low-carbon electricity

File:Percentage of electricity generation from low-carbon sources in 2019.png

During the late 20th and early 21st century significant findings regarding global warming highlighted the need to curb carbon emissions. From this, the idea for low-carbon power was born. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), established by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) in 1988, set the scientific precedence for the introduction of low-carbon power. The IPCC has continued to provide scientific, technical and socio-economic advice to the world community, through its periodic assessment reports and special reports.{{cite web|url=http://www.ipcc.ch/about/about.htm|title=Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Web site|website=IPCC.ch|access-date=1 October 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060825110811/http://www.ipcc.ch/about/about.htm|archive-date=25 August 2006}}

Internationally, the most prominent{{According to whom|date=October 2017}} early step in the direction of low carbon power was the signing of the Kyoto Protocol, which came into force on 16 February 2005, under which most industrialized countries committed to reduce their carbon emissions. The historical event set the political precedence for introduction of low-carbon power technology.

{{Excerpt|Life-cycle_greenhouse_gas_emissions_of_energy_sources|Global warming potential of selected electricity sources}}

File:Global low-carbon electricity generation by energy source.png

There are many options for lowering current levels of carbon emissions. Some options, such as wind power and solar power, produce low quantities of total life cycle carbon emissions, using entirely renewable sources. Other options, such as nuclear power, produce a comparable amount of carbon dioxide emissions as renewable technologies in total life cycle emissions, but consume non-renewable, but sustainable{{cite web|url=http://large.stanford.edu/courses/2012/ph241/chowdhury2/|title=Is Nuclear Energy Renewable Energy?|website=large.Stanford.edu|access-date=1 October 2017}} materials (uranium). The term low-carbon power can also include power that continues to utilize the world's natural resources, such as natural gas and coal, but only when they employ techniques that reduce carbon dioxide emissions from these sources when burning them for fuel, such as the, as of 2012, pilot plants performing Carbon capture and storage.{{cite web|url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/energy/2012/05/120522-carbon-capture-and-storage-economic-hurdles/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120525084232/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/energy/2012/05/120522-carbon-capture-and-storage-economic-hurdles/|url-status=dead|archive-date=25 May 2012|title=Amid Economic Concerns, Carbon Capture Faces a Hazy Future|date=23 May 2012|website=NationalGeographic.com|access-date=1 October 2017}}

Because the cost of reducing emissions in the electricity sector appears to be lower than in other sectors such as transportation, the electricity sector may deliver the largest proportional carbon reductions under an economically efficient climate policy.{{cite web|url=http://www.issues.org/23.3/apt.html|title=Promoting Low-Carbon Electricity Production - Issues in Science and Technology|website=www.Issues.org|access-date=1 October 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927013232/http://www.issues.org/23.3/apt.html|archive-date=27 September 2013}}

Technologies to produce electric power with low-carbon emissions are in use at various scales. Together, they accounted for almost 40% of global electricity in 2020, with wind and solar almost 10%.{{Cite web|title=Global Electricity Review 2021|url=https://ember-climate.org/project/global-electricity-review-2021/|access-date=2021-04-07|website=Ember|date=28 March 2021 |language=en-GB}}

The 2014 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change report identifies nuclear, wind, solar and hydroelectricity in suitable locations as technologies that can provide electricity with less than 5% of the lifecycle greenhouse gas emissions of coal power.{{Cite web |title=Chapter 7: Energy Systems |work=AR5 Climate Change 2014: Mitigation of Climate Change - Contribution of Working Group III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change |url=https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2018/02/ipcc_wg3_ar5_chapter7.pdf |first1=Thomas |last1=Bruckner |first2=Igor Alexeyevich |last2=Bashmakov |first3=Yacob |last3=Mulugetta |first4=Helena |last4=Chum |first5=Angel de la Vega |last5=Navarro |first6=James |last6=Edmonds |first7=Andre |last7=Faaij |first8=Bundit |last8=Fungtammasan |first9=Amit |last9=Garg |first10=Edgar |last10=Hertwich |first11=Damon |last11=Honnery |first12=David |last12=Infield |first13=Mikiko |last13=Kainuma |first14=Smail |last14=Khennas |first15=Suduk |last15=Kim |first16=Hassan Bashir |last16=Nimir |first17=Keywan |last17=Riahi |first18=Neil |last18=Strachan|first19=Ryan |last19=Wiser |first20=Xiliang |last20=Zhang |editor1=O. Edenhofer |editor2=R. Pichs-Madruga |editor3=Y. Sokona |editor4=E. Farahani |editor5=Susanne Kadner |editor6=Kristin Seyboth |editor7=A. Adler |editor8=I. Baum |editor9=S. Brunner |editor10=P. Eickemeier |editor11=B. Kriemann |editor12=J. Savolainen |editor13=Steffen Schlömer |editor14=Christoph von Stechow |editor15=T. Zwickel |editor16=J.C. Minx |publisher=Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change |location=Geneva, Switzerland |year=2014 |access-date=2024-10-02}}

File:Hoovernewbridge.jpg when completed in 1936 was both the world's largest electric-power generating station and the world's largest concrete structure.]]

Hydroelectric plants have the advantage of being long-lived and many existing plants have operated for more than 100 years. Hydropower is also an extremely flexible technology from the perspective of power grid operation. Large hydropower provides one of the lowest cost options in today's energy market, even compared to fossil fuels and there are no harmful emissions associated with plant operation.International Energy Agency (2007).

[http://www.iea.org/textbase/papers/2006/renewable_factsheet.pdf Renewables in global energy supply: An IEA facts sheet] (PDF), OECD, p. 3. However, there are typically low greenhouse gas emissions with reservoirs, and possibly high emissions in the tropics.

Hydroelectric power is the world's largest low carbon source of electricity, supplying 15.6% of total electricity in 2019.{{Cite web|url=https://lowcarbonpower.org/type/hydro|title = Understand Hydropower energy through Data | Low-Carbon Power}} China is by far the world's largest producer of hydroelectricity in the world, followed by Brazil and Canada.

However, there are several significant social and environmental disadvantages of large-scale hydroelectric power systems: dislocation, if people are living where the reservoirs are planned, release of significant amounts of carbon dioxide and methane during construction and flooding of the reservoir, and disruption of aquatic ecosystems and birdlife.Duncan Graham-Rowe. [https://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn7046 Hydroelectric power's dirty secret revealed] New Scientist, 24 February 2005. There is a strong consensus now that countries should adopt an integrated approach towards managing water resources, which would involve planning hydropower development in co-operation with other water-using sectors.

Nuclear power, with a 9% share of world electricity production from 440 power reactors as of 2025.https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/current-and-future-generation/nuclear-power-in-the-world-today

Nuclear power, in 2010, also provided two thirds of the twenty seven nation European Union's low-carbon energy,{{cite web |url=http://ec.europa.eu/energy/publications/doc/2010_setplan_brochure.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=17 August 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140211100220/http://ec.europa.eu/energy/publications/doc/2010_setplan_brochure.pdf |archive-date=11 February 2014 }} The European Strategic Energy Technology Plan SET-Plan Towards a low-carbon future 2010. Nuclear power provides "2/3 of the EU's low carbon energy" pg 6. with some EU nations sourcing a large fraction of their electricity from nuclear power; for example France derives 79% of its electricity from nuclear. As of 2020 nuclear power provided 47% low-carbon power in the EU{{Cite web|title=Assuring the Backbone of a Carbon-free Power System by 2050 -Call for a Timely and Just Assessment of Nuclear Energy|url=http://www.snetp.eu/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/NGO-Civil-society-on-Taxonomy-2020.pdf}} with countries largely based on nuclear power routinely achieving carbon intensity of 30-60 gCO2eq/kWh.{{Cite web|title=Live CO₂ emissions of electricity consumption|url=http://electricitymap.tmrow.co/|website=electricitymap.tmrow.co|access-date=14 May 2020}}

In 2021 United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) described nuclear power as important tool to mitigate climate change that has prevented 74 Gt of {{CO2}} emissions over the last half century, providing 20% of energy in Europe and 43% of low-carbon energy.{{Cite web|date=2021-08-11|title=Global climate objectives fall short without nuclear power in the mix: UNECE|url=https://news.un.org/en/story/2021/08/1097572|access-date=2021-09-02|website=UN News|language=en}}

{{excerpt|Sustainable energy#Nuclear power}}

File: Wind power plants in Xinjiang, China.jpg

{{Excerpt|Wind power|only=paragraphs}}

{{Main|Solar power}}

Image:PS10 solar power tower.jpg concentrates sunlight from a field of heliostats on a central tower.]]

Solar power is the conversion of sunlight into electricity, either directly using photovoltaics (PV), or indirectly using concentrated solar power (CSP). Concentrated solar power systems use lenses or mirrors and tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight into a small beam. Photovoltaics convert light into electric current using the photoelectric effect.{{cite web|title=Energy Sources: Solar|url=https://www.energy.gov/energysources/solar.htm|work=Department of Energy|access-date=19 April 2011}}

Commercial concentrated solar power plants were first developed in the 1980s. The 354 MW SEGS CSP installation is the largest solar power plant in the world, located in the Mojave Desert of California. Other large CSP plants include the Solnova Solar Power Station (150 MW) and the Andasol solar power station (150 MW), both in Spain. The over 200 MW Agua Caliente Solar Project in the United States, and the 214 MW Charanka Solar Park in India, are the world's largest photovoltaic plants. Solar power's share of worldwide electricity usage at the end of 2014 was 1%.http://www.ren21.net/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/REN12-GSR2015_Onlinebook_low1.pdf pg31

{{Main|Geothermal electricity}}

Geothermal electricity is electricity generated from geothermal energy. Technologies in use include dry steam power plants, flash steam power plants and binary cycle power plants. Geothermal electricity generation is used in 24 countriesGeothermal Energy Association. [http://www.geo-energy.org/pdf/reports/GEA_International_Market_Report_Final_May_2010.pdf Geothermal Energy: International Market Update] May 2010, p. 4-6. while geothermal heating is in use in 70 countries.{{Cite conference |first1=Ingvar B. |last1=Fridleifsson |first2=Ruggero |last2=Bertani |first3=Ernst |last3=Huenges |first4=John W. |last4=Lund |first5=Arni |last5=Ragnarsson |first6=Ladislaus |last6=Rybach |date=11 February 2008 |title=The possible role and contribution of geothermal energy to the mitigation of climate change |conference=IPCC Scoping Meeting on Renewable Energy Sources |editor=O. Hohmeyer and T. Trittin |location=Luebeck, Germany |pages=59–80 |url=http://iga.igg.cnr.it/documenti/IGA/Fridleifsson_et_al_IPCC_Geothermal_paper_2008.pdf |access-date=6 April 2009 }}{{dead link|date=June 2017|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}

Current worldwide installed capacity is 10,715 megawatts (MW), with the largest capacity in the United States (3,086 MW),Geothermal Energy Association. [http://www.geo-energy.org/pdf/reports/GEA_International_Market_Report_Final_May_2010.pdf Geothermal Energy: International Market Update] May 2010, p. 7. Philippines, and Indonesia. Estimates of the electricity generating potential of geothermal energy vary from 35 to 2000 GW.

Geothermal power is considered to be sustainable because the heat extraction is small compared to the Earth's heat content.{{Citation

| last = Rybach | first = Ladislaus

| date =September 2007

| title =Geothermal Sustainability

| periodical =Geo-Heat Centre Quarterly Bulletin

| location =Klamath Falls, Oregon

| publisher =Oregon Institute of Technology

| volume =28

| issue =3

| pages = 2–7

| url =http://geoheat.oit.edu/bulletin/bull28-3/art2.pdf

| issn =0276-1084 | access-date =9 May 2009}} The emission intensity of existing geothermal electric plants is on average 122 kg of {{chem|CO|2|}} per megawatt-hour (MW·h) of electricity, a small fraction of that of conventional fossil fuel plants.{{Citation

|last1 = Bertani

|first1 = Ruggero

|last2 = Thain

|first2 = Ian

|title = Geothermal Power Generating Plant CO₂ Emission Survey

|journal = IGA News

|issue = 49

|pages = 1–3

|publisher = International Geothermal Association

|date = July 2002

|url = http://www.geothermal-energy.org/documenti/IGA/newsletter/n49.pdf

|access-date = 13 May 2009

}}{{dead link|date=January 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}

Tidal power is a form of hydropower that converts the energy of tides into electricity or other useful forms of power. The first large-scale tidal power plant (the Rance Tidal Power Station) started operation in 1966. Although not yet widely used, tidal power has potential for future electricity generation. Tides are more predictable than wind energy and solar power.

{{Main|Carbon capture and storage}}

Carbon capture and storage (CCS) captures carbon dioxide from the flue gas of power plants or other industry, transporting it to an appropriate location where it can be buried securely in an underground reservoir. Between 1972 and 2017, plans were made to add CCS to enough coal and gas power plants to sequester 171 million tonnes of {{chem|CO|2|}} per year, but by 2021 over 98% of these plans had failed.{{Cite journal |last=Kazlou |first=Tsimafei |last2=Cherp |first2=Aleh |last3=Jewell |first3=Jessica |date=October 2024 |title=Feasible deployment of carbon capture and storage and the requirements of climate targets |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-024-02104-0 |journal=Nature Climate Change |language=en |volume=14 |issue=10 |pages=1047–1055, Extended Data Fig. 1 |at= |doi=10.1038/s41558-024-02104-0 |issn=1758-6798|pmc=11458486 }} Cost, the absence of measures to address long-term liability for stored CO₂, and limited social acceptability have all contributed to project cancellations.{{Cite web |date=2023-09-26 |title=Net Zero Roadmap: A Global Pathway to Keep the 1.5 °C Goal in Reach – Analysis |url=https://www.iea.org/reports/net-zero-roadmap-a-global-pathway-to-keep-the-15-0c-goal-in-reach |access-date=2024-09-11 |website=IEA |language=en-GB}}{{Rp|pages=|page=133}} As of 2024, CCS is in operation at only five power plants worldwide.{{Cite web |title=Global Status Report 2024 |url=https://www.globalccsinstitute.com/resources/global-status-report/ |access-date=2024-10-19 |website=Global CCS Institute |pages=57-58 |language=en-AU}}

Image:Greenhouse Gas by Sector.png

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change stated in its first working group report that "most of the observed increase in globally averaged temperatures since the mid-20th century is very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic greenhouse gas concentrations, contribute to climate change.[http://www.ipcc.ch/SPM2feb07.pdf Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2007-02-05). Retrieved on 2007-02-02.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071114144734/http://www.ipcc.ch/SPM2feb07.pdf |date=14 November 2007 }}

As a percentage of all anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions, carbon dioxide (CO₂) accounts for 72 percent (see Greenhouse gas), and has increased in concentration in the atmosphere from 315 parts per million (ppm) in 1958 to more than 375 ppm in 2005.{{cite web|url=http://cdiac.ornl.gov/trends/co2/graphics/mlo145e_thrudc04.pdf|title=Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center (CDIAC), the primary climate-change data and information analysis center of the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE)|website=ORNL.gov|access-date=1 October 2017}}

Emissions from energy make up more than 61.4 percent of all greenhouse gas emissions.{{cite web|url=http://www.wri.org/climate/topic_content.cfm?cid=4177|title=World Resources Institute; "Greenhouse Gases and Where They Come From"|website=WRI.org|access-date=1 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070714162030/http://www.wri.org/climate/topic_content.cfm?cid=4177|archive-date=14 July 2007|url-status=dead}} Power generation from traditional coal fuel sources accounts for 18.8 percent of all world greenhouse gas emissions, nearly double that emitted by road transportation.

Estimates state that by 2020 the world will be producing around twice as much carbon emissions as it was in 2000.{{cite web|url=http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/FTPROOT/presentations/ieo99_3im/sld006.htm|title=Energy Information Administration; "World Carbon Emissions by Region"|website=DOE.gov|access-date=1 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090314130415/http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/FTPROOT/presentations/ieo99_3im/sld006.htm|archive-date=14 March 2009|url-status=dead}}

The [https://ec.europa.eu/clima/policies/strategies/2050_en European Union hopes to sign a law] mandating net-zero greenhouse gas emissions in the coming year for all 27 countries in the union.

Image:GHG by region.jpg

World energy consumption is predicted to increase from {{convert|421|e15BTU|TWh|order=flip|abbr=unit|lk=on}} in 2003 to {{convert|722|e15BTU|TWh|order=flip|abbr=unit}} in 2030.{{cite web|url=http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/ieo/figure_7.html|title=EIA - International Energy Outlook 2017|website=www.eia.DOE.gov|access-date=1 October 2017}} Coal consumption is predicted to nearly double in that same time.{{cite web|url=http://timeforchange.org/prediction-of-energy-consumption|title=Prediction of energy consumption world-wide - Time for change|website=TimeForChange.org|date=18 January 2007|access-date=1 October 2017}} The fastest growth is seen in non-OECD Asian countries, especially China and India, where economic growth drives increased energy use.{{cite web|url=http://www.eia.doe.gov/neic/press/images/06-03-1.gif|title=Energy Information Administration; "World Market Energy Consumption by Region"|website=DOE.gov|access-date=1 October 2017}} By implementing low-carbon power options, world electricity demand could continue to grow while maintaining stable carbon emission levels.

In the transportation sector there are moves away from fossil fuels and towards electric vehicles, such as mass transit and the electric car. These trends are small, but may eventually add a large demand to the electrical grid.{{cite web |url=https://www.rabobank.com/knowledge/d011456343-the-rise-of-electric-vehicles-in-the-us-impact-on-the-electricity-grid |title=The rise of electric vehicles in the US: Impact on the electricity grid |website=Rabobank}}

Domestic and industrial heat and hot water have largely been supplied by burning fossil fuels such as fuel oil or natural gas at the consumers' premises. Some countries have begun heat pump rebates to encourage switching to electricity, potentially adding a large demand to the grid.{{cite web|url=http://www.energysavingtrust.org.uk/domestic/air-source-heat-pumps|title=Air source heat pumps|website=EnergySavingTrust.org.uk|access-date=1 October 2017}}

Coal-fired power plants are losing market share compared to low carbon power, and any built in the 2020s risk becoming stranded assets{{Cite journal |last1=Bertram |first1=Christoph |last2=Luderer |first2=Gunnar |last3=Creutzig |first3=Felix |author3-link=Felix Creutzig |last4=Bauer |first4=Nico |last5=Ueckerdt |first5=Falko |last6=Malik |first6=Aman |last7=Edenhofer |first7=Ottmar |author7-link=Ottmar Edenhofer |date=March 2021 |title=COVID-19-induced low power demand and market forces starkly reduce CO 2 emissions |journal=Nature Climate Change |language=en |volume=11 |issue=3 |pages=193–196 |bibcode=2021NatCC..11..193B |doi=10.1038/s41558-021-00987-x |issn=1758-6798 |doi-access=free}} or stranded costs, partly because their capacity factors will decline.{{Cite web|title=Analysts' inaccurate cost estimates are creating a trillion-dollar bubble in conventional energy assets|url=https://www.utilitydive.com/news/analysts-inaccurate-cost-estimates-are-creating-a-trillion-dollar-bubble-i/596648/|access-date=2021-04-07|website=Utility Dive|language=en-US}}

Investment in low-carbon power sources and technologies is increasing at a rapid rate.{{Clarify|reason=vague|date=October 2017}} Zero-carbon power sources produce about 2% of the world's energy, but account for about 18% of world investment in power generation, attracting $100 billion of investment capital in 2006.{{cite web|url=http://www.unep.org/Documents.Multilingual/Default.asp?DocumentID=512&ArticleID=5616&l=en|title=United Nations Environment Program Global Trends in Sustainable Energy Investment 2007|website=UNEP.org|access-date=1 October 2017}}

{{Portal|Economics|Environment|History|Technology}}

• Business action on climate change
• Carbon-neutral fuel
• Climate change mitigation
• Carbon sink
• Emissions trading
• Energy development
• Green hydrogen
• Hydrogen economy
• {{See also|Life-cycle greenhouse-gas emissions of energy sources}}
• Renewable energy commercialization
• Sustainable energy

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Category:Sustainable energy

Category:Energy development

Category:Low-carbon economy