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ancient literature

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{{History of literature by era}}

{{Literature}}{{More citations needed|date=May 2024}}

Ancient literature comprises religious and scientific documents, tales, poetry and plays, royal edicts and declarations, and other forms of writing that were recorded on a variety of media, including stone, clay tablets, papyri, palm leaves, and metal.

Before the spread of writing, oral literature did not always survive well, but some texts and fragments have persisted.

An unknown number of written works have not survived the ravages of time and are therefore lost.

Incomplete list of ancient texts

=Bronze Age=

{{See also|Sumerian literature|Akkadian literature|Ancient Egyptian literature|Hittite texts|Ugaritic texts}}

Early Bronze Age: 3rd millennium BC (approximate dates shown). The earliest written literature dates from about 2600 BC (classical Sumerian).{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia of the Ancient World|author=Grimbly, Shona|publisher=Taylor & Francis|year=2000|isbn=978-1-57958-281-4|page=216|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CRZu51yv1X4C|quote=The earliest written literature dates from about 2600 BC, when the Sumerians started to write down their long epic poems.}} Certain literary texts are difficult to date, such as the Egyptian Book of the Dead, which was recorded in the Papyrus of Ani around 1240 BC, but other versions of the book probably date from about the 18th century BC.

  • 2600 BC: Sumerian texts from Abu Salabikh, including the Instructions of Shuruppak and the Kesh temple hymn{{cite book |last=Biggs |first=Robert D. |url=http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/oip99.pdf |title=Inscriptions from Tell Abū Ṣalābīkh |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1974 |isbn=0-226-62202-9 |series=Oriental Institute Publications |author-link=Robert D. Biggs |issue=99}}Two fragmentary Akkadian versions survive, from the 15th century BCE and from the end of the second millennium BCE: "Its great antiquity and popularity is evidenced by the large number of manuscripts of it that have survived" (Beaulieu in Clifford 2007:4).{{cite book |author1=Mogens Herman Hansen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cBa3oW3F5rQC&pg=PA40 |title=A comparative study of six city-state cultures: an investigation |author2=Københavns universitet. Polis centret |date=2002 |publisher=Kgl. Danske Videnskabernes Selskab |isbn=978-87-7876-316-7 |pages=40– |access-date=2 June 2011}}{{cite book |author1=Jeremy A. Black |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a1W2mTtGVV4C&pg=PA325 |title=The Literature of Ancient Sumer |author2=Jeremy Black |author3=Graham Cunningham |author4=Eleanor Robson |date=13 April 2006 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-929633-0 |pages=325– |access-date=2 June 2011}}
  • 2600 BC: Egyptian The Life of Metjen from SaqqaraToby A. H. Wilkinson: Early Dynastic Egypt. Routledge, London/New York 2001, {{ISBN|0-415-26011-6}}.{{Cite book |last=Leprohon |first=Ronald J. |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/Texts_from_the_Pyramid_Age/qeApebusL_0C?hl=en&gbpv=0 |title=Texts from the Pyramid Age |date=2005 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-13048-7 |pages=172 |language=en}}
  • 2500 BC: Egyptian Diary of Merer{{cite web |date= |title=The World's Oldest Papyrus and What It Can Tell Us About the Great Pyramids |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/ancient-egypt-shipping-mining-farming-economy-pyramids-180956619/ |accessdate=11 September 2017 |website=Smithsonian}} and Instruction of Hardjedef
  • 2500 BC: Sumerian Hymn to Enlil{{cite book |author1=Miguel Ángel Borrás |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3yPVFGPr0aoC&pg=PA48 |title=Joan Goodrick Westenholz, The Foundation Myths of Mesopotamian Cities: Divine Planners and Human Builder in "La fundación de la ciudad: mitos y ritos en el mundo antiguo" |author2=Centre de Cultura Contemporània de Barcelona |date=2000 |publisher=Edicions UPC |isbn=978-84-8301-387-8 |pages=48– |access-date=3 June 2011}}, Enlil and Ninlil, and Debate between sheep and grain{{cite book |author=Samuel Noah Kramer |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iY9xp4pLp88C&pg=PA220 |title=The Sumerians: their history, culture and character |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1964 |isbn=978-0-226-45238-8 |pages=218– |access-date=23 May 2011}}
  • 2400 BC: Sumerian Code of Urukagina{{cite book|title=Criminals of the Bible: Twenty-Five Case Studies of Biblical Crimes and Outlaws|author=Jones, Mark|publisher=FaithWalk Publishing|year=2006|isbn=978-1-932902-64-8|page=6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zHnH4DJ9pr0C|quote=The Sumerian code of Urukagina was written around 2400 BC.}}
  • 2400 BC – 2300 BC: Egyptian Pyramid Texts, including the Cannibal Hymn{{Cite book |title=The ancient Egyptian pyramid texts |date=2005 |publisher=Soc. of Biblical Literature |isbn=978-1-58983-182-7 |editor-last=Allen |editor-first=James P. |series=Writings from the ancient world |location=Atlanta |editor-last2=Der Manuelian |editor-first2=Peter}}
  • 2375 BC: Egyptian The Maxims of Ptahhotep
  • 2283 BC: Egyptian Palermo Stone
  • 2270 BC: Sumerian Enheduanna's Hymns
  • 2250 BC: Egyptian Autobiography of Weni and South Saqqara Stone
  • 2250 BC – 2000 BC: Earliest Sumerian stories in the Epic of Gilgamesh{{cite book|editor=Stephanie Dalley|editor-link=Stephanie Dalley|title=Myths from Mesopotamia: Creation, the Flood, Gilgamesh, and Others|year=2000|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-953836-2}}{{cite book|title=Evolution of the Brain: Creation of the Self|author=Eccles, Sir John Carew|author-link=John Eccles (neurophysiologist)|publisher=Routledge|year=1989|isbn=978-0-415-03224-7|page=115|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rM68T7L-lY4C|quote=The Epic of Gilgamesh, written in Sumer about 2200 BC.}}
  • 2200 BC: Egyptian Autobiography of Harkhuf{{Cite book|title=The Old and Middle Kingdoms|last=Miriam.|first=Lichtheim|date=2006|publisher=University of California press|isbn=9780520248427|page=23|oclc=889165092}}
  • 2125 BC: Sumerian Building of Ningirsu's Temple{{cite book |author=Thorkild Jacobsen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L-BI0h41yCEC |title=The Harps that once--: Sumerian poetry in translation, pp. 386- |publisher=Yale University Press |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-300-07278-5}}
  • 2100 BC: Sumerian Curse of Agade, Debate between bird and fish{{cite web |title=Sumerian Literature: Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta, Sumerian Creation Myth, Debate Between Bird and Fish, Lament for Ur, Nabnitu, Lu-Di IRA |url=https://www.alibris.com/search/books/isbn/9781157463887 |publisher= |via=www.alibris.com}}, Inanna's Descent into the Underworld, Self-praise of Shulgi, Code of Ur-Nammu, and Song of the hoe{{cite book |author=Samuel Noah Kramer |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tZSdbj5Hny0C&pg=PA25 |title=From the poetry of Sumer: creation, glorification, adoration |date=April 1979 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-03703-8 |pages=25– |access-date=10 June 2011}}
  • 2084 BC: Sumerian Sumerian King List{{Cite book |last1=Sallaberger |first1=Walther |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/904661061 |title=History & philology |last2=Schrakamp |first2=Ingo |date=2015 |isbn=978-2-503-53494-7 |location=Turnhout |pages=1–133 |chapter=Part I: Philological data for a historical chronology of Mesopotamia in the 3rd millennium |oclc=904661061}}
  • 2050 BC: Egyptian The Satire of the Trades

Middle Bronze Age: 2000 BC to 1601 BC (approximate dates shown)

Late Bronze Age: 1600 BC to 1201 BC (approximate dates shown)

  • 1600 BC: Hittite Code of the Nesilim
  • 1600 BC: Akkadian Ḫulbazizi, Eridu Genesis{{cite book |author1=Thorkild Jacobsen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g5MGVP6gAPkC&q=Eridu+Genesis.+Nippur&pg=PA129 |title=I Studied Inscriptions from Before the Flood: Ancient Near Eastern Literary and Linguistic Approaches to Genesis |date=1994 |publisher=Eisenbraun's |isbn=978-0931464881 |editor1-last=Hess |editor1-first=Richard S. |page=129 |access-date=30 July 2015 |editor2-last=Tsumuro |editor2-first=David Toshio}} and Enuma Anu Enlil
  • 1600 BC: Egyptian Edwin Smith Papyrus{{cite book |last=Allen |first=James P. |url=https://www.metmuseum.org/art/metpublications/The_Art_of_Medicine_in_Ancient_Egypt |title=The Art of Medicine in Ancient Egypt |date=2005 |publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art/Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-10728-9 |location=New York/New Haven |lccn=2005016908 |author-link=James Peter Allen}}
  • 1550 BC: Egyptian Book of the Dead,{{Cite book |title=Ancient Egyptian Book of the Dead: journey through the afterlife ; [published to accompany the exhibition at the British Museum from 4 November 2010 to 6 March 2011] |date=2010 |publisher=The British Museum Press |isbn=978-0-7141-1993-9 |editor-last=Taylor |editor-first=John H. |location=London |editor-last2=British Museum}} Instruction of Any, King Neferkare and General Sasenet, the Tale of the Doomed Prince, the Litany of Re, Rhind Mathematical Papyrus,{{cite book |author-last=Imhausen |author-first=Annette |title=The Mathematics of Egypt, Mesopotamia, China, India, and Islam: A Sourcebook |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-691-11485-9 |editor-last=Katz |editor-first=Victor J. |author-link=Annette Imhausen}}{{cite book |author-last=Rossi |title=Corinna Architecture and Mathematics in Ancient Egypt |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-521-69053-9}} and the Ebers Papyrus
  • 1550 BC: Akkadian Bullussa-rabi's Hymn to Gula
  • 1550 BC: Babylonian Venus tablet of Ammisaduqa
  • 1500 BC: Akkadian Poor Man of Nippur{{cite book|title=Bribes|author=Noonan, John T.|author-link=John T. Noonan Jr.|publisher=University of California Press|year=1987|isbn=978-0-520-06154-5|page=4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6zgp1_zeJbEC|quote=The Poor Man of Nippur dates from about 1500 BC.}}
  • 1500 BC: Hittite military oath
  • 1500 BC – 1300 BC: Ugaritic Baal Cycle
  • 1500 BC – 1200 BC: Ugaritic Legend of Keret{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0Z2Jo01iq1YC&pg=PA203 |title=Handbook of Ugaritic Studies |date=1 January 1999 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-10988-9 |editor1=Wilfred G. E. Watson |pages=203– |oclc=1025426965 |quote=The poem of Keret is one of the three major literary works which gifted Canaanite poets of the Late Bronze Age (ca. 1500–1200 BCE) bequeathed serendipitously to 20th century civilization. |editor2=Nicolas Wyatt}}
  • 1500 BC – 1000 BC: Sanskrit Rig Veda{{Cite book |last=Flood |first=Gavin D. |title=An Introduction to Hinduism |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1996}}{{Cite book |last=Anthony |first=David W. |title=The Horse The Wheel And Language. How Bronze-Age Riders From the Eurasian Steppes Shaped The Modern World |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2007}}{{Cite book |last1=Thapar |first1=Romila |title=Which of us are Aryans? rethinking the concept of our origins |last2=Witzel |first2=Michael |last3=Menon |first3=Jaya |last4=Friese |first4=Kai |last5=Khan |first5=Razib |date=2019 |publisher=Aleph |isbn=978-93-88292-38-2 |location=New Delhi}}
  • 1500 BC: Akkadian Dynasty of Dunnum{{cite book | title = The treasures of darkness: a history of Mesopotamian religion | author = Thorkild Jacobsen | publisher = Yale University Press | year = 1978 | pages = 167–168, 231 }} "Perhaps it was brought east with the Amorites of the First Dynasty of Babylon." and Chronicle of Early Kings
  • 1450 BC: Egyptian The Taking of Joppa
  • 1450 BC: Akkadian Assyrian law{{Cite book |last=Scholz |first=Susanne |url=https://www.bol.com/nl/p/sacred-witness/9300000031495453/ |title=Sacred Witness. Rape in the Hebrew Bible |date=2021 |publisher=Fortress Press |isbn=9781506482033 |location= |page=}} (E-book edition)
  • 1425 BC: Egyptian Amduat
  • 1400 BC: Akkadian Marriage of Nergal and Ereshkigal, Autobiography of Kurigalzu, and Amarna letters{{Cite book |last=Moran |first=William L. |title=The Amarna Letters |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |year=1992 |edition=English-language |location=Baltimore, MD}}
  • Mid 14th century BC: Egyptian Great Hymn to the Aten{{cite book |last=Lichtheim |first=Miriam |title=Ancient Egyptian Literature: Volume II: The New Kingdom |publisher=University of California Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-520-24843-4 |page=90}}
  • 1350 BC: Ugaritic Tale of Aqhat{{Cite book |title=Readings from the ancient Near East: primary sources for Old Testament study |date=2002 |publisher=Baker Academic |isbn=978-0-8010-2292-0 |editor-last=Arnold |editor-first=Bill T. |series=Encountering biblical studies |location=Grand Rapids, Mich |editor-last2=Beyer |editor-first2=Bryan}}
  • 1350 BC: Akkadian Šurpu{{Cite journal |last=Geller |first=M. J. |date=1980 |title=The Šurpu Incantations and Lev. V 1-5 |journal=Journal of Semitic Studies |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=181}}
  • 1300 BC: Egyptian Instruction of Amenemope,{{Cite book |last=Lichtheim |first=Miriam |title=Ancient Egyptian Literature, Volume II: The New Kingdom |publisher=University of California Press |year=1976 |isbn=0-520-03615-8 |location=CA |pages=146-163}} Papyrus Anastasi I
  • 1300 BC: Akkadian Ludlul bēl nēmeqi, the Dream of Kurigalzu, The Hemerology for Nazi-Maruttaš, Iqqur Ipuš, and Summa izbu
  • 1274 BC: Akkadian Adad-nārāri Epic
  • 1240 BC: Egyptian Papyrus of Ani, Book of the Dead
  • 1200 BC – 900 BC: Akkadian version and younger stories in the Epic of Gilgamesh
  • 1200 BC: Akkadian Tukulti-Ninurta Epic
  • 1200 BC: Egyptian Tale of Two BrothersMiriam Lichtheim, Ancient Egyptian Literature, vol.2, 1980, p.203

=Iron Age=

{{See also|Sanskrit literature}}

Iron Age texts predating Classical Antiquity: 12th to 8th centuries BC

= Classical Antiquity =

{{further|Ancient Greek literature|Syriac literature|Latin literature|Indian literature|Ancient Hebrew writings|Avesta|Chinese literature|Tamil literature}}

{{See also|7th century BC in poetry|6th century BC in poetry|5th century BC in poetry|4th century BC in poetry|3rd century BC in poetry|2nd century BC in poetry|1st century BC in poetry}}

==9th century BC==

  • Chinese:
  • Classic of Changes (I Ching)
  • Akkadian:
  • Ninurta-Pāqidāt's Dog Bite
  • Enûma Eliš{{Cite journal |last=Frahm |first=Eckert |date=2010 |title=Counter-texts, Commentaries, and Adaptations: Politically Motivated Responses to the Babylonian Epic of Creation in Mesopotamia, the Biblical World, and Elsewhere |journal=Orient |issue=45 |pages=5}}

==8th century BC==

==7th century BC==

==6th century BC==

==5th century BC==

==4th century BC==

==3rd century BC==

==2nd century BC==

==1st century BC==

{{See also|Middle Persian literature}}

==1st century AD==

==2nd century==

==3rd century==

=Late Antiquity=

{{See also|4th century in poetry|5th century in poetry}}

==4th century==

==5th century==

==6th century==

See also

{{Portal|Literature}}

References

{{Reflist|2}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ancient Literature}}

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