arbovirus

The incubation period – the time between when infection occurs and when symptoms appear – varies from virus to virus, but is usually limited between 2 and 15 days for arboviruses.{{Cite journal | last1 = Mostashari | first1 = F. | last2 = Bunning | first2 = M. L. | last3 = Kitsutani | first3 = P. T. | last4 = Singer | first4 = D. A. | last5 = Nash | first5 = D. | last6 = Cooper | first6 = M. J. | last7 = Katz | first7 = N. | last8 = Liljebjelke | first8 = K. A. | last9 = Biggerstaff | first9 = B. J. | last10 = Fine | first10 = A. D. | last11 = Layton | first11 = M. C. | last12 = Mullin | first12 = S. M. | last13 = Johnson | first13 = A. J. | last14 = Martin | first14 = D. A. | last15 = Hayes | first15 = E. B. | last16 = Campbell | first16 = G. L. | s2cid = 13074756 | title = Epidemic West Nile encephalitis, New York, 1999: Results of a household-based seroepidemiological survey | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(01)05480-0 | journal = The Lancet | volume = 358 | issue = 9278 | pages = 261–264 | year = 2001 | pmid = 11498211 }} The majority of infections, however, are asymptomatic.{{cite journal |pmid=20403310 |last1=Reiter |first1=P. |year=2010 |title=Yellow Fever and Dengue: A threat to Europe? |journal=Eurosurveillance |volume=15 |issue=10 |pages=19509 |doi=10.2807/ese.15.10.19509-en |doi-access=free }} Among cases in which symptoms do appear, symptoms tend to be non-specific, resembling a flu-like illness, and are not indicative of a specific causative agent. These symptoms include fever, headache, malaise, rash and fatigue. Rarely, vomiting and hemorrhagic fever may occur. The central nervous system can also be affected by infection, as encephalitis and meningitis are sometimes observed.{{Cite journal | last1 = Davis | first1 = L. E. | last2 = Debiasi | first2 = R. | last3 = Goade | first3 = D. E. | last4 = Haaland | first4 = K. Y. | last5 = Harrington | first5 = J. A. | last6 = Harnar | first6 = J. B. | last7 = Pergam | first7 = S. A. | last8 = King | first8 = M. K. | last9 = Demasters | first9 = B. K. | last10 = Tyler | first10 = K. L. | doi = 10.1002/ana.20959 | title = West Nile virus neuroinvasive disease | journal = Annals of Neurology | volume = 60 | issue = 3 | pages = 286–300 | year = 2006 | pmid = 16983682 | s2cid = 30778922 }} Prognosis is good for most people, but is poor in those who develop severe symptoms, with up to a 20% mortality rate in this population depending on the virus. The very young, elderly, pregnant women, and people with immune deficiencies are more likely to develop severe symptoms.{{citation needed|date=July 2020}}

{{Reflist|group=note}}

File:Aedes Albopictus.jpg, require a vertebrate blood meal in order for their eggs to develop.{{cite web|title=Human blood contains the secret ingredient for mosquito eggs |url=http://nittygrittyscience.com/2011/05/04/human-blood-contains-the-secret-ingredient-for-mosquito-eggs/ |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130630004210/http://nittygrittyscience.com/2011/05/04/human-blood-contains-the-secret-ingredient-for-mosquito-eggs/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=June 30, 2013 |date=May 4, 2011 |access-date=6 April 2013 }}]]

Arboviruses maintain themselves in nature by going through a cycle between a host, an organism that carries the virus, and a vector, an organism that carries and transmits the virus to other organisms.{{cite book|editor1-last=Last|editor1-first=J.|title=A Dictionary of Epidemiology|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2001|location=New York|pages=185–186|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RPaQY8cG4N4C&q=editions%3AISBN0195314492&pg=PP1|isbn=978-0-19-514169-6|oclc=207797812}} For arboviruses, vectors are commonly mosquitoes, ticks, sandflies{{Cite journal | last1 = Depaquit | first1 = J. | last2 = Grandadam | first2 = M. | last3 = Fouque | first3 = F. | last4 = Andry | first4 = P. E. | last5 = Peyrefitte | first5 = C. | title = Arthropod-borne viruses transmitted by Phlebotomine sandflies in Europe: A review | journal = Euro Surveillance | volume = 15 | issue = 10 | pages = 19507 | year = 2010 | pmid = 20403307}} and other arthropods that consume the blood of vertebrates for nutritious or developmental purposes.{{cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/ticks/life_cycle_and_hosts.html|title=Life cycle of Hard Ticks that Spread Disease|date=26 July 2012|publisher=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)|access-date=26 June 2013}} Vertebrates which have their blood consumed act as the hosts, with each vector generally having an affinity for the blood of specific species, making those species the hosts.{{Cite journal | last1 = Kuno | first1 = G. | last2 = Chang | first2 = G. -J. J. | doi = 10.1128/CMR.18.4.608-637.2005 | title = Biological Transmission of Arboviruses: Reexamination of and New Insights into Components, Mechanisms, and Unique Traits as Well as Their Evolutionary Trends | journal = Clinical Microbiology Reviews | volume = 18 | issue = 4 | pages = 608–637 | year = 2005 | pmid = 16223950 | pmc =1265912 }}

Transmission between the vector and the host occurs when the vector feeds on the blood of the vertebrate, wherein the virus that has established an infection in the salivary glands of the vector comes into contact with the host's blood.{{Cite journal | last1 = Wasserman | first1 = H. A. | last2 = Singh | first2 = S. | last3 = Champagne | first3 = D. E. | doi = 10.1111/j.0141-9838.2004.00712.x | title = Saliva of the Yellow Fever mosquito, Aedes aegypti, modulates murine lymphocyte function | journal = Parasite Immunology | volume = 26 | issue = 6–7 | pages = 295–306 | year = 2004 | pmid = 15541033 | s2cid = 32742815 }}{{Cite journal | last1 = Schneider | first1 = B. S. | last2 = McGee | first2 = C. E. | last3 = Jordan | first3 = J. M. | last4 = Stevenson | first4 = H. L. | last5 = Soong | first5 = L. | last6 = Higgs | first6 = S. | editor1-last = Baylis | editor1-first = Matthew | title = Prior Exposure to Uninfected Mosquitoes Enhances Mortality in Naturally-Transmitted West Nile Virus Infection | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0001171 | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 2 | issue = 11 | pages = e1171 | year = 2007 | pmid = 18000543 | pmc =2048662 | bibcode = 2007PLoSO...2.1171S | doi-access = free }} While the virus is inside the host, it undergoes a process called amplification, where the virus replicates at sufficient levels to induce viremia, a condition in which there are large numbers of virions present in the blood.{{Cite journal | last1 = Weaver | first1 = S. C. | title = Host range, amplification and arboviral disease emergence | journal = Archives of Virology. Supplementum | issue = 19 | pages = 33–44 | year = 2005 | pmid = 16358422| doi = 10.1007/3-211-29981-5_4 | isbn = 3-211-24334-8 }} The abundance of virions in the host's blood allows the host to transmit the virus to other organisms if its blood is consumed by them. When uninfected vectors become infected from feeding, they are then capable of transmitting the virus to uninfected hosts, resuming amplification of virus populations. If viremia is not achieved in a vertebrate, the species can be called a "dead-end host", as the virus cannot be transmitted back to the vector.{{Cite journal | last1 = Bowen | first1 = R. A. | last2 = Nemeth | first2 = N. M. | s2cid = 28937401 | doi = 10.1097/QCO.0b013e32816b5cad | title = Experimental infections with West Nile virus | journal = Current Opinion in Infectious Diseases | volume = 20 | issue = 3 | pages = 293–297 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17471040 }}

File:West Nile virus transmission cycle.jpg

An example of this vector-host relationship can be observed in the transmission of the West Nile virus. Female mosquitoes of the genus Culex prefer to consume the blood of passerine birds, making them the hosts of the virus.{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1603/ME11177 | last1 = Lura | first1 = T. | last2 = Cummings | first2 = R. | last3 = Velten | first3 = R. | last4 = De Collibus | first4 = K. | last5 = Morgan | first5 = T. | last6 = Nguyen | first6 = K. | last7 = Gerry | first7 = A. | s2cid = 20531226 | title = Host (avian) biting preference of southern California Culex mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) | journal = Journal of Medical Entomology | volume = 49 | issue = 3 | pages = 687–696 | year = 2012 | pmid = 22679878| doi-access = free }} When these birds are infected, the virus amplifies, potentially infecting multiple mosquitoes that feed on its blood. These infected mosquitoes may go on to further transmit the virus to more birds. If the mosquito is unable to find its preferred food source, it will choose another. Human blood is sometimes consumed, but since the West Nile virus does not replicate that well in mammals, humans are considered a dead-end host.{{Cite journal | last1 = Amraoui | first1 = F. | last2 = Krida | first2 = G. | last3 = Bouattour | first3 = A. | last4 = Rhim | first4 = A. | last5 = Daaboub | first5 = J. | last6 = Harrat | first6 = Z. | last7 = Boubidi | first7 = S. C. | last8 = Tijane | first8 = M. | last9 = Sarih | first9 = M. | last10 = Failloux | first10 = A. B. | editor1-last = Ikegami | editor1-first = Tetsuro | title = Culex pipiens, an Experimental Efficient Vector of West Nile and Rift Valley Fever Viruses in the Maghreb Region | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0036757 | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 7 | issue = 5 | pages = e36757 | year = 2012 | pmid = 22693557 | pmc =3365064 | bibcode = 2012PLoSO...736757A | doi-access = free }}

Person-to-person transmission of arboviruses is not common, but can occur. Blood transfusions, organ transplantation, and the use of blood products can transmit arboviruses if the virus is present in the donor's blood or organs.{{Cite journal | last1 = Tambyah | first1 = P. A. | last2 = Koay | first2 = E. S. C. | last3 = Poon | first3 = M. L. M. | last4 = Lin | first4 = R. V. T. P. | last5 = Ong | first5 = B. K. C. | author6 = Transfusion-Transmitted Dengue Infection Study Group | doi = 10.1056/NEJMc0708673 | title = Dengue Hemorrhagic Fever Transmitted by Blood Transfusion | journal = New England Journal of Medicine | volume = 359 | issue = 14 | pages = 1526–1527 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18832256 | doi-access = free }}{{Cite journal | last1 = Iwamoto | first1 = M. | last2 = Jernigan | first2 = D. B. | last3 = Guasch | first3 = A. | last4 = Trepka | first4 = M. J. | last5 = Blackmore | first5 = C. G. | last6 = Hellinger | first6 = W. C. | last7 = Pham | first7 = S. M. | last8 = Zaki | first8 = S. | last9 = Lanciotti | first9 = R. S. | last10 = Lance-Parker | doi = 10.1056/NEJMoa022987 | first10 = S. E. | last11 = Diazgranados | first11 = C. A. | last12 = Winquist | first12 = A. G. | last13 = Perlino | first13 = C. A. | last14 = Wiersma | first14 = S. | last15 = Hillyer | first15 = K. L. | last16 = Goodman | first16 = J. L. | last17 = Marfin | first17 = A. A. | last18 = Chamberland | first18 = M. E. | last19 = Petersen | first19 = L. R. | author20 = West Nile Virus in Transplant Recipients Investigation Team | title = Transmission of West Nile Virus from an Organ Donor to Four Transplant Recipients | journal = New England Journal of Medicine | volume = 348 | issue = 22 | pages = 2196–2203 | year = 2003 | pmid = 12773646 | s2cid = 19419227 | doi-access = free }}{{Cite journal | last1 = Teo | first1 = D. | last2 = Ng | first2 = L. C. | last3 = Lam | first3 = S. | doi = 10.1111/j.1365-3148.2009.00916.x | title = Is dengue a threat to the blood supply? | journal = Transfusion Medicine | volume = 19 | issue = 2 | pages = 66–77 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19392949 | pmc =2713854 }} Because of this, blood and organs are often screened for viruses before being administered.{{Cite journal | author1 = Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) | title = Update: West Nile virus screening of blood donations and transfusion-associated transmission--United States, 2003 | journal = MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report | volume = 53 | issue = 13 | pages = 281–284 | year = 2004 | pmid = 15071426}} Rarely, vertical transmission, or mother-to-child transmission, has been observed in infected pregnant{{Cite journal | last1 = Wiwanitkit | first1 = V. | title = Unusual mode of transmission of dengue | journal = Journal of Infection in Developing Countries | volume = 4 | issue = 1 | pages = 51–54 | year = 2009 | pmid = 20130380 | doi=10.3855/jidc.145| doi-access = free }} and breastfeeding women.{{Cite journal | author1 = Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) | title = Possible West Nile virus transmission to an infant through breast-feeding--Michigan, 2002 | journal = MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report | volume = 51 | issue = 39 | pages = 877–878 | year = 2002 | pmid = 12375687}} Exposure to used needles may also transmit arboviruses if they have been used by an infected person or animal.{{Cite journal | last1 = Venter | first1 = M. | last2 = Swanepoel | first2 = R. | s2cid = 25170132 | doi = 10.1089/vbz.2009.0230 | title = West Nile Virus Lineage 2 as a Cause of Zoonotic Neurological Disease in Humans and Horses in Southern Africa | journal = Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases | volume = 10 | issue = 7 | pages = 659–664 | year = 2010 | pmid = 20854018 | hdl = 2263/16794 | hdl-access = free }} This puts intravenous drug users and healthcare workers at risk for infection in regions where the arbovirus may be spreading in human populations.

{{Missing information|section|Jamestown Canyon Virus, La Crosse virus, Powassan virus, Eastern equine encephalitis virus, Saint Louis encephalitis, Western equine encephalitis virus, and more|date=September 2015}}

Arboviruses are a polyphyletic group, belonging to various viral genera and therefore exhibiting different virologic characteristics.

{{reflist|group=note}}

Preliminary diagnosis of arbovirus infection is usually based on clinical presentations of symptoms, places and dates of travel, activities, and epidemiological history of the location where infection occurred.{{cite web|title=Arboviral Diagnostic Testing|url=https://www.cdc.gov/EasternEquineEncephalitis/tech/diagnosis.html|publisher=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)|access-date=April 17, 2013}} Definitive diagnosis is typically made in a laboratory by employing some combination of blood tests, particularly immunologic, serologic and/or virologic techniques such as ELISA,{{cite web|title=Arbovirus Antibodies Test|url=http://www.medicalhealthtests.com/pathology-test/arbovirus-antibodies-test-serum.html|date=March 27, 2012|publisher=Medical Health Tests|access-date=April 17, 2013}} complement fixation, polymerase chain reaction,{{cite journal | last1 = Huang | first1 = C. | last2 = Slater | first2 = B. | last3 = Campbell | first3 = W. | last4 = Howard | first4 = J. | last5 = White | first5 = D. | year = 2001 | title = Detection of arboviral RNA directly from mosquito homogenates by reverse-transcription-polymerase chain reaction | journal = Journal of Virological Methods | volume = 94 | issue = 1–2 | pages = 121–128 | pmid = 11337046 | doi=10.1016/s0166-0934(01)00279-8}} neutralization test,{{cite journal|last1=Seawright|first1=G. L.|last2=Harding|first2=G.|last3=Thomas|first3=F. C.|last4=Hanson|first4=R. P.|year=1974|title=Microculture Plaque Neutralization Test for California Group Arboviruses|journal=Applied Microbiology|volume=28|issue=5|pages=802–806|pmc=186828|pmid=4216288|doi=10.1128/AEM.28.5.802-806.1974}} and hemagglutination-inhibition test.{{cite journal|last1=Mettler|first1=N. E.|last2=Clarke|first2=D. H.|last3=Casals|first3=J.|year=1971|title=Hemagglutination Inhibition with Arboviruses: Relationship Between Titers and Source of Erythrocytes|journal=Applied Microbiology|volume=22|issue=3|pages=377–379|pmc=376317|pmid=5165837|doi=10.1128/AEM.22.3.377-379.1971}}

In the past, arboviruses were organized into one of four groups: A, B, C, and D. Group A denoted members of the genus Alphavirus,{{Cite journal | last1 = Dalrymple | first1 = J. M. | last2 = Vogel | first2 = S. N. | last3 = Teramoto | first3 = A. Y. | last4 = Russell | first4 = P. K. | title = Antigenic components of group a arbovirus virions | journal = Journal of Virology | volume = 12 | issue = 5 | pages = 1034–1042 | year = 1973 | pmid = 4128825 | pmc = 356734| doi = 10.1128/JVI.12.5.1034-1042.1973 }}{{Cite journal | last1 = Tesh | first1 = R. B. | last2 = Gajdusek | first2 = D. C. | last3 = Garruto | first3 = R. M. | last4 = Cross | first4 = J. H. | last5 = Rosen | first5 = L. | title = The distribution and prevalence of group a arbovirus neutralizing antibodies among human populations in Southeast Asia and the Pacific islands | journal = The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene | volume = 24 | issue = 4 | pages = 664–675 | year = 1975 | pmid = 1155702 | doi=10.4269/ajtmh.1975.24.664}} Group B were members of the genus Flavivirus,{{Cite journal | last1 = Lvov | first1 = D. K. | last2 = Tsyrkin | first2 = Y. M. | last3 = Karas | first3 = F. R. | last4 = Timopheev | first4 = E. M. | last5 = Gromashevski | first5 = V. L. | last6 = Veselovskaya | first6 = O. V. | last7 = Osipova | first7 = N. Z. | last8 = Fomina | first8 = K. B. | last9 = Grebenyuk | first9 = Y. I. | s2cid = 625707 | doi = 10.1007/BF01252762 | title = 'Sokuluk' Virus, a new group B arbovirus isolated from Vespertilio pipistrellus Schreber, 1775, bat in the Kirghiz S.S.R| journal = Archiv für die Gesamte Virusforschung| volume = 41 | issue = 3 | pages = 170–174 | year = 1973 | pmid = 4727779}} and Group C remains as the Group C serogroup of the genus Orthobunyavirus.{{Cite journal | last1 = Mezencio | first1 = J. M. S. | last2 = Peixoto | first2 = M. L. P. | last3 = Ferreira | first3 = P. C. P. | last4 = Golgher | first4 = R. R. | s2cid = 39810753 | title = Induction of interferon by group C arboviruses | doi = 10.1007/BF01317828 | journal = Archives of Virology | volume = 58 | issue = 4 | pages = 355–358 | year = 1978 | pmid = 104697| doi-access = free }} Group D was renamed in the mid-1950s to the Guama group and is currently the Guama serogroup in the genus Orthobunyavirus.{{cite book|last1=Shope|first1=R. E.|last2=Woodall|first2=J. P.|last3=da Rosa|first3=A. T.|editor=Monath, T. P.|title=The Arboviruses: Epidemiology and Ecology|url=http://iah.iec.pa.gov.br/iah/fulltext/pc/artigos/1988/TheArbepidemiolecol1988v3p38-52.pdf|access-date=16 June 2013|volume=3|year=1988|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-0849343872|page=38}} Currently, viruses are jointly classified according to Baltimore classification and a virus-specific system based on standard biological classification. With the exception of the African swine fever virus, which belongs to the Asfarviridae family of viruses, all major clinically important arboviruses belong to one of the following four groups:{{citation needed|date=May 2021}}

{{div col|colwidth=18em}}

• Order Bunyavirales (Baltimore class V)
• Genus Orthobunyavirus
• Bunyamwera virus
• California encephalitis virus
• Jamestown Canyon virus
• La Crosse encephalitis virus
• Genus Orthonairovirus
• Crimean–Congo hemorrhagic fever virus
• Genus Bandavirus
• Dabie bandavirus
• Heartland virus
• Genus Phlebovirus
• Rift Valley fever virus
• Toscana virus

• Family Flaviviridae (Baltimore class IV)
• Genus Flavivirus
• Mosquito-borne viruses
• Dengue virus group
• Dengue virus
• Japanese encephalitis virus group
• Japanese encephalitis virus
• Murray Valley encephalitis virus
• St. Louis encephalitis virus
• West Nile virus
• Spondweni virus group
• Spondweni virus
• Zika virus
• Yellow fever virus group
• Yellow fever virus
• Tick-borne viruses
• Mammalian tick-borne virus group
• Kyasanur forest disease virus
• Tick-borne encephalitis virus

• Family Reoviridae (Baltimore class III)
• Subfamily Sedoreovirinae
• Genus Orbivirus
• African horse sickness virus
• Bluetongue disease virus
• Epizootic hemorrhagic disease virus
• Equine encephalosis virus
• Genus Seadornavirus
• Banna virus
• Subfamily Spinareovirinae
• Genus Coltivirus
• Colorado tick fever virus

• Family Togaviridae (Baltimore class IV)
• Genus Alphavirus
• Chikungunya virus
• Eastern equine encephalitis virus
• Ross River virus
• Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus
• Western equine encephalitis virus'

{{div col end}}

Vector control measures, especially mosquito control, are essential to reducing the transmission of disease by arboviruses. Habitat control involves draining swamps and removal of other pools of stagnant water (such as old tires, large outdoor potted plants, empty cans, etc.) that often serve as breeding grounds for mosquitoes. Insecticides can be applied in rural and urban areas, inside houses and other buildings, or in outdoor environments. They are often quite effective for controlling arthropod populations, though use of some of these chemicals is controversial, and some organophosphates and organochlorides (such as DDT) have been banned in many countries. Infertile male mosquitoes have been introduced in some areas in order to reduce the breeding rate of relevant mosquito species. Larvicides are also used worldwide in mosquito abatement programs. Temefos is a common mosquito larvicide.{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/0160-7995(80)90034-9|pmid=7403901 |year=1980 |last1=Walsh |first1=J. A |title=Selective primary health care: An interim strategy for disease control in developing countries |journal=Social Science & Medicine. Part C: Medical Economics |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=145–63 |last2=Warren |first2=K. S }}

File:Mosquito net.jpg

People can also reduce the risk of getting bitten by arthropods by employing personal protective measures such as sleeping under mosquito nets, wearing protective clothing, applying insect repellents such as permethrin and DEET to clothing and exposed skin, and (where possible) avoiding areas known to harbor high arthropod populations. Arboviral encephalitis can be prevented in two major ways: personal protective measures and public health measures to reduce the population of infected mosquitoes. Personal measures include reducing time outdoors particularly in early evening hours, wearing long pants and long sleeved shirts and applying mosquito repellent to exposed skin areas. Public health measures often require spraying of insecticides to kill juvenile (larvae) and adult mosquitoes.{{cite web|title=Preventing Mosquito Bites|url=http://epi.publichealth.nc.gov/cd/arbo/prevent.html|publisher=North Carolina Department of Health and Human Services}}

Vaccines are available for the following arboviral diseases:

• Japanese encephalitis{{cite web|title=Japanese Encephalitis Vaccine, What You Need to Know|url=https://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/pubs/vis/downloads/vis-je-ixiaro.pdf|date=December 7, 2011|publisher=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)|access-date=20 March 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130309223407/http://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/pubs/vis/downloads/vis-je-ixiaro.pdf|archive-date=9 March 2013|url-status=dead}}
• Yellow fever{{cite web|title=Yellow Fever Vaccine, What You Need to Know|url=https://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/pubs/vis/downloads/vis-yf.pdf|date=March 30, 2011|publisher=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)|access-date=20 March 2013}}
• Tick-borne encephalitis{{cite web|title=Tick-borne Encephalitis|url=https://www.who.int/ith/vaccines/tbev/en/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141004022743/http://www.who.int/ith/vaccines/tbev/en/|url-status=dead|archive-date=October 4, 2014|publisher=World Health Organization (WHO)|access-date=5 November 2019}}
• Rift Valley Fever (only veterinary use){{cite journal |doi=10.1080/14712598.2019.1662784 |pmid=31478397 |title=Candidate vaccines for human Rift Valley fever |journal=Expert Opin Biol Ther |volume=19 |issue=Sep 3 |pages=1333–1342 |year=2019 |last1=Ikegami |first1=Tetsuro|s2cid=201805546 }}

Vaccines are in development for the following arboviral diseases:

• Zika Virus{{Cite web | url=https://login.wwwproxy1.library.unsw.edu.au/login?qurl=http://science.sciencemag.org%2fcontent%2f353%2f6304%2f1094.full | title=Database Access - UNSW Library}}
• Dengue fever{{cite web|title=Dengue fever vaccine program|url=http://www.globalvaccines.org/content/dengue+fever+vaccine+program/19615|publisher=Global Vaccines|access-date=20 March 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130109100319/http://www.globalvaccines.org/content/dengue+fever+vaccine+program/19615|archive-date=9 January 2013|url-status=dead}}
• Eastern Equine encephalitis{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.vaccine.2011.12.121 |pmid=22222869 |pmc=3283035 |title=A vaccine candidate for eastern equine encephalitis virus based on IRES-mediated attenuation |journal=Vaccine |volume=30 |issue=7 |pages=1276–82 |year=2012 |last1=Pandya |first1=Jyotsna |last2=Gorchakov |first2=Rodion |last3=Wang |first3=Eryu |last4=Leal |first4=Grace |last5=Weaver |first5=Scott C }}
• West Nile{{cite news|title=Few Options in the West Nile Fight|author=Young, S.|url=http://www.technologyreview.com/news/428926/few-options-in-the-west-nile-fight/|newspaper=MIT Technology Review|date=August 12, 2012|access-date=20 March 2013|archive-date=22 October 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121022001308/http://www.technologyreview.com/news/428926/few-options-in-the-west-nile-fight/|url-status=dead}}
• Chikungunya{{cite journal|doi=10.12688/f1000research.12461.1 |pmid=29259782 |pmc=5728195 |title=Chikungunya: vaccines and therapeutics |journal=F1000Research |volume=6 |issue=Dec 8 |pages=2114 |year=2017 |last1=Tharmarajah |first1=Kothila |last2=Mahalingam |first2=Suresh |last3=Zaid |first3=Ali |doi-access=free }}
• Rift Valley Fever

Because the arboviral encephalitides are viral diseases, antibiotics are not an effective form of treatment and no effective antiviral drugs have yet been discovered. Treatment is supportive, attempting to deal with problems such as swelling of the brain, loss of the automatic breathing activity of the brain and other treatable complications like bacterial pneumonia.

The WHO caution against the use of aspirin and ibuprofen as they can increase the risk of bleeding.{{cite web | title=Dengue and severe dengue -section What is the treatment for dengue? |publisher=WHO| date=24 October 2019| url=https://www.who.int/news-room/questions-and-answers/item/dengue-and-severe-dengue}}{{cite journal | last1=Ehelepola | first1=N. D. B. | last2=Athurupana | first2=A. A. S. D. | last3=Bowatte | first3=P. G. C. S. | last4=Dissanayake | first4=Wasantha P. | title=Continuation of Dual Antiplatelet Therapy in a Patient with a Coronary Artery Stent with Dengue Hemorrhagic Fever: A Clinical Conundrum | journal=The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene | volume=102 | issue=1 | date=8 January 2020 | issn=0002-9637 | doi=10.4269/ajtmh.19-0512|doi-access=free| pages=17–19| pmid=31701855 | pmc=6947787 }}

Most arboviruses are located in tropical areas, however as a group they have a global distribution. The warm climate conditions found in tropical areas allows for year-round transmission by the arthropod vectors. Other important factors determining geographic distribution of arthropod vectors include rainfall, humidity, and vegetation.{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/S0188-4409(02)00378-8 |pmid=12234522 |title=The Global Emergence/Resurgence of Arboviral Diseases As Public Health Problems |journal=Archives of Medical Research |volume=33 |issue=4 |pages=330–42 |year=2002 |last1=Gubler |first1=Duane J |url=https://zenodo.org/record/1259935 }}

Mapping methods such as GIS and GPS have allowed for spatial and temporal analyses of arboviruses. Tagging cases or breeding sites geographically has allowed for deeper examination of vector transmission.{{cite journal |doi=10.1111/j.1423-0410.2009.01286.x |pmid=19951309 |title=Transfusion-transmitted arboviruses |journal=Vox Sanguinis |volume=98 |issue=4 |pages=495–503 |year=2010 |last1=Petersen |first1=L. R |last2=Busch |first2=M. P |s2cid=29858335 |doi-access=free }}

To see the epidemiology of specific arboviruses, the following resources hold maps, fact sheets, and reports on arboviruses and arboviral epidemics.

Arboviruses were not known to exist until the rise of modern medicine, with the germ theory and an understanding that viruses were distinct from other microorganisms. The connection between arthropods and disease was not postulated until 1881 when Cuban doctor and scientist Carlos Finlay proposed that yellow fever may be transmitted by mosquitoes instead of human contact,{{Cite journal | last1 = Chaves-Carballo | first1 = E. | title = Carlos Finlay and yellow fever: Triumph over adversity | journal = Military Medicine | volume = 170 | issue = 10 | pages = 881–885 | year = 2005 | pmid = 16435764 | doi=10.7205/milmed.170.10.881| doi-access = free }} a reality that was verified by Major Walter Reed in 1901.{{Cite journal | last1 = Russell | first1 = F. F. | doi = 10.2105/AJPH.24.1.1 | title = Permanent Value of Major Walter Reed's Work on Yellow Fever * | journal = American Journal of Public Health and the Nation's Health | volume = 24 | issue = 1 | pages = 1–7| year = 1934 | pmid = 18013904| pmc = 1558495}} The primary vector, Aedes aegypti, had spread globally from the 15th to the 19th centuries as a result of globalization and the slave trade.{{Cite journal | last1 = Simmons | first1 = C. P. | last2 = Farrar | first2 = J. J. | last3 = Nguyen | first3 = N. | last4 = Wills | first4 = B. | title = Dengue | doi = 10.1056/NEJMra1110265 | journal = New England Journal of Medicine | volume = 366 | issue = 15 | pages = 1423–1432 | year = 2012 | pmid = 22494122 | hdl = 11343/191104 | hdl-access = free }} This geographic spreading caused dengue fever epidemics throughout the 18th and 19th centuries,{{Cite journal | last1 = Gubler | first1 = D. J. | title = Dengue and dengue hemorrhagic fever | journal = Clinical Microbiology Reviews | volume = 11 | issue = 3 | pages = 480–496 | year = 1998 | pmid = 9665979 | pmc = 88892| doi = 10.1128/CMR.11.3.480 }} and later, in 1906, transmission by the Aedes mosquitoes was confirmed, making yellow fever and dengue fever the first two diseases known to be caused by viruses.{{Cite journal | last1 = Henchal | first1 = E. A. | last2 = Putnak | first2 = J. R. | title = The dengue viruses | journal = Clinical Microbiology Reviews | volume = 3 | issue = 4 | pages = 376–396 | year = 1990 | pmid = 2224837 | pmc = 358169 | doi=10.1128/CMR.3.4.376}}

Thomas Milton Rivers published the first clear description of a virus as distinct from a bacterium in 1927.{{cite journal|last1=Rivers|first1=TM|title=Filterable Viruses a Critical Review|journal=Journal of Bacteriology|date=October 1927|volume=14|issue=4|pages=217–58|pmid=16559270|pmc=374955|doi=10.1128/jb.14.4.217-258.1927}}{{cite book|last1=Calisher|first1=Charles H. |author1-link=Charles Calisher|title=Lifting the impenetrable veil : from yellow fever to Ebola hemorrhagic fever and SARS|date=2013|publisher=Rockpile Press|location=Red Feather Lakes, Colo.|isbn=978-0615827735|edition=1st}} The discovery of the West Nile virus came in 1937,{{cite journal|last1=Smithburn|first1=K. C.|last2=Hughes|first2=T. P.|last3=Burke|first3=A. W.|last4=Paul|first4=J. H.|year=1940|title=A Neurotropic Virus Isolated from the Blood of a Native of Uganda|journal=American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene|volume=20|issue=4|pages=471–472|doi=10.4269/ajtmh.1940.s1-20.471|doi-access=}} and has since been found in Culex populations{{Cite journal | last1 = Taylor | first1 = R. M. | last2 = Hurlbut | first2 = H. S. | last3 = Dressler | first3 = H. R. | last4 = Spangler | first4 = E. W. | last5 = Thrasher | first5 = D. | title = Isolation of West Nile virus from Culex mosquitoes | journal = The Journal of the Egyptian Medical Association | volume = 36 | issue = 3 | pages = 199–208 | year = 1953 | pmid = 13084817}} causing epidemics throughout Africa, the Middle East, and Europe. The virus was introduced into the Western Hemisphere in 1999, sparking a series of epidemics.{{cite news|title=West Nile epidemic on track to be deadliest ever: CDC|author=Sun, L. H.|url=https://articles.washingtonpost.com/2012-09-13/national/35496169_1_west-nile-vector-borne-infectious-diseases-lyle-petersen|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130624211937/http://articles.washingtonpost.com/2012-09-13/national/35496169_1_west-nile-vector-borne-infectious-diseases-lyle-petersen|url-status=dead|archive-date=24 June 2013|newspaper=The Washington Post|date=13 September 2012|access-date=19 June 2013}} During the latter half of the 20th century, Dengue fever reemerged as a global disease, with the virus spreading geographically due to urbanization, population growth, increased international travel, and global warming,{{Cite journal | last1 = Whitehorn | first1 = J. | last2 = Farrar | first2 = J. | s2cid = 215154729 | doi = 10.1093/bmb/ldq019 | title = Dengue | journal = British Medical Bulletin | volume = 95 | pages = 161–173 | year = 2010 | pmid = 20616106 | doi-access = free }} and continues to cause at least 50 million infections per year, making Dengue fever the most common and clinically important arboviral disease.{{Cite journal | last1 = Rodenhuis-Zybert | first1 = I. A. | last2 = Wilschut | first2 = J. | last3 = Smit | first3 = J. M. | s2cid = 4232236 | doi = 10.1007/s00018-010-0357-z | title = Dengue virus life cycle: Viral and host factors modulating infectivity | journal = Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences | volume = 67 | issue = 16 | pages = 2773–2786 | year = 2010 | pmid = 20372965 | title-link = Biological life cycle | pmc = 11115823 }}{{Cite journal | last1 = Guzman | first1 = M. G. | last2 = Halstead | first2 = S. B. | last3 = Artsob | first3 = H. | last4 = Buchy | first4 = P. | last5 = Farrar | first5 = J. | last6 = Gubler | first6 = D. J. | last7 = Hunsperger | first7 = E. | last8 = Kroeger | first8 = A. | last9 = Margolis | first9 = H. S. | doi = 10.1038/nrmicro2460 | last10 = Martínez | first10 = E. | last11 = Nathan | first11 = M. B. | last12 = Pelegrino | first12 = J. L. | last13 = Simmons | first13 = C. | last14 = Yoksan | first14 = S. | last15 = Peeling | first15 = R. W. | title = Dengue: A continuing global threat | journal = Nature Reviews Microbiology | volume = 8 | issue = 12 | pages = S7–16 | year = 2010 | pmid = 21079655 | pmc = 4333201}}

Yellow fever, alongside malaria, was a major obstacle in the construction of the Panama Canal. French supervision of the project in the 1880s was unsuccessful because of these diseases, forcing the abandonment of the project in 1889.{{cite web|url=http://ocp.hul.harvard.edu/contagion/panamacanal.html|title=Tropical Diseases and the Construction of the Panama Canal, 1904–1914|website=Contagion: Historical Views of Diseases and Epidemics|access-date=19 June 2013}} During the American effort to construct the canal in the early 1900s, William C. Gorgas, the Chief Sanitary Officer of Havana, was tasked with overseeing the health of the workers. He had past success in eradicating the disease in Florida and Havana by reducing mosquito populations through draining nearby pools of water, cutting grass, applying oil to the edges of ponds and swamps to kill larvae, and capturing adult mosquitoes that remained indoors during the daytime.{{cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/malaria/about/history/panama_canal.html|title=Malaria: The Panama Canal|date=8 February 2010|website=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)|access-date=19 June 2013}} Joseph Augustin LePrince, the Chief Sanitary Inspector of the Canal Zone, invented the first commercial larvicide, a mixture of carbolic acid, resin, and caustic soda, to be used throughout the Canal Zone.{{Cite journal | last1 = Lapointe | first1 = P. M. | title = Joseph Augustin LePrince: His battle against mosquitoes and malaria | journal = West Tennessee Historical Society Papers | volume = 41 | pages = 48–61 | year = 1987 | pmid = 12862098}} The combined implementation of these sanitation measures led to a dramatic decline in the number of workers dying and the eventual eradication of yellow fever in the Canal Zone as well as the containment of malaria during the 10-year construction period. Because of the success of these methods at preventing disease, they were adopted and improved upon in other regions of the world.{{cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/general-article/panama-fever/|title=Yellow Fever and Malaria in the Canal|website=PBS|publisher=American Experience|access-date=19 June 2013|archive-date=23 March 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170323082905/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/general-article/panama-fever/|url-status=dead}}

• List of diseases spread by invertebrates
• List of insect-borne diseases
• Mosquito-borne disease
• Robovirus
• Tibovirus
• Tick-borne disease

{{Reflist}}

• {{cite book |title= Handbook of Zoonoses |editor1-last=Beran |editor1-first=G. W. |year=1994 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=9780849332067 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hDxeXDisYKEC}}

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