Yahweh

File:Tetragrammaton Sefardi.jpg, inscribed on the page of a Sephardic manuscript of the Hebrew Bible, 1385]]

The god's name was written in Paleo-Hebrew as {{lang|he-Phnx|𐤉𐤄𐤅𐤄}} ({{Script/Hebrew|{{lang|hbo|יהוה}}}} in block script), transliterated as YHWH; modern scholarship has reached consensus to transcribe this as "Yahweh".{{harvnb|Alter|2018|p=}}: "The strong consensus of biblical scholarship is that the original pronunciation of the name YHWH ... was Yahweh." The shortened forms Yeho-, Yahu-, Yah- and Yo- appear in personal names and in phrases such as "Hallelujah!"{{sfn|Preuss|2008|p=823}} The sacrality of the name, as well as the Commandment against "taking the name 'in vain'{{hair space}}", led to increasingly strict prohibitions on speaking or writing the term. Rabbinic sources suggest that, by the Second Temple period, the name of God was officially pronounced only once a year, by the High Priest, on the Day of Atonement.{{harvnb|Elior|2006|p=779}}: "... the pronunciation of the Ineffable Name was one of the climaxes of the Sacred Service: it was entrusted exclusively to the High Priest once a year on the Day of Atonement in the Holy of Holies." After the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 CE, the original pronunciation of the name was forgotten entirely.{{sfn|Leech|2002|p=60}}

File:כתובת אריהו מפורשת.jpg, 8th c. BCE, "Blessed is/be Uriyahu by Yahweh"]]

Philip King and Lawrence Stager place the history of Yahweh into the following periods:

• Late Bronze: 1550–1200 BCE
• Iron Age I: 1200–1000 BCE
• Iron Age II: 1000–586 BCE
• Neo-Babylonian: 586–539 BCE
• Persian: 539–332 BCE{{sfn|King|Stager|2001|p=xxiii}}

Other academic terms often used include First Temple period, from the construction of the Temple in 957 BCE to its destruction in 586 BCE, exilic for the period of the Exile from 586 to 539 BCE (identical with Neo-Babylonian above), post-Exilic for later periods and Second Temple period from the reconstruction of the Temple in 515 BCE until its destruction in 70 CE.

There is almost no agreement on Yahweh's origins.{{sfn|Fleming|2020|p=3}} His name is not attested other than among the Israelites, and there is no consensus on its etymology, with {{tlit|hbo|ehyeh ašer ehyeh}} ('I Am that I Am'), the explanation presented in Exodus 3:14,{{bibleverse||Exodus|3:14|HE}} appearing to be a late theological gloss invented at a time when the original meaning had been forgotten,{{sfn|Parke-Taylor|1975|p=51}} although some scholars dispute this.{{sfn|Lewis|2020|page=214}}{{sfn|Miller II|2021|p=18}} Lewis connects the name to the Amorite element {{tlit|mis|yahwi-}} (ia-wi), found in personal names in Mari texts,{{sfn|Kitz|2019|pp=42, 57}} meaning 'brings to life'{{\}}'causes to exist' (e.g. yahwi-dagan = "Dagon causes to exist"), commonly denoted as the semantic equivalent of the Akkadian {{tlit|akk|ibašši-DN}};{{sfn|Lewis|2020|pp=211, 215}} though Frank Moore Cross emphasized that the Amorite verbal form is of interest only in attempting to reconstruct the verbal root of the name "Yahweh", and that attempts to take yahwi- as a divine epithet should be "vigorously" argued against.{{sfn|Cross|1973|pp=61-63}}{{harvnb|Fleming|2020|p=176}}: "There has been one key objection, by Michael Streck, who reevaluated Amorite personal names as a whole in 2000 and as part of this work published the separate conclusion (1999) that all the Ya-wi- and Ya-aḫ-wi- elements in these names must be understood to reflect the same root ḥwy, "to live"....If Streck is correct that these are all forms of the verb "to live", then the Amorite personal names must be set aside as useful to any interpretation of the name [Yahweh]." But see {{harvnb|Fleming|2020b|p=425}}: "While the identification of the verbal root in the Amorite names with and without the -ḫ- remains impossible to prove with certainty, the parallels with contemporary Old Babylonian Ibašši-DN and the later second-millennium parallels from the verb kwn show the viability of a West Semitic root hwy, "to be, be evident", for at least some portion of these Amorite names." In addition, J. Philip Hyatt believes it is more likely that {{tlit|mis|yahwi-}} refers to a god creating and sustaining the life of a newborn child rather than the universe. This conception of God was more popular among ancient Near Easterners but eventually, the Israelites removed the association of {{tlit|mis|yahwi-}} to any human ancestor and combined it with other elements (e.g. {{tlit|hbo|Yahweh ṣəḇāʾōṯ}}).{{Cite journal |last=Hyatt |first=J. Philip |date=1967 |title=Was Yahweh Originally a Creator Deity? |journal=Journal of Biblical Literature |volume=86 |issue=4 |pages=369–377 |jstor=3262791}}{{Update inline|date=April 2024|reason=The source is literally almost 60 years old.}} Hillel Ben-Sasson states there is insufficient evidence for Amorites using yahwi- for gods, but he argues that it mirrors other theophoric names and that yahwi-, or more accurately yawi, derives from the root hwy in pa'al, which means "he will be".{{sfn|Ben-Sasson|2019|pp=55–56}}

One scholarly theory is that "Yahweh" originated in a shortened form of {{tlit|hbo|ˀel ḏū yahwī ṣabaˀôt}}, 'El who creates the hosts',{{sfn|Miller|2000|p=2}} which Cross considered to be one of the cultic names of El.{{sfn|Cross|1973|p=71}} However, this phrase is nowhere attested either inside or outside the Bible, and the two gods are in any case quite dissimilar, with El being elderly and paternal and lacking Yahweh's association with the storm and battles.{{sfn|Day|2002|pp=13–14}} Even if the above issues are resolved, Yahweh is generally agreed to have a non-causative etymology because otherwise, YHWH would be translated as YHYH.{{sfn|Lewis|2020|p=222}} It also raises the question of why the Israelites would want to shorten the epithet. One possible reason includes the co-existence of religious modernism and conservatism being the norm in all religions.{{sfn|Lewis|2020|p=222}}

The oldest plausible occurrence of Yahweh's name is in the Egyptian demonym {{tlit|egy|tꜣ šꜣsw Yhwꜣ}}, 'YHWA [in] the Land of the Shasu' (Egyptian: {{Script/Egyp|{{lang|egy|𓇌𓉔𓍯𓄿}}}} {{tlit|egy|Yhwꜣ}}) in an inscription from the time of Amenhotep III (1390–1352 BCE),{{sfn|Shalomi Hen|2021}}{{sfn|Anderson|2015|p=100}} the Shasu being nomads from Midian and Edom in northern Arabia.{{sfn|Grabbe|2007|p=151}} Although it is still uncertain whether a relationship exists between the toponym yhwꜣ and theonym YHWH,{{harvnb|Shalomi Hen|2021}}: "Unfortunately, albeit the interesting analogies, the learned discussions, and the broad perspective, the evidence is too scanty to allow any conclusions concerning the exact meaning of the term YHWA/YHA/YH as it appears in Ancient Egyptian records." the dominant view is that Yahweh was from the southern region associated with Seir, Edom, Paran and Teman.{{sfn|Smith|2017|p=42}} There is considerable although not universal support for this view,{{sfn|Grabbe|2007|p=153}} but it raises the question of how Yahweh made his way to the north.{{sfn|Van der Toorn|1999|p=912}} An answer many scholars consider plausible is the Kenite hypothesis, which holds that traders brought Yahweh to Israel along the caravan routes between Egypt and Canaan.{{sfn|Van der Toorn|1999|pp=912–913}} This ties together various points of data, such as the absence of Yahweh from Canaan, his links with Edom and Midian in the biblical stories, and the Kenite or Midianite ties of Moses,{{sfn|Van der Toorn|1999|p=912}} but its major weaknesses are that the majority of Israelites were firmly rooted in Palestine, while the historical role of Moses is problematic.{{sfn|Van der Toorn|1995|pp=247–248}} It follows that if the Kenite hypothesis is to be maintained, then it must be assumed that the Israelites encountered Yahweh (and the Midianites/Kenites) inside Israel and through their association with the earliest political leaders of Israel.{{sfn|Van der Toorn|1995|p=248}} Christian Frevel argues that inscriptions allegedly suggesting Yahweh's southern origins (e.g. "YHWH of Teman") may simply denote his presence there at later times, and that Teman can refer to any southern territory, including Judah.

Alternatively, some scholars argue that YHWH worship was rooted in the indigenous culture of the Kingdom of Israel and was promoted in the Kingdom of Judah by the Omrides.{{cite journal |last=Frevel |first=Christian |date=2021 |title=When and from Where did YHWH Emerge? Some Reflections on Early Yahwism in Israel and Judah |journal=Entangled Religions |volume=12 |issue=2 |doi=10.46586/er.12.2021.8776 |issn=2363-6696 |doi-access=free |hdl=2263/84039 |hdl-access=free}}{{cite journal |title=God's Best 'Frenemy': A New Perspective on YHWH and Baal in Ancient Israel and Judah |journal=Semitica |url=https://www.academia.edu/45062733 |last=Stahl |first=Michael J. |volume=63 |pages=45–94 |doi=10.2143/SE.63.0.3289896 |year=2021 |issn=2466-6815}} Frevel suggests that Hazael's conquests in the Kingdom of Israel forced the two kingdoms to cooperate, which spread YHWH worship among Judean commoners. Previously, YHWH was viewed as the patron god of the Judean state.

File:Bull site statuette.png at Dhahrat et-Tawileh (modern West Bank, ancient Ephraim), representing El, Baal or Yahweh{{sfn|Smith|2002|p=83}}{{sfn|Stavrakopoulou|2021|p=395}}]]

In the Early Iron Age, the modern consensus is that there was no distinction in language or material culture between Canaanites and Israelites. Scholars accordingly define Israelite culture as a subset of Canaanite culture.{{sfn|Smith|2002|pp=7, 19–31}} In this view, the Israelite religion consisted of Canaanite gods such as El, the ruler of the pantheon,{{sfn|Golden|2009|p=182}} Asherah, his consort, and Baal.{{sfn|Smith|2002|pp=19–31}} However, Israel Knohl argues that there is no evidence of any anthropomorphic figurines or cultic statues in Israel during this period, suggesting monotheistic practice.{{sfn|Knohl|2017|pp=171–172}}

In the earliest Biblical literature, Yahweh has characteristics of a storm god typical of ancient Near Eastern myths, marching out from Edom or the Sinai desert with the heavenly host of stars and planets that make up his army to do battle with the enemies of his people Israel:{{sfn|Hackett|2001|pp=158–160}} {{poemquote|Yahweh, when you went out of Seir,

when you marched out of the field of Edom,

the earth trembled, the sky also dropped.

Yes, the clouds dropped water.

The mountains quaked at Yahweh's presence,

even Sinai at the presence of Yahweh, the God of Israel.

...

From the sky the stars fought.

From their courses, they fought against Sisera.

(Book of Judges 5:4–5, 20, WEB World English Bible, the Song of Deborah.)}}

Alternatively, parts of the storm god imagery could derive from Baal.{{sfn|Smith|2017|p=38}}{{rp|78}}

From the perspective of the Kenite hypothesis, it has also been suggested that the Edomite deity Qōs might have been one and the same as Yahweh, rather than a separate deity, with its name a title of the latter.{{sfn|Anderson|2015|p=101}} Aside from their common territorial origins, various common characteristics between the Yahwist cult and the Edomite cult of Qōs hint at a shared connection.{{Cite book |last=Manyanya |first=Lévi Ngangura |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kiR_xkWUFS4C&pg=PA258 |title=La fraternité de Jacob et d'Esaü (Gn 25–36): quel frère aîné pour Jacob? |date=2009 |publisher=Labor et Fides |isbn=978-2-8309-1253-1 |page=257 |language=fr}} Doeg the Edomite, for example, is depicted as having no problem in worshiping Yahweh and is shown to be at home in Jewish sanctuaries.

Unlike the chief god of the Ammonites (Milcom) and the Moabites (Chemosh), the Tanakh refrains from explicitly naming the Edomite Qōs.E. A. Knauf. (1999). Qos [in] Karel van der Toorn, Bob Becking, Pieter Willem van der Horst [eds.], [https://books.google.com/books?id=yCkRz5pfxz0C&pg=PA677 Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible], pp. 674–677. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing: "This clan or family must have been of Edomite or Idumaean origin." (p. 677).Elie Assis, [https://books.google.com/books?id=_jQLEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA10 Identity in Conflict: The Struggle between Esau and Jacob, Edom and Israel], Penn State Press, 2016 {{isbn|978-1-575-06418-5}} p.10: At 1 Kgs 1–8 there is exceptionally no mention of any Edomite gods:'King Solomon loved many foreign women along with the daughter of the Pharaoh: Moabite, Ammonite, Edomite, Sidonian, and Hittite women. ... For Solomon followed Astarte the goddess of the Sidonians, and Milcom the aboimination of the Ammonites. ... Then Solomon built a high place for Chemosh the abomination of Moab, and for Molech the abomination of the Ammonites, on the mountain east of Jerusalem. He did the same for all his foreign wives, who offered incense and sacrificed to their gods.' Some scholars have explained this notable omission by assuming that the level of similarity between Yahweh and Qōs would have made rejection of the latter difficult.{{sfn|Dicou|1994|p=177}} Other scholars hold that Yahweh and Qōs were different deities from their origins, and suggest that the tensions between Judeans and Edomites during the Second Temple period may lie behind the omission of Qōs in the Bible.{{sfn|Tebes|2023}}

{{multiple image

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| image1 =LMLK, Ezekiah seals.jpg

| caption1 = Seal of Hezekiah, 727 to 698. The winged disk is thought to represent Yahweh.{{Cite journal |last1=Seevers |first1=Boyd V. |last2=Korhonen |first2=Rachel |date=2016 |title=Seals in Ancient Israel and the Near East: Their Manufacture, Use, and Apparent Paradox of Pagan Symbolism |url=https://www.academia.edu/31049725 |journal=Near East Archaeological Society Bulletin |issue=61 |pages=1–17}}

| image2 = Brockhaus and Efron Jewish Encyclopedia e12 486-1.jpg

| caption2 = Winged disk seal reproduced in the Jewish Encyclopedia, 1906

}}

File:Ajrud.jpg, under the inscription "Yahweh of Samaria and his Asherah" (c. 800 BCE)]]

It has been argued that Yahweh was originally described as one of the sons of El in Deuteronomy 32:8–9,{{bibleverse||Deuteronomy|32:8–9|NET}} and that this was removed by a later emendation to the text:{{sfn|Anderson|2015|p=77}}

{{Poem quote|text=When the Most High gave the nations their inheritance,

when he divided up humankind,

he set the boundaries of the peoples,

according to the number of the heavenly assembly.

For the Lord's allotment is his people,

Jacob is his special possession.

(Book of Deuteronomy 32:8-9, New English Translation, Song of Moses)}}

Nonetheless, some scholars argue that El Elyon ("the Most High") and Yahweh are theonyms for the same deity in the text, based on contextual analysis.{{sfn|Hess|2007|pp=103–104}}{{sfn|Smith|2008|p=203}}

The late Iron Age saw the emergence of nation states associated with specific national gods:{{sfn|Schniedewind|2013|p=93}} Chemosh was the god of the Moabites, Milcom the god of the Ammonites, Qōs the god of the Edomites, and Yahweh the god of the Israelites.{{sfn|Hackett|2001|p=156}}{{sfn|Davies|2010|p=112}} In each kingdom the king was also the head of the national religion and thus the viceroy on Earth of the national god.{{sfn|Miller|2000|p=90}} Yahweh filled the role of national god in the kingdom of Israel (Samaria), which emerged in the 10th century BCE; and also in Judah, which may have emerged a century later{{sfn|Geller|2012|p=unpaginated}} (no "God of Judah" is mentioned anywhere in the Bible).{{sfn|Hackett|2001|p=156}}{{sfn|Davies|2010|p=112}}

During the reign of Ahab, and particularly following his marriage to Jezebel, Baal may have briefly replaced Yahweh as the national god of Israel (but not Judah).{{sfn|Smith|2002|pp=71–72}}{{sfn|Campbell|2001|pp=221–222}}

In the 9th century BCE, there are indications of rejection of Baal worship associated with the prophets Elijah and Elisha. The Yahweh-religion thus began to separate itself from its Canaanite heritage; this process continued over the period from 800 to 500 BCE with legal and prophetic condemnations of the asherim, sun worship and worship on the high places, along with practices pertaining to the dead and other aspects of the old religion.{{sfn|Smith|2002|page=9}} Features of Baal, El, and Asherah were absorbed into Yahweh, and epithets such as El Shaddai came to be applied to Yahweh alone.{{sfn|Smith|2002|pp=8, 33–34, 135}}

In this atmosphere a struggle emerged between those who believed that Yahweh alone should be worshipped, and those who worshipped him within a larger group of gods;{{sfn|Sperling|2017|p=254}} the Yahweh-alone party, the party of the prophets and Deuteronomists, ultimately triumphed, and their victory lies behind the biblical narrative of an Israel vacillating between periods of "following other gods" and periods of fidelity to Yahweh.{{sfn|Sperling|2017|p=254}}

Some scholars date the start of widespread monotheism to the 8th century BCE, and view it as a response to Neo-Assyrian aggression.{{sfn|Smith|2016|p=287}}{{sfn|Albertz|1994|p=61}} In an inscription discovered in Ein Gedi and dated around 700 BCE, Yahweh appears described as the lord of "the nations", while in other contemporary texts discovered in Khirbet Beit Lei (near Lachish) he is mentioned as the ruler of Jerusalem and probably also of Judah.{{sfn|Hess|2020|p=247–248}}

The earliest monotheistic movements among Yahwists appear in the 9th–8th centuries BCE, during the time of Elijah and Hosea.{{sfn|Albertz|1994|p=61}} By ascending to the role of the "Lord of the Land" ({{tlit|hbo|adon}}), he also absorbs the functions of earlier deities, such as Baal and El.{{sfn|Albertz|1994|p=89}} However, this depiction of Yahweh had only marginal impact under Josiah, and did not became lasting until the exilic and post-exilic period.{{sfn|Albertz|1994|p=61}}{{efn|These movements are rather described as monolatristic rather than monotheistic, since they did accept the existence of other gods besides Yahweh, although postulating the worship of Yahweh alone.{{sfn|McKenzie|1990|p=1287}}}} Only in the post-exilic and prophetic writings, and under influence of Zoroastrianism, Yahweh becomes a distant and more merciful supreme deity.{{cite encyclopedia |title=Angels |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Religion |volume=1 |page=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofre01elia/page/283 283] |publisher=Macmillan |publication-place=New York |date=1986 |isbn=0-02-909700-2 |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofre01elia}} It is also only then that Elohim, a term previously referring to the Canaanite High God, becomes an alternative designation for Yahweh.Edelman, D. V. (Ed.). (1995). The Triumph of Elohim: From Yahwisms to Judaisms (Vol. 13). Peeters Publishers. pp. 22–23 This reconsideration of the former pantheon derives from the monotheistic concept of Persian beliefs at the time,Edelman, D. V. (Ed.). (1995). The Triumph of Elohim: From Yahwisms to Judaisms (Vol. 13). Peeters Publishers. p. 23 as generally agreed upon by scholars.Sacchi, Paolo. "The history of the second temple period." (2004): 10

In the national crisis of the Babylonian exile, Yahweh is described as the sole deity and absorbs all attributes of previous gods and goddesses.{{sfn|Betz|2000|p=917}} The notion of Yahweh as a supreme deity is described in the 6th-century BCE Second Isaiah.{{sfn|Rosenberg|1966|p=297}}{{sfn|Albani|2020|p=226}} The author's praise for Yahweh is motivated by restoring Israel's confidence into their own historical gods against the deities of their Babylonian enemies.{{sfn|Albani|2020|pp=226-228}} The claim for monotheism is directed against the deities of Nebuchadnezzar II, who founded his reign on Marduk and Nabu.{{sfn|Albani|2020|pp=226–228}} The transition was a gradual one and was not totally accomplished during the First Temple period.{{Cite book |last1=Taliaferro |first1=Charles |title=The Routledge Companion to Theism |last2=Harrison |first2=Victoria S. |last3=Goetz |first3=Stewart |publisher=Routledge |year=2012}}{{Page needed|date=April 2024}} At least some Jews seem to have worshipped Yahweh and Anath as distinct from their parents Asherah and El during the 5th century BCE.{{cite journal |last=Patai |first=Raphael |title=The God Yahweh-Elohim |journal=American Anthropologist |publisher=American Anthropological Association, Wiley |volume=75 |issue=4 |year=1973 |issn=0002-7294 |jstor=673271 |pages=1181–1184}}

Under Hellenistic influence, Yahwistic beliefs became more exclusive.Sacchi, Paolo. "The history of the second temple period." (2004): 10Edelman, D. V. (Ed.). (1995). The Triumph of Elohim: From Yahwisms to Judaisms (Vol. 13). Peeters Publishers. p. 23 These beliefs rejected the idea of lesser deities and emanations of deities in favor of Yahweh as an abstract single god.Edelman, D. V. (Ed.). (1995). The Triumph of Elohim: From Yahwisms to Judaisms (Vol. 13). Peeters Publishers. p. 23 During the Hellenistic period, the scriptures were translated into Greek by the Jews of the Egyptian diaspora.{{sfn|Coogan|Brettler|Newsom|2007|p=xxvi}} Greek translations of the Hebrew scriptures render both the names Yahweh and {{tlit|hbo|adonai}} as {{tlit|grc|kyrios}} ({{lang|grc|κύριος}}), meaning 'Lord'.{{sfn|Leech|2002|p=60}} Jewish tradition celebrated Yahweh's name at least once a year at the temple by the High Priests at the Day of Atonement.{{sfn|Leech|2002|pp=59–60}} However, after the destruction of the Second Temple, Yahweh's name ceased to be used.{{sfn|Leech|2002|pp=59–60}}

The Secret Book of John reinterpreted the Genesis story under Hellenistic influence and proposes that Eve copulated with Yaldabaoth and gave birth to two sons: Abel and Cain, identified with Elohim and Yahweh respectively.Pearson, Birger A. Gnosticism, Judaism, and Egyptian Christianity. Fortress Press, 1990. pp. 100–102 The former is said to be righteous and the latter injust. By murdering his brother, and corrupted by his father, he brings envy and death into the world.Pearson, Birger A. Gnosticism, Judaism, and Egyptian Christianity. Fortress Press, 1990. pp. 100–102

{{Main article|Yahwism}}

{{see also|Feast of Wine}}

The centre of Yahweh's worship lay in three great annual festivals coinciding with major events in rural life: Passover with the birthing of lambs, Shavuot with the cereal harvest, and Sukkot with the fruit harvest.{{sfn|Albertz|1994|p=89}} These probably pre-dated the arrival of the Yahweh religion,{{sfn|Albertz|1994|p=89}} but they became linked to events in the national mythos of Israel: Passover with the exodus from Egypt, Shavuot with the law-giving at Mount Sinai, and Sukkot with the wilderness wanderings.{{sfn|Davies|2010|p=112}} The festivals thus celebrated Yahweh's salvation of Israel and Israel's status as his holy people, although the earlier agricultural meaning was not entirely lost.{{sfn|Gorman|2000|p=458}} His worship presumably involved sacrifice, but many scholars have concluded that the rituals detailed in Leviticus 1–16, with their stress on purity and atonement, were introduced only after the Babylonian exile, and that in reality any head of a family was able to offer sacrifice as occasion demanded.{{sfn|Davies|Rogerson|2005|pp=151–152}} A number of scholars have also drawn the conclusion that infant sacrifice, whether to the underworld deity Molech or to Yahweh himself, was a part of Israelite/Judahite religion until the reforms of King Josiah in the late 7th century BCE.{{sfn|Gnuse|1997|p=118}} Sacrifice was presumably complemented by the singing or recital of psalms, but again the details are scant.{{sfn|Davies|Rogerson|2005|pp=158–165}} Prayer played little role in official worship.{{sfn|Cohen|1999|p=302}}

File:Tissot Solomon Dedicates the Temple at Jerusalem.jpg dedicates the Temple in Jerusalem (painting by James Tissot or follower, c. 1896–1902).]]

The Hebrew Bible gives the impression that the Jerusalem temple was always meant to be the central or even sole temple of Yahweh, but this was not the case.{{sfn|Davies|2010|p=112}} The earliest known Israelite place of worship is a 12th-century BCE open-air altar in the hills of Samaria featuring a bronze bull reminiscent of Canaanite Bull-El (El in the form of a bull) and the archaeological remains of further temples have been found at Dan on Israel's northern border, at Arad in the Negev and Beersheba, both in the territory of Judah.{{sfn|Dever|2003a|p=388}} Shiloh, Bethel, Gilgal, Mizpah, Ramah and Dan were also major sites for festivals, sacrifices, the making of vows, private rituals, and the adjudication of legal disputes.{{sfn|Bennett|2002|p=83}}

{{see also|Aniconism in Judaism}}

Yahweh-worship was thought to be aniconic, meaning that the god was not depicted by a statue or other image. This is not to say that he was not represented in some symbolic form, and early Israelite worship probably focused on standing stones, but according to the Biblical texts the temple in Jerusalem featured Yahweh's throne in the form of two cherubim, their inner wings forming the seat and a box (the Ark of the Covenant) as a footstool, while the throne itself was empty.{{sfn|Mettinger|2006|pp=288–290}}

There is no universally accepted explanation for such aniconism, and a number of scholars have argued that Yahweh was in fact represented prior to the reforms of Hezekiah and Josiah late in the monarchic period: to quote one study, "[a]n early aniconism, de facto or otherwise, is purely a projection of the post-exilic imagination".{{sfn|MacDonald|2007|pp=21, 26–27}} Other scholars argue that there is no certain evidence of any anthropomorphic representation of Yahweh during the pre-exilic period.{{sfn|Lewis|2020|pp=293–297}}

Yahweh is frequently invoked in Graeco-Roman magical texts dating between the 2nd century BCE and the 5th century CE, most notably in the Greek Magical Papyri,{{sfn|Betz|1996|p={{page needed|date=August 2020}}}} under the names Iao, Adonai, Sabaoth, and Eloai.{{sfn|Smith|Cohen|1996b|pp=242–256}} In these texts, he is often mentioned alongside traditional Graeco-Roman deities and Egyptian deities.{{sfn|Smith|Cohen|1996b|pp=242–256}} The archangels Michael, Gabriel, Raphael, and Ouriel and Jewish cultural heroes such as Abraham, Jacob, and Moses are also invoked frequently.{{sfn|Arnold|1996|p={{page needed|date=August 2020}}}} The frequent occurrence of Yahweh's name was likely due to Greek and Roman folk magicians seeking to make their spells more powerful through the invocation of a prestigious foreign deity.{{sfn|Smith|Cohen|1996b|pp=242–256}}

A coin issued by Pompey to celebrate his successful conquest of Judaea showed a kneeling, bearded figure grasping a branch (a common Roman symbol of submission) subtitled {{lang|la|Bacchivs Ivdaevs}}, which may be translated as either "The Jewish Bacchus" or "Bacchus the Judaean". The figure has been interpreted as depicting Yahweh as a local variety of Bacchus, that is, Dionysus.{{sfn|Scott|2015|pp=169–172}} However, as coins minted with such iconography ordinarily depicted subjected persons, and not the gods of a subjected people, some have assumed the coin simply depicts the surrender of a Judean who was called "Bacchius", sometimes identified as the Hasmonean king Aristobulus II, who was overthrown by Pompey's campaign.{{sfn|Scott|2015|pp=11, 16, 80, 126}}{{Cite book |last=Levine |first=Lee I. |title=Judaism and Hellenism in Antiquity: Conflict or Confluence? |date=1998 |publisher=University of Washington Press |isbn=978-0-295-97682-2 |pages=38–60 |jstor=j.ctvcwnpvs}}{{Cite journal |last=Lane |first=Eugene N. |date=November 1979 |title=Sabazius and the Jews in Valerius Maximus: a Re-examination |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-roman-studies/article/abs/sabazius-and-the-jews-in-valerius-maximus-a-reexamination/9A146A478B7D4B7F239ED7AE321C2F34 |journal=The Journal of Roman Studies |volume=69 |pages=35–38 |jstor=299057 |s2cid=163401482 |issn=1753-528X}}{{cite book |author=Harlan |first=Michael |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YztmAAAAMAAJ |title=Roman Republican Moneyers and Their Coins, 63 B.C.–49 B.C. |publisher=Seaby |year=1995 |isbn=0-7134-7672-9 |pages=115–118}}

In any event, Tacitus, John the Lydian, Cornelius Labeo, and Marcus Terentius Varro similarly identify Yahweh with Bacchus–Dionysus.{{sfn|McDonough|1999|page=88}} Jews themselves frequently used symbols that were also associated with Dionysus such as kylixes, amphorae, leaves of ivy, and clusters of grapes, a similarity Plutarch used to argue that Jews worshipped a hypostasized form of Bacchus–Dionysus.{{sfn|Smith|Cohen|1996a|p=233}} In his {{lang|la|Quaestiones Convivales}}, Plutarch further notes that the Jews hail their god with cries of "Euoi" and "Sabi", phrases associated with the worship of Dionysus.{{sfn|Plutarch|n.d.|loc=[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0007.tlg112.perseus-eng1:4.6 "Question VI"]}}{{sfn|McDonough|1999|page=89}}{{sfn|Smith|Cohen|1996a|pages=232–233}} According to Sean M. McDonough, Greek speakers may have confused Aramaic words such as Sabbath, Alleluia, or even possibly some variant of the name Yahweh itself, for more familiar terms associated with Dionysus.{{sfn|McDonough|1999|pp=89–90}}

Other Roman writers, such as Juvenal, Petronius, and Florus, identified Yahweh with the god Caelus.Juvenal, Satires 14.97; Peter Schäfer, Judeophobia: Attitudes toward the Jews in the Ancient World (Harvard University Press, 1997), pp. 41, 79–80.Petronius, frg. 37.2; Schäfer, Judeophobia, pp. 77–78.Florus, Epitome 1.40 (3.5.30): "The Jews tried to defend Jerusalem; but he [Pompeius Magnus] entered this city also and saw that grand Holy of Holies of an impious people exposed, Caelum under a golden vine" (Hierosolymam defendere temptavere Iudaei; verum haec quoque et intravit et vidit illud grande inpiae gentis arcanum patens, sub aurea vite Caelum). Finbarr Barry Flood, The Great Mosque of Damascus: Studies on the Makings of an Umayyad Visual Culture (Brill, 2001), pp. 81, 83 (note 118). The Oxford Latin Dictionary (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1982, 1985 reprinting), p. 252, entry on {{lang|la|caelum}}, cites Juvenal, Petronius, and Florus as examples of Caelus or Caelum "with reference to Jehovah; also, to some symbolization of Jehovah."

{{Portal|Jewish|Judaism}}

• Assemblies of Yahweh
• Historicity of the Bible
• Jehovah
• Names of God in Christianity
• Names of God in Judaism
• Sacred Name Movement
• Theophany
• Tutelary deity

{{notelist}}

{{Reflist|20em}}

{{refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}

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• {{cite book |last=Hess |first=Richard S. |author-link=Richard Hess |title=Israelite Religions: An Archaeological and Biblical Survey |publisher=Baker Academic |date=2007 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2aJzBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA103 |isbn=978-0-8010-2717-8}}
• {{cite book |last=Hess |first=Richard S. |date=2012 |chapter=Yahweh's "Wife" and Belief in One God in the Old Testament |title=Do Historical Matters Matter to Faith?: A Critical Appraisal of Modern and Postmodern Approaches to Scripture |editor1-last=Hoffmeier |editor1-first=James K. |editor2-last=Magary |editor2-first=Dennis R. |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Lc_R1E1wD9cC&q=Kuntillet+Ajrud+Yahweh+and+his+Asherah+potsherd+Bes+music&pg=PA472 |location=Wheaton, IL |publisher=Crossway |pages=459–76 |isbn=978-1-4335-2574-2}}
• {{Cite book |title=The Oxford Handbook of the Historical Books of the Hebrew Bible |last=Hess |first=Richard S. |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2020 |isbn=978-0-19-026116-0 |pages=241–253 |editor-last=Kelle |editor-first=Brad E. |chapter=Yahwistic Religion in the Assyrian and Babylonian Periods |editor-last2=Strawn |editor-first2=Brent A. |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T_kFEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA241}}
• {{cite book |last=Hoffman |first=Joel |title=In the Beginning: A Short History of the Hebrew Language |publisher=NYU Press |year=2004 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5TShBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA236 |isbn=978-0-8147-3706-4}}
• {{cite book |last=Humphries |first=W. Lee |chapter=God, Names of |editor1-last=Mills |editor1-first=Watson E. |editor2-last=Bullard |editor2-first=Roger Aubrey |title=Mercer Dictionary of the Bible |publisher=Mercer University Press |year=1990 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=goq0VWw9rGIC&q=%22used+in+the+Septuagint+where+Yahweh+appears%22&pg=PA340 |isbn=978-0-86554-373-7}}
• {{Cite book |last1=King |first1=Philip J. |last2=Stager |first2=Lawrence E. |title=Life in Biblical Israel |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-664-22148-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OtOhypZz_pEC&pg=PAxxiii}}
• {{Cite journal |title=The Verb *yahway |journal=Journal of Biblical Literature |last=Kitz |first=Anne Marie |issue=1 |volume=138 |pages=39–62 |doi=10.15699/jbl.1381.2019.508716 |year=2019 |issn=0021-9231 |url=https://www.academia.edu/90528116 |jstor=10.15699/jbl.1381.2019.508716 |s2cid=167075689}}
• {{cite book |title=Yehezkel Kaufmann and the Reinvention of Jewish Biblical Scholarship |last=Knohl |first=Israel |publisher=Academic Press |year=2017 |isbn=978-3-525-54414-3 |editor-last=Jindo |editor-first=Job Y. |chapter=The Rise, Decline and Renewal of Biblical Religion |editor-last2=Sommer |editor-first2=Benjamin D. |editor-last3=Staubli |editor-first3=Thomas |chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/35321606}}
• {{cite book |last=Langdon |first=Stephen Herbert |author-link=Stephen Herbert Langdon |title=The Mythology of All Races ... Semitic |publisher=Boston |volume=5 |year=1931 |url=https://archive.org/details/MythologyOfAllRacesVolume5/page/n61/mode/2up}}
• {{cite book |last=Leech |first=Kenneth |date=2002 |orig-date=1985 |title=Experiencing God: Theology as Spirituality |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q5lKAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA60 |location=Eugene, OR |publisher=Wipf and Stock Publishers |isbn=978-1-57910-613-3}}
• {{cite book |last=Levin |first=Christoph |year=2013 |title=Re-Reading the Scriptures: Essays on the Literary History of the Old Testament |publisher=Mohr Siebeck |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aSNZ76USaYgC&pg=PA247 |isbn=978-3-16-152207-9}}
• {{cite book |last=Levenson |first=Jon D. |chapter=Genesis |title=The Jewish Study Bible |publisher=Oxford University Press |editor-last1=Berlin |editor-first1=Adele |editor-last2=Brettler |editor-first2=Marc |edition=Second |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-19-997846-5}}
• {{cite book |last=Lewis |first=Theodore J. |year=2020 |title=The Origin and Character of God |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-007254-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-erqDwAAQBAJ}}
• {{cite book |last=Liverani |first=Mario |author-link=Mario Liverani |title=Israel's History and the History of Israel |publisher=Routledge |year=2014 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_1zfBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA74 |isbn=978-1-317-48893-4}}
• {{cite book |last=Mastin |first=B.A. |chapter=Yahweh's Asherah, Inclusive Monotheism and the Question of Dating |editor1-last=Day |editor1-first=John |title=In Search of Pre-Exilic Israel |publisher=Bloomsbury |year=2005 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sUuvAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA326 |isbn=978-0-567-24554-0}}
• {{cite book |last=McDonough |first=Sean M. |date=1999 |title=YHWH at Patmos: Rev. 1:4 in Its Hellenistic and Early Jewish Setting |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c0ZG4P8J1roC |series=Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament 2. Reihe |volume=107 |location=Tübingen, Germany |publisher=Mohr Siebeck |isbn=978-3-16-147055-4 |issn=0340-9570}}
• {{cite book |author-link=John L. McKenzie |last=McKenzie |first=John L. |chapter=Aspects of Old Testament Thought |editor1=Raymond E. Brown |editor2=Joseph A. Fitzmyer |editor3=Roland E. Murphy |name-list-style=amp |title=The New Jerome Biblical Commentary |location=New Jersey |publisher=Prentice Hall |year=1990}} S.v. 77:17.
• {{cite book |last=Mettinger |first=Tryggve N.D. |chapter=A Conversation with My Critics: Cultic Image or Aniconism in the First Temple? |editor1-last=Amit |editor1-first=Yaira |editor2-last=Naʼaman |editor2-first=Nadav |title=Essays on Ancient Israel in Its Near Eastern Context |publisher=Eisenbrauns |year=2006 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ku4OKVrEd4MC&q=%22the+prohibition+of+images+was+a+late+idea%22%22in+a+very+late+Deuteronomistic+layer%22&pg=PA273 |isbn=978-1-57506-128-3}}
• {{cite book |last=Meyers |first=Carol |chapter=Kinship and Kingship: The early Monarchy |editor1-last=Coogan |editor1-first=Michael David |title=The Oxford History of the Biblical World |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2001 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gM-tZeEO4wgC&q=%22monarchic+state%22%22formal+concentration+of+power%22&pg=PA166 |isbn=978-0-19-513937-2}}
• {{cite book |last=MacDonald |first=Nathan |chapter=Aniconism in the Old Testament |editor1-last=Gordon |editor1-first=R.P. |title=The God of Israel |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2007 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZrGfxNqfszsC&q=%22Aniconism+in+the+Old+Testament%22&pg=PA21 |isbn=978-0-521-87365-9}}
• {{cite book |last=Miller |first=Patrick D. |author-link=Patrick D. Miller |title=The Religion of Ancient Israel |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press |year=2000 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JBhY9BQ7hIQC&pg=PA90 |isbn=978-0-664-22145-4}}
• {{cite book |last1=Miller |first1=James M. |last2=Hayes |first2=John H. |title=A History of Ancient Israel and Judah |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press |year=1986 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uDijjc_D5P0C&pg=PA110 |isbn=978-0-664-21262-9}}
• {{cite book |title=Yahweh: Origin of a Desert God |last=Miller II |first=Robert D. |publisher=Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht |year=2021 |isbn=978-3-647-54086-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SrbkEAAAQBAJ |series=Forschungen zur Religion und Literatur des Alten und Neuen Testaments |volume=284}}
• {{cite book |last1=Moore |first1=Megan Bishop |last2=Kelle |first2=Brad E. |title=Biblical History and Israel's Past: The Changing Study of the Bible and History |publisher=Eerdmans |year=2011 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Qjkz_8EMoaUC&pg=PA125 |isbn=978-0-8028-6260-0}}
• Nestor, Dermot Anthony, Cognitive Perspectives on Israelite Identity, Continuum International Publishing Group, 2010
• {{cite book |last=Niehr |first=Herbert |chapter=The Rise of YHWH in Judahite and Israelite Religion |editor1-last=Edelman |editor1-first=Diana Vikander |title=The Triumph of Elohim: From Yahwisms to Judaisms |publisher=Peeters Publishers |year=1995 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bua2dMa9fJ4C&pg=PA45 |isbn=978-90-5356-503-2}}
• {{cite book |last=Noll |first=K. L. |title=Canaan and Israel in Antiquity: An Introduction |publisher=A&C Black |year=2001 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2rnyjxLHy-QC&pg=PA124 |isbn=978-1-84127-258-0}}
• {{citation |last=Parke-Taylor |first=G. H. |author-link=G. H. Parke-Taylor |date=1975 |title=Yahweh: The Divine Name in the Bible |publisher=Wilfrid Laurier University Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XZhkDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA47 |isbn=978-0-88920-013-5}}
• {{cite book |last=Petersen |first=Allan Rosengren |title=The Royal God: Enthronement Festivals in Ancient Israel and Ugarit? |publisher=A&C Black |year=1998 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4YetAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA23 |isbn=978-1-85075-864-8}}
• {{cite book |author=Plutarch |author-link=Plutarch |date=n.d. |title=Quaestiones Convivales |editor-last=Goodwin |editor-first=William Watson |translator-last=Creech |translator-first=Thomas |publisher=Little, Brown & Co. |location=Boston |publication-date=1874 |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0007.tlg112.perseus-eng1:4.0}}
• {{cite book |last=Preuss |first=Horst |chapter=Yahweh |editor1-last=Bromiley |editor1-first=Geoffrey William |title=The Encyclodedia of Christianity |volume=5 |publisher=Eerdmans |year=2008 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lZUBZlth2qgC&pg=PA823 |isbn=978-0-8028-2417-2}}
• {{cite journal |title=On Deserted Landscapes and Divine Iconography: Iconographic Perspectives on the Origins of YHWH |journal=Entangled Religions |last=Pyschny |first=Katharina |issue=2 |volume=12 |doi=10.46586/er.12.2021.9263 |year=2021 |issn=2363-6696 |doi-access=free}}
• {{cite book |last=Römer |first=Thomas |title=The Invention of God |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z59XCwAAQBAJ |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-674-50497-4}}
• {{cite journal |title=Yahweh Becomes King |first=Roy A. |last=Rosenberg |journal=Journal of Biblical Literature |volume=85 |issue=3 |date=1966 |pages=297–307 |publisher=The Society of Biblical Literature |doi=10.2307/3264243 |jstor=3264243}}
• {{cite book |last=Schniedewind |first=William M. |title=A Social History of Hebrew: Its Origins Through the Rabbinic Period |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2013 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CcjYAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA93 |isbn=978-0-300-17668-1}}
• {{cite book |last=Scott |first=James M. |year=2015 |title=Bacchius Iudaeus: A Denarius Commemorating Pompey's Victory over Judea |series=Novum Testamentum et Orbis Antiquus |volume=104 |place=Göttingen |publisher=Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht |isbn=978-3-525-54045-9}}
• {{cite journal |last=Shalomi Hen |first=Racheli |title=Signs of YHWH, God of the Hebrews, in New Kingdom Egypt? |journal=Entangled Religions |volume=12 |year=2021 |issue=2 |doi=10.46586/er.12.2021.9463 |issn=2363-6696 |doi-access=free}}
• {{cite book |last=Smith |first=Mark S. |author-link=Mark S. Smith |chapter=El |editor1-last=Freedman |editor1-first=David Noel |editor2-last=Myer |editor2-first=Allen C. |title=Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible |publisher=Eerdmans |year=2000 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qRtUqxkB7wkC&q=%22facts+militate+against+an+identification+of+Yahweh+as+originally+a+title+of+El%22&pg=PA385 |isbn=978-90-5356-503-2}}
• {{cite book |last=Smith |first=Mark S. |author-link=Mark S. Smith |year=2001 |title=The Origins of Biblical Monotheism: Israel's Polytheistic Background and the Ugaritic Texts |publisher=Oxford University Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n0v0NB5-n3sC |isbn=978-0-19-516768-9}}
• {{cite book |last=Smith |first=Mark S. |author-link=Mark S. Smith |year=2002 |title=The Early History of God: Yahweh and the Other Deities in Ancient Israel |publisher=Eerdmans |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1yM3AuBh4AsC&pg=PA6 |edition=2nd |isbn=978-0-8028-3972-5}}
• {{cite book |last=Smith |first=Mark S. |author-link=Mark S. Smith |chapter=Astral Religion and the Divinity |editor1-last=Noegel |editor1-first=Scott |editor2-last=Walker |editor2-first=Joel |title=Prayer, Magic, and the Stars in the Ancient and Late Antique World |publisher=Penn State Press |year=2003 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gb-jl0nef-4C&q=%22West+Semitic+religion+in+general+owes+much+to+astral+religion%22&pg=PA187 |isbn=978-0-271-04600-6}}
• {{cite book |last=Smith |first=Mark S. |author-link=Mark S. Smith |year=2008 |title=God in Translation: Deities in Cross-Cultural Discourse in the Biblical World |publisher=Mohr Siebeck |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CmCVZ5mHsboC&pg=PA119 |isbn=978-3-16-149543-4}}
• {{cite book |last=Smith |first=Mark S. |author-link=Mark S. Smith |chapter=Monotheism and the Redefinition of Divinity in Ancient Israel |editor-last=Niditch |editor-first=Susan |title=The Wiley Blackwell Companion to Ancient Israel |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |year=2016 |isbn=978-0-470-65677-8 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-eMACgAAQBAJ&pg=PA278}}
• {{cite book |last=Smith |first=Mark S. |author-link=Mark S. Smith |chapter=Proposals for the Original Profile of YHWH |editor1-last=Van Oorschot |editor1-first=Jürgen |editor2-last=Witte |editor2-first=Markus |title=The Origins of Yahwism |publisher=De Gruyter |series=Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft |year=2017 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8LtGDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA37 |isbn=978-3-11-044711-8 |doi=10.1515/9783110448221}}
• {{cite book |last=Smith |first=Morton |author-link=Morton Smith |chapter=Jewish Religious Life in the Persian Period |editor1-last=Finkelstein |editor1-first=Louis |title=The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 1, Introduction: The Persian Period |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1984 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Jo0LKxcMJKAC |isbn=978-0-521-21880-1}}
• {{cite book |last1=Smith |first1=Morton |last2=Cohen |first2=Shaye J. D. |date=1996a |title=Studies in the Cult of Yahweh: Volume One: Studies in Historical Method, Ancient Israel, Ancient Judaism |publisher=E. J. Brill |location=Leiden, The Netherlands, New York, and Cologne |isbn=978-90-04-10477-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EyfB19u1U8EC}}
• {{cite book |last1=Smith |first1=Morton |last2=Cohen |first2=Shaye J. D. |date=1996b |title=Studies in the Cult of Yahweh: Volume Two: New Testament, Christianity, and Magic |publisher=Brill |location=Leiden, The Netherlands, New York, and Cologne |isbn=978-90-04-10479-2}}
• {{cite book |last=Sommer |first=Benjamin D. |title=The Bodies of God and the World of Ancient Israel |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-521-51872-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3T9eWJuM7EcC&pg=PA145}}
• {{cite book |last1=Sommer |first1=Benjamin D. |chapter=God, Names of |editor1-last=Berlin |editor1-first=Adele |editor2-last=Grossman |editor2-first=Maxine L. |title=The Oxford Dictionary of the Jewish Religion |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2011 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hKAaJXvUaUoC&pg=PA299 |isbn=978-0-19-973004-9}}
• {{cite book |last=Sperling |first=S. David |title=Ve-Eileh Divrei David |publisher=Brill |year=2017 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q668DgAAQBAJ&pg=PA254 |isbn=978-90-04-34087-9}}
• {{cite book |last=Stager |first=Lawrence |author-link=Lawrence Stager |chapter=Forging an Identity: The Emergence of Ancient Israel |editor1-last=Coogan |editor1-first=Michael David |title=The Oxford History of the Biblical World |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-19-513937-2}}
• {{cite book |title=The "God of Israel" in History and Tradition |last=Stahl |first=Michael J. |publisher=BRILL |year=2021 |isbn=978-90-04-44772-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=drMlEAAAQBAJ |series=Vetus Testamentum, Supplements |volume=187}}
• {{cite book |last=Stavrakopoulou |first=Francesca |author-link=Francesca Stavrakopoulou |title=God: An Anatomy |publisher=Picador |year=2021 |isbn=978-1-5098-6734-9}}
• {{cite book |last=Stone |first=Robert E. II |chapter=I Am Who I Am |editor1-last=Freedman |editor1-first=David Noel |editor2-last=Myers |editor2-first=Allen C. |title=Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible |publisher=Eerdmans |year=2000 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qRtUqxkB7wkC&q=i+am |isbn=978-90-5356-503-2}}
• {{cite journal |title=El extraño caso del dios Qos. ¿Por qué la deidad edomita/idumea no es mencionada en la Biblia? |journal=Revista Bíblica |last=Tebes |first=Juan Manuel |issue=1–2 |volume=85 |pages=55–70 |doi=10.47182/rb.85.n1-2-2023349 |issn=2683-7153 |year=2023 |language=es |doi-access=free}}
• {{cite book |last=Van der Toorn |first=Karel |author-link=Karel van der Toorn |chapter=Ritual Resistance and Self-Assertion |editor1-last=Platvoet |editor1-first=Jan. G. |editor2-last=Van der Toorn |editor2-first=Karel |title=Pluralism and Identity: Studies in Ritual Behaviour |publisher=Brill |year=1995 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=178X5n7zArwC&q=%22Ritual+Resistance+and+Self-Assertion%22&pg=PA229 |isbn=978-90-04-10373-3}}
• {{cite book |last=Van der Toorn |first=Karel |chapter=Yahweh |editor1-last=Van der Toorn |editor1-first=Karel |editor2-last=Becking |editor2-first=Bob |editor3-last=Van der Horst |editor3-first=Pieter Willem |title=Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible |publisher=Eerdmans |year=1999 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yCkRz5pfxz0C&q=%22If+the+Kenite+hypothesis+is+to+be+maintained%22&pg=PA912 |isbn=978-0-8028-2491-2 |title-link=Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible}}
• {{cite book |last=Van der Toorn |first=Karel |title=Family Religion in Babylonia, Ugarit and Israel: Continuity and Changes in the Forms of Religious Life |publisher=Brill |year=1996 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VSJWkrXfbLQC&pg=PA281 |isbn=978-90-04-10410-5}}
• {{cite book |author1-last=Vriezen |author1-first=T. C. |author2-last=van der Woude |author2-first=Simon Adam |date=2005 |title=Ancient Israelite And Early Jewish Literature |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VeOwyTae71cC&pg=PA18 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-12427-1}}
• {{cite book |last=Wanke |first=Gunther |chapter=Prophecy and Psalms in the Persian Period |editor1-last=Finkelstein |editor1-first=Louis |title=The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 1, Introduction, The Persian Period |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1984 |isbn=978-0-521-21880-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mxrgAVkVysAC}}
• {{cite book |last1=Wright |first1=J. Edward |title=The Early History of Heaven |year=2002 |publisher=Oxford University Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lKvMeMorNBEC&pg=PA42 |isbn=978-0-19-534849-1}}
• {{cite book |last=Wyatt |first=Nicolas |chapter=Royal Religion in Ancient Judah |editor1-last=Stavrakopoulou |editor1-first=Francesca |editor2-last=Barton |editor2-first=John |title=Religious Diversity in Ancient Israel and Judah |publisher=Continuum International Publishing Group |year=2010 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kG_9-vki4ocC&pg=PR5 |isbn=978-0-567-03216-4}}
• {{cite book |last=Zevit |first=Ziony |author-link=Ziony Zevit |title=The Religions of Ancient Israel: A Synthesis of Parallactic Approaches |publisher=Continuum |year=2001 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=db4hr55j0yYC |isbn=978-0-8264-6339-5}}

{{refend}}

{{refbegin}}

• {{cite journal |last=Amzallag |first=Nissim |title=Yahweh, the Canaanite God of Metallurgy? |journal=Journal for the Study of the Old Testament |volume=33 |issue=4 |date=June 2009 |pages=387–404 |doi=10.1177/0309089209105686 |s2cid=171053999 |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0309089209105686}}
• {{cite journal |last=Kelley |first=J. |title=Toward a new synthesis of the god of Edom and Yaheweh |journal=Antiguo Oriente |publisher=Cuadernos del Centro de Estudios de Historia del Antiguo Oriente |date=2009 |volume=7 |url=https://repositorio.uca.edu.ar/handle/123456789/7231 |hdl=123456789/7231}}

{{refend}}

• {{cite journal |last=Tebes |first=J. M. |title=Yahweh's Desert Origins |journal=Biblical Archaeology Review |date=2022 |url=https://repositorio.uca.edu.ar/handle/123456789/15051 |hdl=123456789/15051}}

{{Names of God}}

{{Authority control}}

Category:Children of El (deity)

Category:Conceptions of God

Category:Creator gods

Category:Deities in the Hebrew Bible

Category:Dionysus

Category:Judeo-Christian topics

Category:Justice gods

Category:Names of God

Category:National gods

Category:Reconstructed words

Category:Religion in ancient Israel and Judah

Category:Savior gods

Category:Tetragrammaton

Category:West Semitic gods