=After hostile statements, a Syrian opponent movement suspends its dialogues with the coalition.|url=https://m-syria-d.com/en/?p=3066|access-date=19 October 2021|website=The Syrian Democratic Council|language=en-US|archive-date=3 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211103230037/https://m-syria-d.com/en/?p=3066|url-status=live}}

• {{flagicon|Rojava}} Democratic Federation of Northern Syria – On 26 August 2016, the Shahba region civilian council condemned the occupation of Jarabulus as a Turkish attempt to expand into Syria, likening it to the Battle of Marj Dabiq and suggesting that Jarabulus would become a "grave for the criminal occupier Erdoğan and his mercenaries".{{cite web|url=http://aranews.net/2016/08/kurdish-backed-council-says-turkeys-intervention-make-syrian-town-grave-erdogan-troops/|title=Kurdish-backed council says Turkey's intervention to make Syrian town "grave for Erdoğan troops"|work=ARA News|date=26 August 2016|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160826202611/http://aranews.net/2016/08/kurdish-backed-council-says-turkeys-intervention-make-syrian-town-grave-erdogan-troops/|archive-date=26 August 2016}}
• {{flagicon|Kurdistan}} Kurdish National Council – On 20 April 2018, the ENKS has called for the expulsion of Turkish forces from Afrin.{{Cite web |url=http://www.rudaw.net/english/middleeast/syria/090420181 |title=ENKS urges int'l protection for Afrin, condemning PYD policy |access-date=20 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190223093338/http://www.rudaw.net/english/middleeast/syria/090420181 |archive-date=23 February 2019 |url-status=live }} On 2 July 2019, ENKS voiced its support for the establishment of an ethnically diverse local council in Afrin.{{Cite web|url=https://www.aa.com.tr/en/middle-east/syrian-kurds-welcome-multi-ethnic-afrin-local-council/1117207|title=Syrian Kurds welcome multi-ethnic Afrin local council|website=www.aa.com.tr|access-date=10 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190702182328/https://www.aa.com.tr/en/middle-east/syrian-kurds-welcome-multi-ethnic-afrin-local-council/1117207|archive-date=2 July 2019|url-status=live}}
• Democratic Conservative Party – On 28 May 2019 the Democratic Conservative Party condemned the occupation, stating that Turkey was attempting to annex Afrin.{{cite news |url=https://hawarnews.com/en/haber/akram-mahshoush-partition-wall-aims-to-erase-kurdish-identity-settle-mercenaries-h9254.html |title=Akram Mahshoush: Partition wall aims to erase Kurdish identity, settle mercenaries |work=Hawar News Agency |date=28 May 2019 |access-date=25 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190925162930/https://hawarnews.com/en/haber/akram-mahshoush-partition-wall-aims-to-erase-kurdish-identity-settle-mercenaries-h9254.html |archive-date=25 September 2019 |url-status=live }}

• {{flag|Azerbaijan}} – On 20 September 2016, Qənirə Paşayeva, member of parliament, said that Turkey would have an obligation to protect the civilians in northern Syria from terror groups and would have the right to protect itself from the attacks originating from Syria with the intervention.{{cite web|last=|first=|date=3 September 2016|title=Azerbayjan Milletvekili Paşayeva|url=http://www.milliyet.com.tr/azerbaycan-milletvekili-pasayeva-turk-antalya-yerelhaber-1539717/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161021062437/http://www.milliyet.com.tr/azerbaycan-milletvekili-pasayeva-turk-antalya-yerelhaber-1539717/|archive-date=21 October 2016|access-date=20 September 2016|website=Milliyet Haber}}
• {{flag|China}} – On 29 October 2021, China's Deputy Permanent Representative to the United Nations, Ambassador Geng Shuang said "Since Turkey illegally invaded northeastern Syria, it has repeatedly cut off the water supply service from the Alouk water station"{{Cite web|last=English|first=Duvar|date=29 October 2021|title=China accuses Turkey of invading northeastern Syria|url=https://www.duvarenglish.com/china-accuses-turkey-of-invading-northeastern-syria-news-59377|access-date=2 November 2021|website=www.duvarenglish.com|language=tr-TR|archive-date=29 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211029103758/https://www.duvarenglish.com/china-accuses-turkey-of-invading-northeastern-syria-news-59377|url-status=live}} Also stating "China urges Turkey to abide by the international law, including international humanitarian law, protect civilians, maintain infrastructure operations, and guarantee humanitarian access for the UN".{{Cite web|title=China says Turkey's military operations in northeast Syria are illegal|url=https://www.kurdistan24.net/en/story/26063-China-says-Turkey%27s-military-operations-in-northeast-Syria-are-illegal|access-date=2 November 2021|website=www.kurdistan24.net|date=28 October 2021 |language=en|archive-date=2 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211102155426/https://www.kurdistan24.net/en/story/26063-China-says-Turkey%27s-military-operations-in-northeast-Syria-are-illegal|url-status=live}}
• {{flag|Cyprus}} – On 9 September 2016, the Cyprus House of Representatives unanimously adopted a resolution condemning "the unacceptable invasion of Turkey into Syria, under the pretext of war against terrorism." It also called on the international community to demand Turkey's withdrawal from Syria.{{Cite news|url=http://famagusta-gazette.com/cyprus-house-condemns-turkeys-invasion-of-syria-p36091-69.htm|title=Cyprus House condemns Turkey's invasion of Syria|date=9 September 2016|work=Famagusta Gazette|access-date=10 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160910135047/http://famagusta-gazette.com/cyprus-house-condemns-turkeys-invasion-of-syria-p36091-69.htm|archive-date=10 September 2016|url-status=dead}}
• {{flag|EU}} – On 14 October 2019, following Turkeys' offensive the Council of the European Union released a press statement condemning Turkey's military action and called for Turkey to cease its "unilateral" military action in north-eastern Syria. It again recalled previous made statements by member states to halt arms exports licensing to Turkey and also recalled that it would not provide "stabilisation or development assistance where the rights of local populations are ignored or violated."{{Cite web|title=North East Syria: Council adopts conclusions|url=https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/press-releases/2019/10/14/council-conclusions-on-north-east-syria/|access-date=7 November 2021|website=www.consilium.europa.eu|language=en|archive-date=7 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211107141909/https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/press-releases/2019/10/14/council-conclusions-on-north-east-syria/|url-status=live}}{{Cite web|title=Foreign Affairs Council, 14 October 2019|url=https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/meetings/fac/2019/10/14/|access-date=7 November 2021|website=www.consilium.europa.eu|language=en|archive-date=7 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211107141910/https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/meetings/fac/2019/10/14/|url-status=live}}
• {{flag|France}} – On 30 March 2018, Macron assured the SDF of France's support for the stabilization of the security zone in the north-east of Syria, within the framework of an inclusive and balanced governance, to prevent any resurgence of Islamic State.{{Cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/reuters/2018/03/29/world/europe/29reuters-mideast-crisis-syria-france.html|title=France's Macron Vows Support for Northern Syrians, Kurdish Militia, New York Times, March 30th, 2018.|website=The New York Times|access-date=31 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180331104648/https://www.nytimes.com/reuters/2018/03/29/world/europe/29reuters-mideast-crisis-syria-france.html|archive-date=31 March 2018|url-status=live |agency=Reuters }}
• {{flag|Iran}} – On 31 August 2016, Iranian foreign ministry spokesman Bahram Ghasemi urged Ankara to quickly wrap up its military intervention in Syria, saying it was an "unacceptable" violation of Syrian sovereignty.{{cite web|url=http://www.france24.com/en/20160831-iran-urges-turkey-quickly-end-syria-intervention|title=Iran urges Turkey to quickly end Syria intervention|publisher=France24|date=31 August 2016|access-date=31 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160831190545/http://www.france24.com/en/20160831-iran-urges-turkey-quickly-end-syria-intervention|archive-date=31 August 2016|url-status=live}}
• {{flag|Spain}} – On 14 October 2019 the Spanish Foreign Minister Josep Borrell Fontelles (also High Representative of European Union Foreign Affairs and Security Policy) in an interview stated that the 28 European member states "have unanimously decided to condemn...in strong terms what in the end is a military attack."{{Cite web|last=Brzozowski|first=Alexandra|date=14 October 2019|title=EU condemns Turkey's military action, stops short of common arms embargo|url=https://www.euractiv.com/section/defence-and-security/news/eu-condemns-turkeys-military-action-stops-short-of-common-arms-embargo/|access-date=7 November 2021|website=www.euractiv.com|language=en-GB|archive-date=8 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308093856/https://www.euractiv.com/section/defence-and-security/news/eu-condemns-turkeys-military-action-stops-short-of-common-arms-embargo/|url-status=live}} Agreeing to also limit arms exports over its offensive in northern Syria, which Turkey "fully rejected and condemned" the decisions made by the EU regarding the issue.{{Cite news|date=14 October 2019|title=EU governments limit arms sales to Turkey but avoid embargo|language=en|work=Reuters|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-security-eu-france-idUSKBN1WT0M4|access-date=7 November 2021|archive-date=29 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210429152714/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-security-eu-france-idUSKBN1WT0M4|url-status=live}}
• {{flag|United States of America}} – On 7 October 2021, President Joe Biden's announcement stated "The situation in and in relation to Syria, and in particular the actions by the Government of Turkey to conduct a military offensive into northeast Syria, undermines the campaign to defeat the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria, or ISIS, endangers civilians, and further threatens to undermine the peace, security, and stability in the region, and continues to pose an unusual and extraordinary threat to the national security and foreign policy of the United States." thus extending the national emergency powers in Syria by another year.{{Cite web|date=7 October 2021|title=Notice on the Continuation of the National Emergency with Respect to the Situation in and in Relation to Syria|url=https://bidenwhitehouse.archives.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2021/10/07/notice-on-the-continuation-of-the-national-emergency-with-respect-to-the-situation-in-and-in-relation-to-syria/|access-date=3 November 2021|website=The White House|language=en-US|archive-date=25 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211025204642/https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2021/10/07/notice-on-the-continuation-of-the-national-emergency-with-respect-to-the-situation-in-and-in-relation-to-syria/|url-status=live}}

{{Portal|Turkey|Asia}}

• Hatay dispute
• Hatay Province
• Sanjak of Alexandretta

{{reflist}}

• {{Cite journal |url = https://jamestown.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/November-2018_MLM.pdf |title = Turkey's Man in Syria—Sayf Boulad Abu Bakr |last= Heras |first= Nicholas |date = November 2018 |journal = Militant Leadership Monitor |volume = 9 |issue = 11 | pages = 11–16 |publisher = Jamestown Foundation |location = Washington, D.C. }}
• {{cite book|last=Morton |first=Nicholas |title=The Crusader States and their Neighbours: A Military History, 1099–1187 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kMnhDwAAQBAJ |date=2020 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0198824541}}{{relevance|date=April 2023}}
• {{cite book|last=Vanly |first=Ismet Chériff |chapter=The Kurds in Syria and Lebanon |editor1=Philip G. Kreyenbroek |editor2=Stefan Sperl|title=The Kurds: A Contemporary Overview |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JZ6JAgAAQBAJ |date= 1992 |publisher=Routledge |location= New York City, London |pages=112–134 |isbn= 978-0-415-96691-7}}

• {{cite journal |last1=Bagheri |first1=Saeed |title=Turkey's Extraterritorial Use of Force against Armed Non-State Actors |journal=Israel Law Review |date=2023 |volume=56 |issue=2 |pages=143–170 |doi=10.1017/S0021223722000243 |s2cid=257868157 |language=en |issn=0021-2237|doi-access=free }}

{{Syrian Civil War}}

{{foreign relations of Turkey}}

{{foreign relations of Syria}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Turkish occupation of northern Syria}}

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Category:States and territories established in 2016

Category:2016 in Turkey

Category:2017 in Turkey

Category:2016 in the Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria

Category:2017 in the Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria

Category:2016 in Syria

Category:2017 in Syria

Category:2016 in the Syrian civil war

Category:2017 in the Syrian civil war

Category:Syria–Turkey relations

Category:Turkish military occupations

Category:Politics of the Syrian civil war

Category:Territories under military occupation

Category:Military occupations of Syria

Category:Aleppo Governorate in the Syrian civil war

Category:Al-Hasakah Governorate in the Syrian civil war

Category:Raqqa Governorate in the Syrian civil war

Category:Syrian Interim Government