nonmetal

{{main|Noble gas}}

File:Argon ice 1.jpg ice|alt=a glass tube, held upside down by some tongs, has a clear-looking ice-like plug in it which is slowly melting judging from the clear drops falling out of the open end of the tube]]

Six nonmetals are classified as noble gases: helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, and the radioactive radon. In conventional periodic tables they occupy the rightmost column. They are called noble gases due to their exceptionally low chemical reactivity.Matson & Orbaek 2013, p. 203

These elements exhibit similar properties, being colorlessness, odorless, and nonflammable. Due to their closed outer electron shells, noble gases possess weak interatomic forces of attraction, leading to exceptionally low melting and boiling points.Jolly 1966, p. 20

Chemically, the noble gases exhibit relatively high ionization energies, negligible or negative electron affinities, and high to very high electronegativities. The number of compounds formed by noble gases is in the hundreds and continues to expand,Maosheng 2020, p. 962 with most of these compounds involving the combination of oxygen or fluorine with either krypton, xenon, or radon.Mazej 2020

{{Main|Halogen}}Chemically, the halogen nonmetals have high ionization energies, electron affinities, and electronegativity values, and are relatively strong oxidizing agents.Rudolph 1973, p. 133: "Oxygen and the halogens in particular{{nbsp}}... are therefore strong oxidizing agents." All four elements tend to form primarily ionic compounds with metals,Cotton et al. 1999, p. 554 in contrast to the remaining nonmetals (except for oxygen) which tend to form primarily covalent compounds with metals.{{efn|Metal oxides are usually somewhat ionic, depending upon the metal element electropositivity.Woodward et al. 1999, pp. 133–194 On the other hand, oxides of metals with high oxidation states are often either polymeric or covalent.Phillips & Williams 1965, pp. 478–479 A polymeric oxide has a linked structure composed of multiple repeating units.Moeller et al. 1989, p. 314}}

{{anchor|Unclassified nonmetal|right}}

File:Selenium black (cropped).jpg conducts electricity around 1,000 times better when light falls on it, a property used in light-sensing applications.Emsley 2011, p. 478|alt=A small glass jar filled with small dull grey concave buttons. The pieces of selenium look like tiny mushrooms without their stems.]]

{{Anchor|Hlike a metal}}Hydrogen behaves in some respects like a metallic element and in others like a nonmetal.Seese & Daub 1985, p. 65 Like a metallic element it can, for example, form a solvated cation in aqueous solution;MacKay, MacKay & Henderson 2002, pp. 209, 211 it can substitute for alkali metals in compounds such as the chlorides (NaCl cf. HCl) and nitrates (KNO₃ cf. HNO₃), and in certain alkali metal complexesCousins, Davidson & García-Vivó 2013, pp. 11809–11811Cao et al. 2021, p. 4 as a nonmetal.Liptrot 1983, p. 161; Malone & Dolter 2008, p. 255 It attains this configuration by forming a covalent or ionic bondWiberg 2001, pp. 255–257 or by bonding as an ion to a lone pair of electrons.Scott & Kanda 1962, p. 153

Some or all of these nonmetals share several properties. Being generally less reactive than the halogens,Taylor 1960, p. 316 most of them can occur naturally in the environment. Collectively, their physical and chemical characteristics can be described as "moderately non-metallic".Cao et al. 2021, p. 20 When combined with metals, the unclassified nonmetals can form interstitial or refractory compounds.Messler 2011, p. 10 They also exhibit a tendency to bond to themselves, particularly in solid compounds.King 1994, p. 1344; Powell & Tims 1974, pp. 189–191; Cao et al. 2021, pp. 20–21 Additionally, diagonal periodic table relationships among these nonmetals mirror similar relationships among the metalloids.Vernon 2020, pp. 221–223; Rayner-Canham 2020, p. 216

The abundance of elements in the universe results from nuclear physics processes like nucleosynthesis and radioactive decay.

The volatile noble gas nonmetal elements are less abundant in the atmosphere than expected based upon their overall abundance due to cosmic nucleosynthesis. Mechanisms to explain this difference is an important aspect of planetary science.{{Cite journal |last1=Pepin |first1=R. O. |last2=Porcelli |first2=D. |date=2002-01-01 |title=Origin of Noble Gases in the Terrestrial Planets |url=https://doi.org/10.2138/rmg.2002.47.7 |journal=Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry |volume=47 |issue=1 |pages=191–246 |doi=10.2138/rmg.2002.47.7 |bibcode=2002RvMG...47..191P |issn=1529-6466}} The element {{abbr|Xe|xenon}} is unexpectedly depleted, and a possible explanation comes from theoretical models of the high pressures in the Earth's core suggesting that there may be around 10¹³ tons of xenon in the form of stable XeFe₃ and XeNi₃ intermetallic compounds.Zhu et al. 2014, pp. 644–648

Five nonmetals—hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and silicon—form the bulk of the directly observable structure of the Earth: about 73% of the crust, 93% of the biomass, 96% of the hydrosphere, and over 99% of the atmosphere, as shown in the accompanying table. Silicon and oxygen form stable tetrahedral structures, known as silicates. Here, "the powerful bond that unites the oxygen and silicon ions is the cement that holds the Earth's crust together."Klein & Dutrow 2007, p. 435{{Broken anchor|date=2024-07-17|bot=User:Cewbot/log/20201008/configuration|target_link=#Klein|reason= }} However, they make up less than 50% of the total weight of the earth.

In the biomass, the relative abundance of the first four nonmetals (and phosphorus, sulfur, and selenium marginally) is attributed to a combination of relatively small atomic size, and sufficient spare electrons. These two properties enable them to bind to one another and "some other elements, to produce a molecular soup sufficient to build a self-replicating system."Cockell 2019, p. 212, 208–211

Nine of the 23 nonmetallic elements are gases, or form compounds that are gases, and are extracted from natural gas or liquid air, including hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur, and most of the noble gases. For example, nitrogen and oxygen are extracted from liquid air through fractional distillationEmsley 2011, pp. 363, 379 and sulfur from the hydrogen sulfide in natural gas by reacting it with oxygen to yield water and sulfur.Emsley 2011, p. 516 Three nonmetals are extracted from seawater; the rest of the nonmetals – and almost all metals – from mining solid ores.{{cn |date=April 2025}}

{{nowrap|Nonmetallic elements}} are extracted from these sources:Emsley 2011, passim

;{{legend inline|yellow |size=110%|text=3}}from natural gas components: hydrogen (methane), helium, and sulfur (hydrogen sulfide)

;{{legend inline|lightskyblue| size=110%|text=6}}from liquefied air: nitrogen, oxygen, neon, argon, krypton, and xenon

;{{legend inline|lightseagreen |size=110%|text=3}}from seawater brine: chlorine, bromine, and iodine

;{{legend inline|#FF9999| size=110%|text=12}}from solid ores: boron (borates), carbon (natural graphite), silicon (silica), phosphorus (phosphates), iodine (sodium iodate), radon (uranium ore decay product), fluorine (fluorite); and germanium, arsenic, selenium, antimony, and tellurium (from their sulfides).

File:Argon.jpg equipment]]

Nonmetallic elements are present in combination with other elements in almost everything around us, from water to plastics and within metallic alloys. There are some specific uses of the elements themselves, although these are less common; extensive details can be found in the specific pages of the relevant elements. A few examples are:

1. Hydrogen can be used in fuel cells, and is being explored for a possible future low-carbon hydrogen economy.{{Cite journal |last=Cheng |first=Xuan |last2=Shi |first2=Zheng |last3=Glass |first3=Nancy |last4=Zhang |first4=Lu |last5=Zhang |first5=Jiujun |last6=Song |first6=Datong |last7=Liu |first7=Zhong-Sheng |last8=Wang |first8=Haijiang |last9=Shen |first9=Jun |date=2007-03-20 |title=A review of PEM hydrogen fuel cell contamination: Impacts, mechanisms, and mitigation |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0378775306025304 |journal=Journal of Power Sources |series=IBA – HBC 2006 |volume=165 |issue=2 |pages=739–756 |doi=10.1016/j.jpowsour.2006.12.012 |issn=0378-7753}}
2. Carbon has many uses, ranging from decorative applications of diamond jewelry{{Cite journal |last=Purbrick |first=L. |date=2011-02-22 |title=Brilliant Effects: A Cultural History of Gem Stones and Jewellery |url=https://doi.org/10.1093/jdh/epq052 |journal=Journal of Design History |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=88–90 |doi=10.1093/jdh/epq052 |issn=0952-4649}} to diamond in cutting blades{{Cite book |last=Harlow |first=George E. |title=The nature of diamonds |date=1997 |publisher=Cambridge University Press in association with the American Museum of Natural History |others=American museum of natural history |isbn=978-0-521-62083-3 |location=Cambridge}} and graphite as a solid lubricant.
3. Liquid nitrogen is extensively used as a coolant.{{Cite web |last=Beteta |first=Oscar |last2=Ivanova |first2=Svetlana |date=September 2015 |title=Cool down with liquid nitrogen |url=https://www.aiche.org/sites/default/files/cep/20150930.pdf |website=American Institute of Chemical Engineers}}
4. Oxygen is a critical component of the air we breath. (While nitrogen is also present, it is less used from the air, mainly by certain bacteria.{{Cite journal |last=Franche |first=Claudine |last2=Lindström |first2=Kristina |last3=Elmerich |first3=Claudine |date=2009 |title=Nitrogen-fixing bacteria associated with leguminous and non-leguminous plants |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s11104-008-9833-8 |journal=Plant and Soil |language=en |volume=321 |issue=1-2 |pages=35–59 |doi=10.1007/s11104-008-9833-8 |issn=0032-079X}}) Oxygen gas and liquid is also heavily used for combustion in welding and cutting torches and as a component of rocket fuels.{{Cite web |title=Basics of Space Flight: Rocket Propellants |url=http://www.braeunig.us/space/propel.htm |access-date=2025-04-24 |website=www.braeunig.us}}
5. Silicon is the most widely used semiconductor. While ultra-pure silicon is an insulator, by selectively adding electronic dopants it can be used as a semiconductor where the chemical potential of the electrons can be manipulated, this being exploited in a wide range of electronic devices.
6. The noble gases have a range of applications, including liquid helium for cryogenic cooling,{{Cite web |title=4 Ways Cryogenic Applications of Helium Can Be Used |url=https://www.cryogenicsociety.org/index.php?option=com_dailyplanetblog&view=entry&category=industry-news&id=189:4-ways-cryogenic-applications-of-helium-can-be-used |access-date=2025-04-24 |website=www.cryogenicsociety.org}} and argon to in gaseous fire suppression to -damp fires around sensitive electrical equipment where water cannot be used.{{Cite web |last=Peters |first=M. J. |title=Which Gases Are Used in Fire Suppression Systems? |url=https://www.firetrace.com/fire-protection-blog/gases-used-in-fire-suppression-systems |access-date=2025-04-24 |website=www.firetrace.com |language=en}}
7. Radon is a potentially hazardous indoor pollutant.Maroni 1995, pp. 108–123

Medieval chemical philosophers focused on metals, rarely investigating nonmetallic minerals.Stillman 1924, p. 213

{{multiple image|perrow=2

| total_width=350

| align = right

| image_style = border:none;

| image2= Portrait of A.L. Lavoisier. Wellcome M0011209.jpg

| alt2= A distinguished gentleman, seated and looking towards the view; a copy of his book "Traité élémentaire de chimie" is at his hand upon what looks to be a reading plinth

| caption2=

| image1=Lavoisiers elements.gif

| alt1=

| caption1=

| footer = French nobleman and chemist Antoine Lavoisier (1743–1794), with a page of the English translation of his 1789 Traité élémentaire de chimie,Lavoisier 1790, p. 175 listing the elemental gases oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen (and erroneously including light and caloric); the nonmetallic substances sulfur, phosphorus, and carbon; and the chloride, fluoride and borate ions

}}

{{see also | Discovery of chemical elements}}

In the late 1700s, French chemist Antoine Lavoisier published the first modern list of chemical elements in his revolutionaryStrathern 2000, p. 239 1789 Traité élémentaire de chimie. The 33 elements known to Lavoisier were categorized into four distinct groups, including gases, metallic substances, nonmetallic substances that form acids when oxidized,{{Cite book |last1=Moore |first1=F. J. |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofchemist030951mbp/page/n125/mode/2up?q=lavoisier |title=A History Of Chemistry |last2=Hall |first2=William T. |publisher=McGraw-Hill |year=1918 |pages=99 |access-date=2024-08-01}} Lavoisier's Table is reproduced on page 99. and earths (heat-resistant oxides).Criswell 2007, p. 1140 Lavoisier's work gained widespread recognition and was republished in twenty-three editions across six languages within its first seventeen years, significantly advancing the understanding of chemistry in Europe and America.Salzberg 1991, p. 204 Lavoisier's chemistry was "dualistic",: "salts" were combinations of "acid" and "base"; acids where combinations of oxygen and metals while bases where combinations of oxygen and nonmetals. This view prevailed despite increasing evidence that chemicals like chlorine and ammonia contained no oxygen, in large part due the vigious if sometimes misguided defense by the Swedish chemist Berzelius.{{rp|165}}

In 1802 the term "metalloids" was introduced for elements with the physical properties of metals but the chemical properties of non-metals.Friend JN 1953, Man and the Chemical Elements, 1st ed., Charles Scribner's Sons, New York In 1811 Berzelius used the term "metalloids"Berzelius 1811, p. 258 to describe all nonmetallic elements, noting their ability to form negatively charged ions with oxygen in aqueous solutions.Partington 1964, p. 168Bache 1832, p. 250 Drawing on this, in 1864 the "Manual of Metalloids" divided all elements into either metals or metalloids, with the latter group including elements now called nonmetals.Apjohn, J. (1864). Manual of the Metalloids. United Kingdom: Longman.{{rp|31}} Reviews of the book indicated that the term "metalloids" was still endorsed by leading authorities,The Chemical News and Journal of Physical Science 1864 but there were reservations about its appropriateness. While Berzelius' terminology gained significant acceptance,Goldsmith 1982, p. 526 it later faced criticism from some who found it counterintuitive, misapplied,Roscoe & Schormlemmer 1894, p. 4 or even invalid.Glinka 1960, p. 76 The idea of designating elements like arsenic as metalloids had been considered. The use of the term "metalloids" persisted in France as textbooks of chemistry appeared in the 1800s. During this period, "metals" as a chemical category were characterized by a single property, their affinity for oxygen, while "metalloids" were organized by comparison of many characteristic analogous to the approach of naturalists.Bertomeu-Sánchez et al. 2002, pp. 235

{{clear}}

File:Lyon 1er - Place Gabriel Rambaud - Monument aux Grands Hommes de la Martinière - Gaspard Alphonse Dupasquier (medaillon).jpg, France.|alt=A side profile set in stone of a distinguished French gentleman]]

In 1844, {{ill|Alphonse Dupasquier|fr|Gaspard Alphonse Dupasquier}}, a French doctor, pharmacist, and chemist,Bertomeu-Sánchez et al. 2002, pp. 248–249 established a basic taxonomy of nonmetals to aid in their study. He wrote:Dupasquier 1844, pp. 66–67

:They will be divided into four groups or sections, as in the following:

::Organogens—oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, carbon

::Sulphuroids—sulfur, selenium, phosphorus

::Chloroides—fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine

::Boroids—boron, silicon.

Dupasquier's quartet parallels the modern nonmetal types. The organogens and sulphuroids are akin to the unclassified nonmetals. The chloroides were later called halogens.Bache 1832, pp. 248–276 The boroids eventually evolved into the metalloids, with this classification beginning from as early as 1864. The then unknown noble gases were recognized as a distinct nonmetal group after being discovered in the late 1800s.Renouf 1901, pp. 268 This taxonomy was noted as a "natural classification" of the substance considering all aspects rather than an single characteristic like oxygen affinity.Bertomeu-Sánchez et al. 2002, p. 236 It was a significant departure from other contemporary classifications, since it grouped together oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, and carbon.Hoefer 1845, p. 85

In 1828 and 1859, the French chemist Dumas classified nonmetals as (1) hydrogen; (2) fluorine to iodine; (3) oxygen to sulfur; (4) nitrogen to arsenic; and (5) carbon, boron and silicon,Dumas 1828; Dumas 1859 thereby anticipating the vertical groupings of Mendeleev's 1871 periodic table. Dumas' five classes fall into modern groups 1, 17, 16, 15, and 14 to

13 respectively.

By as early as 1866, some authors began preferring the term "nonmetal" over "metalloid" to describe nonmetallic elements.Oxford English Dictionary 1989 In 1875, KemsheadKemshead 1875, p. 13 observed that elements were categorized into two groups: non-metals (or metalloids) and metals. He noted that the term "non-metal", despite its compound nature, was more precise and had become universally accepted as the nomenclature of choice.

The early terminologies were empirical categorizations based upon observables. As the 20th century started there were significant changes in understanding. The first was due to methods, mainly x-ray crystallography, for determining how atoms are arranged in the various materials. As early as 1784 René Just Haüy discovered that every face of a crystal could be described by simple stacking patterns of blocks of the same shape and size (law of decrements).{{Cite book |last=Authier |first=André |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0199659845 |title=Early days of X-ray crystallography |date=2013 |publisher=Oxford university press |isbn=978-0-19-965984-5 |location=Oxford}} Haüy's study led to the idea that crystals are a regular three-dimensional array (a Bravais lattice) of atoms and molecules, with a single unit cell repeated indefinitely, along with other developments in the early days of physical crystallography. After Max von Laue demonstrated in 1912 that x-rays diffract,{{cite journal |vauthors=von Laue M |date=1914 |title=Concerning the detection of x-ray interferences |url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1914/laue-lecture.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Nobel Lectures, Physics |volume=1901–1921 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101207113911/http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1914/laue-lecture.pdf |archive-date=2010-12-07 |access-date=2009-02-18}} fairly quickly William Lawrence Bragg and his father William Henry Bragg were able to solve previously unknown structures.{{cite journal |vauthors=Bragg WL |date=1913 |title=The Structure of Some Crystals as Indicated by their Diffraction of X-rays |journal=Proc. R. Soc. Lond. |volume=A89 |issue=610 |pages=248–277 |bibcode=1913RSPSA..89..248B |doi=10.1098/rspa.1913.0083 |jstor=93488 |doi-access=free}}{{cite journal |vauthors=Bragg WL, James RW, Bosanquet CH |date=1921 |title=The Intensity of Reflexion of X-rays by Rock-Salt |url=https://zenodo.org/record/1430965 |url-status=live |journal=Phil. Mag. |volume=41 |issue=243 |page=309 |doi=10.1080/14786442108636225 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200329132638/https://zenodo.org/record/1430965 |archive-date=2020-03-29 |access-date=2019-09-10}}{{cite journal |vauthors=Bragg WL, James RW, Bosanquet CH |date=1921 |title=The Intensity of Reflexion of X-rays by Rock-Salt. Part II |url=https://zenodo.org/record/1430951 |url-status=live |journal=Phil. Mag. |volume=42 |issue=247 |page=1 |doi=10.1080/14786442108633730 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200329132627/https://zenodo.org/record/1430951 |archive-date=2020-03-29 |access-date=2019-09-10}} Building on this, it became clear that most of the simple elemental metals had close packed structures. With this determined the concept of dislocations originally developed by Vito Volterra in 1907Vito Volterra (1907) [https://eudml.org/doc/81250 "Sur l'équilibre des corps élastiques multiplement connexes"], Annales Scientifiques de l'École Normale Supérieure, Vol. 24, pp. 401–517 became accepted, for instance being used to explain the ductility of metals by G. I. Taylor in 1934.{{cite journal |author=G. I. Taylor |author-link=G. I. Taylor |year=1934 |title=The Mechanism of Plastic Deformation of Crystals. Part I. Theoretical |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A |volume=145 |issue=855 |pages=362–87 |bibcode=1934RSPSA.145..362T |doi=10.1098/rspa.1934.0106 |jstor=2935509 |doi-access=free}}

The second was the advent of quantum mechanics. In 1924 Louis de Broglie in his PhD thesis Recherches sur la théorie des quanta{{cite web |last1=de Broglie |first1=Louis Victor |title=On the Theory of Quanta |url=https://fondationlouisdebroglie.org/LDB-oeuvres/De_Broglie_Kracklauer.pdf |access-date=25 February 2023 |website=Foundation of Louis de Broglie |edition=English translation by A.F. Kracklauer, 2004.}} introduced his theory of electron waves. This rapidly became part of what was called by Erwin Schrödinger undulatory mechanics,{{Cite journal |last=Schrödinger |first=E. |date=1926 |title=An Undulatory Theory of the Mechanics of Atoms and Molecules |url=https://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/PhysRev.28.1049 |journal=Physical Review |language=en |volume=28 |issue=6 |pages=1049–1070 |bibcode=1926PhRv...28.1049S |doi=10.1103/PhysRev.28.1049 |issn=0031-899X}} now called the Schrödinger equation, wave mechanics or more commonly in contemporary usage quantum mechanics. While it was not so easy to solve the mathematics in the early days, fairly rapidly ideas such as the chemical bond terminology of Linus Pauling{{Cite book |last=Pauling |first=Linus |title=The nature of the chemical bond and the structure of molecules and crystals: an introduction to modern structural chemistry |date=2010 |publisher=Cornell Univ. Press |isbn=978-0-8014-0333-0 |edition=3. ed., 17. print |location=Ithaca, NY}} as well as electronic band structure concepts were developed.{{Cite book |last1=Ashcroft |first1=Neil W. |title=Solid state physics |last2=Mermin |first2=N. David |date=1976 |publisher=Saunders college publ |isbn=978-0-03-083993-1 |location=Fort Worth Philadelphia San Diego [etc.]}}{{Band structure filling diagram}}From this the concept of nonmetals as "not-a-metal" originates. The original approach to describe metals and nonmetals was a band-structure with delocalized electrons (i.e. spread out in space). A nonmetal has a gap in the energy levels of the electrons at the Fermi level.{{Rp|location=Chpt 8 & 19}} In contrast, a metal would have at least one partially occupied band at the Fermi level; in a semiconductor or insulator there are no delocalized states at the Fermi level, see for instance Ashcroft and Mermin. (A semimetal is similar to a metal, with a slightly more complex band structure.) These definitions are equivalent to stating that metals conduct electricity at absolute zero, as suggested by Nevill Francis Mott,{{Cite book |last=Yonezawa |first=Fumiko |title=Physics of metal-nonmetal transitions |date=2017 |publisher=IOS Press |isbn=978-1-61499-786-3 |location=Washington, DC |pages= |quote=}}{{Rp|page=257}} and the equivalent definition at other temperatures is also commonly used as in textbooks such as Chemistry of the Non-Metals by Ralf Steudel{{Cite book |last=Steudel |first=Ralf |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110578065/html |title=Chemistry of the Non-Metals: Syntheses - Structures - Bonding - Applications |date=2020 |publisher=De Gruyter |isbn=978-3-11-057806-5 |pages=154 |doi=10.1515/9783110578065}} and work on metal–insulator transitions.{{Cite journal |last=MOTT |first=N. F. |date=1968-10-01 |title=Metal-Insulator Transition |url=https://journals.aps.org/rmp/abstract/10.1103/RevModPhys.40.677 |journal=Reviews of Modern Physics |volume=40 |issue=4 |pages=677–683 |doi=10.1103/RevModPhys.40.677|bibcode=1968RvMP...40..677M }}{{Cite journal |last1=Imada |first1=Masatoshi |last2=Fujimori |first2=Atsushi |last3=Tokura |first3=Yoshinori |date=1998-10-01 |title=Metal-insulator transitions |url=https://journals.aps.org/rmp/abstract/10.1103/RevModPhys.70.1039 |journal=Reviews of Modern Physics |volume=70 |issue=4 |pages=1039–1263 |doi=10.1103/RevModPhys.70.1039|bibcode=1998RvMP...70.1039I }}

Originally{{Cite journal |last1=Wilson |first1=A. H. |date=1931 |title=The theory of electronic semi-conductors |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Containing Papers of a Mathematical and Physical Character |language=en |volume=133 |issue=822 |pages=458–491 |bibcode=1931RSPSA.133..458W |doi=10.1098/rspa.1931.0162 |issn=0950-1207 |doi-access=free}}{{Cite journal |last1=Wilson |first1=A. H. |date=1931 |title=The theory of electronic semi-conductors. - II |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Containing Papers of a Mathematical and Physical Character |language=en |volume=134 |issue=823 |pages=277–287 |bibcode=1931RSPSA.134..277W |doi=10.1098/rspa.1931.0196 |issn=0950-1207 |doi-access=free}} this band structure interpretation was based upon a single-electron approach with the Fermi level in the band gap as illustrated in the Figure, not including a complete picture of the many-body problem where both exchange and correlation terms matter, as well as relativistic effects such as spin-orbit coupling. For instance, the passivity of gold is typically associated with relativistic terms.{{Cite journal |last=Pyykkö |first=Pekka |date=2012-05-05 |title=Relativistic Effects in Chemistry: More Common Than You Thought |url=https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-physchem-032511-143755 |journal=Annual Review of Physical Chemistry |language=en |volume=63 |issue=1 |pages=45–64 |doi=10.1146/annurev-physchem-032511-143755 |pmid=22404585 |bibcode=2012ARPC...63...45P |issn=0066-426X}} A key addition by Mott and Rudolf Peierls was that these could not be ignored.{{Cite journal |last1=Mott |first1=N F |last2=Peierls |first2=R |date=1937 |title=Discussion of the paper by de Boer and Verwey |url=https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0959-5309/49/4S/308 |journal=Proceedings of the Physical Society |volume=49 |issue=4S |pages=72–73 |bibcode=1937PPS....49...72M |doi=10.1088/0959-5309/49/4S/308 |issn=0959-5309}} For instance, nickel oxide would be a metal if a single-electron approach was used, but in fact has quite a large band gap.{{Cite journal |last1=Boer |first1=J H de |last2=Verwey |first2=E J W |date=1937 |title=Semi-conductors with partially and with completely filled 3 d -lattice bands |url=https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0959-5309/49/4S/307 |journal=Proceedings of the Physical Society |volume=49 |issue=4S |pages=59–71 |bibcode=1937PPS....49...59B |doi=10.1088/0959-5309/49/4S/307 |issn=0959-5309}} As of 2024 it is more common to use an approach based upon density functional theory where the many-body terms are included.{{Cite web |last=Burke |first=Kieron |date=2007 |title=The ABC of DFT |url=https://dft.uci.edu/doc/g1.pdf}}{{Cite book |last1=Gross |first1=Eberhard K. U. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aG4ECAAAQBAJ&q=density+functional+theory |title=Density Functional Theory |last2=Dreizler |first2=Reiner M. |date=2013 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-1-4757-9975-0 |language=en}} Although accurate calculations remain a challenge, reasonable results are now available in many cases.{{Cite journal |last1=Ferreira |first1=Luiz G. |last2=Marques |first2=Marcelo |last3=Teles |first3=Lara K. |date=2008 |title=Approximation to density functional theory for the calculation of band gaps of semiconductors |url=https://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/PhysRevB.78.125116 |journal=Physical Review B |language=en |volume=78 |issue=12 |page=125116 |arxiv=0808.0729 |bibcode=2008PhRvB..78l5116F |doi=10.1103/PhysRevB.78.125116 |issn=1098-0121}}{{Cite journal |last1=Tran |first1=Fabien |last2=Blaha |first2=Peter |date=2017 |title=Importance of the Kinetic Energy Density for Band Gap Calculations in Solids with Density Functional Theory |journal=The Journal of Physical Chemistry A |language=en |volume=121 |issue=17 |pages=3318–3325 |bibcode=2017JPCA..121.3318T |doi=10.1021/acs.jpca.7b02882 |issn=1089-5639 |pmc=5423078 |pmid=28402113}}

It is common to nuance the early definition of Alan Herries Wilson and Mott which was for a zero temperature. As discussed by Peter Edwards and colleagues,{{Cite journal |last1=Edwards |first1=P. P. |last2=Lodge |first2=M. T. J. |last3=Hensel |first3=F. |last4=Redmer |first4=R. |date=2010 |title='… a metal conducts and a non-metal doesn't' |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences |language=en |volume=368 |issue=1914 |pages=941–965 |bibcode=2010RSPTA.368..941E |doi=10.1098/rsta.2009.0282 |issn=1364-503X |pmc=3263814 |pmid=20123742}} as well as Fumiko Yonezawa,{{Rp|pages=257–261}}it is important to consider the temperatures at which both metals and nonmetals are used. Yonezawa provides a general definition for both general temperatures and conditions (such as standard temperature and pressure):{{Rp|page=260}}

{{block quote|text=When a material conducts and at the same time the temperature coefficient of the electric conductivity of that material is not positive under a certain environmental condition, the material is metallic under that environmental condition. A material which does not satisfy these requirements is not metallic under that environmental condition.}}

The precise meaning of semiconductor needs a little care. In terms of the temperature dependence of their conductivity they are all classified as insulators; the pure forms are intrinsic semiconductors. When they are doped their conductivity continues to increase with temperature, and can become substantial; hence the ambiguities with an empirical categorisation using conductivity described earlier. Indeed, some elements that are normally considered as insulators have been exploited as semiconductors. For instance diamond, which has the largest band gap of the elements that are solids under normal conditions,{{Cite journal |last=Strehlow |first=W. H. |last2=Cook |first2=E. L. |date=1973-01-01 |title=Compilation of Energy Band Gaps in Elemental and Binary Compound Semiconductors and Insulators |url=https://pubs.aip.org/aip/jpr/article-abstract/2/1/163/241551/Compilation-of-Energy-Band-Gaps-in-Elemental-and?redirectedFrom=fulltext |journal=Journal of Physical and Chemical Reference Data |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=163–200 |doi=10.1063/1.3253115 |issn=0047-2689}} has a number of semiconductor applications.{{Cite journal |last=Collins |first=Alan T. |date=1997 |title=The optical and electronic properties of semiconducting diamond |url=https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsta.1993.0017 |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series A: Physical and Engineering Sciences |volume=342 |issue=1664 |pages=233–244 |doi=10.1098/rsta.1993.0017}}{{Cite journal |last=Umezawa |first=Hitoshi |date=2018-05-01 |title=Recent advances in diamond power semiconductor devices |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1369800117322217 |journal=Materials Science in Semiconductor Processing |series=Wide band gap semiconductors technology for next generation of energy efficient power electronics |volume=78 |pages=147–156 |doi=10.1016/j.mssp.2018.01.007 |issn=1369-8001}}

Band structure definitions of metals and nonmetals are widely used in current research into materials, and apply both to single elements such as insulating boron{{Cite journal |last1=Ogitsu |first1=Tadashi |last2=Schwegler |first2=Eric |last3=Galli |first3=Giulia |date=2013 |title=β-Rhombohedral Boron: At the Crossroads of the Chemistry of Boron and the Physics of Frustration |url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/cr300356t |journal=Chemical Reviews |language=en |volume=113 |issue=5 |pages=3425–3449 |doi=10.1021/cr300356t |issn=0009-2665 |osti=1227014 |pmid=23472640}} as well as compounds such as strontium titanate.{{Cite journal |last1=Reihl |first1=B. |last2=Bednorz |first2=J. G. |last3=Müller |first3=K. A. |last4=Jugnet |first4=Y. |last5=Landgren |first5=G. |last6=Morar |first6=J. F. |date=1984 |title=Electronic structure of strontium titanate |url=https://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/PhysRevB.30.803 |journal=Physical Review B |language=en |volume=30 |issue=2 |pages=803–806 |bibcode=1984PhRvB..30..803R |doi=10.1103/PhysRevB.30.803 |issn=0163-1829}} The characteristics associated with metals and nonmetals in early work such as their appearance and mechanical properties are now understood to be consequences of how the atoms and electrons are arranged.

The two tables in this section list some of the properties of five types of elements (noble gases, halogen nonmetals, unclassified nonmetals, metalloids and, for comparison, metals) based on their most stable forms at standard temperature and pressure. The dashed lines around the columns for metalloids signify that the treatment of these elements as a distinct type can vary depending on the author, or classification scheme in use.

{{hatnote|See also {{slink||Physical}} }}

Physical properties are listed in loose order of ease of their determination.

{{hatnote|See also {{slink||Chemical}}}}

Chemical properties are listed from general characteristics to more specific details.

† Hydrogen can also form alloy-like hydrides

‡ The labels low, moderate, high, and very high are arbitrarily based on the value spans listed in the table

• CHON (carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen)
• List of nonmetal monographs
• Metallization pressure
• Nonmetal (astrophysics)
• Period 1 elements (hydrogen & helium)
• Properties of nonmetals (and metalloids) by group

{{Clear}}

{{notelist|colwidth=45em}}

{{Reflist|20em}}

{{refbegin|colwidth=40em|small=yes}}

• Abbott D 1966, An Introduction to the Periodic Table, J. M. Dent & Sons, London
• Addison WE 1964, The Allotropy of the Elements, Oldbourne Press, London
• Atkins PA et al. 2006, Shriver & Atkins' Inorganic Chemistry, 4th ed., Oxford University Press, Oxford, {{ISBN|978-0-7167-4878-6}}
• Aylward G and Findlay T 2008, SI Chemical Data, 6th ed., John Wiley & Sons Australia, Milton, {{isbn|978-0-470-81638-7}}
• Bache AD 1832, [https://books.google.com/books?id=mSZGAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA248 "An essay on chemical nomenclature, prefixed to the treatise on chemistry; by J. J. Berzelius"], American Journal of Science, vol. 22, pp. 248–277
• Baker et al. PS 1962, Chemistry and You, Lyons and Carnahan, Chicago
• Barton AFM 2021, States of Matter, States of Mind, CRC Press, Boca Raton, {{isbn|978-0-7503-0418-4}}
• Beach FC (ed.) 1911, The Americana: A universal reference library, vol. XIII, Mel–New, Metalloid, Scientific American Compiling Department, New York
• Beard A, Battenberg, C & Sutker BJ 2021, "Flame retardants", in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, {{doi|10.1002/14356007.a11_123.pub2}}
• Beiser A 1987, Concepts of modern physics, 4th ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, {{isbn|978-0-07-004473-9}}
• Benner SA, Ricardo A & Carrigan MA 2018, "Is there a common chemical model for life in the universe?", in Cleland CE & Bedau MA (eds.), The Nature of Life: Classical and Contemporary Perspectives from Philosophy and Science, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, {{isbn|978-1-108-72206-3}}
• Benzhen et al. 2020, Metals and non-metals in the periodic table, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A, vol. 378, 20200213
• Berger LI 1997, Semiconductor Materials, CRC Press, Boca Raton, {{isbn|978-0-8493-8912-2}}
• Bertomeu-Sánchez JR, Garcia-Belmar A & Bensaude-Vincent B 2002, "Looking for an order of things: Textbooks and chemical classifications in nineteenth century France", Ambix, vol. 49, no. 3, {{doi|10.1179/amb.2002.49.3.227}}
• Berzelius JJ 1811, 'Essai sur la nomenclature chimique', Journal de Physique, de Chimie, d'Histoire Naturelle, vol. LXXIII, pp. 253‒286
• Bhuwalka et al. 2021, "Characterizing the changes in material use due to vehicle electrification", Environmental Science & Technology vol. 55, no. 14, {{doi|10.1021/acs.est.1c00970}}
• Bogoroditskii NP & Pasynkov VV 1967, Radio and Electronic Materials, Iliffe Books, London
• Bohlmann R 1992, "Synthesis of halides", in Winterfeldt E (ed.), Heteroatom manipulation, Pergamon Press, Oxford, {{isbn|978-0-08-091249-3}}
• Boreskov GK 2003, Heterogeneous Catalysis, Nova Science, New York, {{isbn|978-1-59033-864-3}}
• Brady JE & Senese F 2009, Chemistry: The study of Matter and its Changes, 5th ed., John Wiley & Sons, New York, {{ISBN|978-0-470-57642-7}}
• Brande WT 1821, A Manual of Chemistry, vol. II, John Murray, London
• Brandt HG & Weiler H, 2000, "Welding and cutting", in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, {{doi|10.1002/14356007.a28_203}}
• Brannt WT 1919, Metal Worker's Handy-book of Receipts and Processes, HC Baird & Company, Philadelphia
• Brown TL et al. 2014, Chemistry: The Central Science, 3rd ed., Pearson Australia: Sydney, {{isbn|978-1-4425-5460-3}}
• Burford N, Passmore J & Sanders JCP 1989, "The preparation, structure, and energetics of homopolyatomic cations of groups 16 (the chalcogens) and 17 (the halogens)", in Liebman JF & Greenberg A (eds.), From atoms to polymers: isoelectronic analogies, VCH, New York, {{isbn|978-0-89573-711-3}}
• Bynum WF, Browne J & Porter R 1981 (eds), Dictionary of the History of Science, Princeton University Press, Princeton, {{isbn|978-0-691-08287-5}}
• Cahn RW & Haasen P, Physical Metallurgy: Vol. 1, 4th ed., Elsevier Science, Amsterdam,{{isbn|978-0-444-89875-3}}
• Cao C et al. 2021, "Understanding periodic and non-periodic chemistry in periodic tables", Frontiers in Chemistry, vol. 8, no. 813, {{doi|10.3389/fchem.2020.00813}}
• Carapella SC 1968, "Arsenic" in Hampel CA (ed.), The Encyclopedia of the Chemical Elements, Reinhold, New York
• Carmalt CJ & Norman NC 1998, "Arsenic, antimony and bismuth: Some general properties and aspects of periodicity", in Norman NC (ed.), Chemistry of Arsenic, Antimony and Bismuth, Blackie Academic & Professional, London, pp. 1–38, {{ISBN|0-7514-0389-X}}
• Carrasco et al. 2023, "Antimonene: a tuneable post-graphene material for advanced applications in optoelectronics, catalysis, energy and biomedicine", Chemical Society Reviews, vol. 52, no. 4, p. 1288–1330, {{doi|10.1039/d2cs00570k}}
• Challoner J 2014, The Elements: The New Guide to the Building Blocks of our Universe, Carlton Publishing Group, {{ISBN|978-0-233-00436-5}}
• Cyclopedia: Or an Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences (etc.), vol. 2, D Midwinter, London
• Chambers C & Holliday AK 1982, Inorganic Chemistry, Butterworth & Co., London, {{ISBN|978-0-408-10822-5}}
• Chandra X-ray Observatory 2018, [https://chandra.harvard.edu/resources/illustrations/chemistry_universe.html Abundance Pie Chart], accessed 26 October 2023
• Chapin FS, Matson PA & Vitousek PM 2011, Earth's climate system, in Principles of Terrestrial Ecosystem Ecology, Springer, New York, {{isbn|978-1-4419-9503-2}}
• Charlier J-C, Gonze X, Michenaud J-P 1994, "First-principles study of the stacking effect on the electronic properties of graphite(s)", Carbon, vol. 32, no. 2, pp. 289–99, {{doi|10.1016/0008-6223(94)90192-9}}
• Chedd G 1969, Half-way elements: The technology of metalloids, Double Day, Garden City, NY
• Chemical Abstracts Service 2021, [https://www.cas.org/cas-data/cas-registry CAS REGISTRY database] as of November 2, Case #01271182
• Chen K 1990, Industrial Power Distribution and Illuminating Systems, Marcel Dekker, New York, {{isbn|978-0-8247-8237-5}}
• Chung DD 1987, "Review of exfoliated graphite", Journal of Materials Science, vol. 22, {{doi|10.1007/BF01132008}}
• Clugston MJ & Flemming R 2000, Advanced Chemistry, Oxford University Press, Oxford, {{ISBN|978-0-19-914633-8}}
• Cockell C 2019, The Equations of Life: How Physics Shapes Evolution, Atlantic Books, London, {{ISBN|978-1-78649-304-0}}
• Cook CG 1923, Chemistry in Everyday Life: With Laboratory Manual, D Appleton, New York
• Cotton A et al. 1999, Advanced Inorganic Chemistry, 6th ed., Wiley, New York, {{ISBN|978-0-471-19957-1}}
• Cousins DM, Davidson MG & García-Vivó D 2013, "Unprecedented participation of a four-coordinate hydrogen atom in the cubane core of lithium and sodium phenolates", Chemical Communications, vol. 49, {{doi|10.1039/C3CC47393G}}
• Cox PA 1997, The Elements: Their Origins, Abundance, and Distribution, Oxford University Press, Oxford, {{ISBN|978-0-19-855298-7}}
• Cox T 2004, Inorganic Chemistry, 2nd ed., BIOS Scientific Publishers, London, {{ISBN|978-1-85996-289-3}}
• Crawford FH 1968, Introduction to the Science of Physics, Harcourt, Brace & World, New York
• Cressey D 2010, [http://blogs.nature.com/news/2010/11/chemists_redefine_hydrogen_bon.html "Chemists re-define hydrogen bond"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190124163616/http://blogs.nature.com/news/2010/11/chemists_redefine_hydrogen_bon.html |date=2019-01-24 }}, Nature newsblog, accessed August 23, 2017
• Crichton R 2012, Biological Inorganic Chemistry: A New Introduction to Molecular Structure and Function, 2nd ed., Elsevier, Amsterdam, {{isbn|978-0-444-53783-6}}
• Criswell B 2007, "Mistake of having students be Mendeleev for just a day", Journal of Chemical Education, vol. 84, no. 7, pp. 1140–1144, {{doi|10.1021/ed084p1140}}
• Crow JM 2013, [https://www.chemistryworld.com/features/main-group-renaissance/6230.article Main group renaissance], Chemistry World, 31 May, accessed 26 December 2023
• Csele M 2016, Lasers, in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, {{doi|10.1002/14356007.a15_165.pub2}}
• Dalton L 2019, [https://cen.acs.org/materials/inorganic-chemistry/Argon-reacts-nickel-under-pressure/97/web/2019/10 "Argon reacts with nickel under pressure-cooker conditions"], Chemical & Engineering News, accessed November 6, 2019
• de Clave E 1651, Nouvelle Lumière philosophique des vrais principes et élémens de nature, et qualité d'iceux, contre l'opinion commune, Olivier de Varennes, Paris
• Daniel PL & Rapp RA 1976, "Halogen corrosion of metals", in Fontana MG & Staehle RW (eds.), Advances in Corrosion Science and Technology, Springer, Boston, {{doi|10.1007/978-1-4615-9062-0_2}}
• de L'Aunay L 1566, Responce au discours de maistre Iacques Grevin, docteur de Paris, qu'il a escript contre le livre de maistre Loys de l'Aunay, medecin en la Rochelle, touchant la faculté de l'antimoine (Response to the Speech of Master Jacques Grévin,... Which He Wrote Against the Book of Master Loys de L'Aunay,... Touching the Faculty of Antimony), De l'Imprimerie de Barthelemi Berton, La Rochelle
• Davis et al. 2006, "Atomic iodine lasers", in Endo M & Walter RF (eds) 2006, Gas Lasers, CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, {{isbn|978-0-470-19565-9}}
• DeKock RL & Gray HB 1989, Chemical structure and bonding, University Science Books, Mill Valley, CA, {{isbn|978-0-935702-61-3}}
• Desai PD, James HM & Ho CY 1984, [https://web.archive.org/web/20160817165930/http://www.nist.gov/data/PDFfiles/jpcrd260.pdf "Electrical resistivity of aluminum and manganese"], Journal of Physical and Chemical Reference Data, vol. 13, no. 4, {{doi|10.1063/1.555725}}
• Donohue J 1982, The Structures of the Elements, Robert E. Krieger, Malabar, Florida, {{ISBN|978-0-89874-230-5}}
• Dorsey MG 2023, Holding Their Breath: How the Allies Confronted the Threat of Chemical Warfare in World War II, Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York, pp. 12–13, {{isbn|978-1-5017-6837-8}}
• Douglade J, Mercier R 1982, Structure cristalline et covalence des liaisons dans le sulfate d’arsenic(III), As₂(SO₄)₃, Acta Crystallographica Section B, vol. 38, no, 3, 720–723, {{doi|10.1107/s056774088200394x}}
• Du Y, Ouyang C, Shi S & Lei M 2010, Ab initio studies on atomic and electronic structures of black phosphorus, Journal of Applied Physics, vol. 107, no. 9, pp. 093718–1–4, {{doi|10.1063/1.3386509}}
• Duffus JH 2002, " 'Heavy metals'—A meaningless term?", Pure and Applied Chemistry, vol. 74, no. 5, pp. 793–807, {{doi|10.1351/pac200274050793}}
• Dumas JBA 1828, Traité de Chimie Appliquée aux Arts, Béchet Jeune, Paris
• Dumas JBA 1859, Mémoire sur les Équivalents des Corps Simples, Mallet-Bachelier, Paris
• Dupasquier A 1844, Traité élémentaire de chimie industrielle, Charles Savy Juene, Lyon
• Eagleson M 1994, Concise Encyclopedia Chemistry, Walter de Gruyter, Berlin, {{ISBN|3-11-011451-8}}
• Earl B & Wilford D 2021, Cambridge O Level Chemistry, Hodder Education, London, {{ISBN|978-1-3983-1059-9}}
• Edwards PP 2000, "What, why and when is a metal?", in Hall N (ed.), The New Chemistry, Cambridge University, Cambridge, pp. 85–114, {{ISBN|978-0-521-45224-3}}
• Edwards PP et al. 2010, "... a metal conducts and a non-metal doesn't", Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A, 2010, vol, 368, no. 1914, {{doi|10.1098/rsta.2009.0282}}
• Edwards PP & Sienko MJ 1983, "On the occurrence of metallic character in the periodic table of the elements", Journal of Chemical Education, vol. 60, no. 9, {{doi|10.1021/ed060p691}}, {{PMID|25666074}}
• Elliot A 1929, "The absorption band spectrum of chlorine", Proceedings of the Royal Society A, vol. 123, no. 792, pp. 629–644, {{doi|10.1098/rspa.1929.0088}}
• Emsley J 1971, The Inorganic Chemistry of the Non-metals, Methuen Educational, London, {{ISBN|978-0-423-86120-4}}
• Emsley J 2011, [https://books.google.com/books?id=2EfYXzwPo3UC Nature's Building Blocks: An A–Z Guide to the Elements], Oxford University Press, Oxford, {{ISBN|978-0-19-850341-5}}
• Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2021, [https://cdn.britannica.com/45/7445-050-BB332C27/version-periodic-table-elements.jpg Periodic table], accessed September 21, 2021
• Engesser TA & Krossing I 2013, "Recent advances in the syntheses of homopolyatomic cations of the non metallic elements {{abbr|C|carbon}}, {{abbr|N|nitrogen}}, {{abbr|P|phosphorus}}, {{abbr|S|sulfur}}, {{abbr|Cl|chlorine}}, {{abbr|Br|bromine}}, {{abbr|I|iodine}} and {{abbr|Xe|xenon}}", Coordination Chemistry Reviews, vol. 257, nos. 5–6, pp. 946–955, {{doi|10.1016/j.ccr.2012.07.025}}
• Erman P & Simon P 1808, "Third report of Prof. Erman and State Architect Simon on their joint experiments", Annalen der Physik, vol. 28, no. 3, pp. 347–367
• Evans RC 1966, An Introduction to Crystal Chemistry, 2nd ed., Cambridge University, Cambridge
• Faraday M 1853, The Subject Matter of a Course of Six Lectures on the Non-metallic Elements, (arranged by John Scoffern), Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans, London
• Field JE (ed.) 1979, The Properties of Diamond, Academic Press, London, {{isbn|978-0-12-255350-9}}
• Florez et al. 2022, "From the gas phase to the solid state: The chemical bonding in the superheavy element flerovium", The Journal of Chemical Physics, vol. 157, 064304, {{doi|10.1063/5.0097642}}
• Fortescue JAC 2012, Environmental Geochemistry: A Holistic Approach, Springer-Verlag, New York, {{isbn|978-1-4612-6047-9}}
• Fox M 2010, Optical Properties of Solids, 2nd ed., Oxford University Press, New York, {{isbn| 978-0-19-957336-3}}
• Fraps GS 1913, Principles of Agricultural Chemistry, The Chemical Publishing Company, Easton, PA
• Fraústo da Silva JJR & Williams RJP 2001, The Biological Chemistry of the Elements: The Inorganic Chemistry of Life, 2nd ed., Oxford University Press, Oxford, {{isbn|978-0-19-850848-9}}
• Gaffney J & Marley N 2017, General Chemistry for Engineers, Elsevier, Amsterdam, {{isbn|978-0-12-810444-6}}
• Ganguly A 2012, Fundamentals of Inorganic Chemistry, 2nd ed., Dorling Kindersley (India), New Delhi {{isbn|978-81-317-6649-1}}
• Gargaud M et al. (eds.) 2006, Lectures in Astrobiology, vol. 1, part 1: The Early Earth and Other Cosmic Habitats for Life, Springer, Berlin, {{ISBN|978-3-540-29005-6}}
• Gatti M, Tokatly IV & Rubio A, 2010, Sodium: a charge-transfer insulator at high pressures, Physical Review Letters, vol. 104, no. 21, {{doi|10.1103/PhysRevLett.104.216404}}
• Georgievskii VI 1982, Mineral compositions of bodies and tissues of animals, in Georgievskii VI, Annenkov BN & Samokhin VT (eds), Mineral Nutrition of Animals: Studies in the Agricultural and Food Sciences, Butterworths, London, {{isbn|978-0-408-10770-9}}
• Gillespie RJ, Robinson EA 1959, The sulfuric acid solvent system, in Emeléus HJ, Sharpe AG (eds), Advances in Inorganic Chemistry and Radiochemistry, vol. 1, pp. 386–424, Academic Press, New York
• Gillham EJ 1956, A semi-conducting antimony bolometer, Journal of Scientific Instruments, vol. 33, no. 9, {{doi|10.1088/0950-7671/33/9/303}}
• Glinka N 1960, General chemistry, Sobolev D (trans.), Foreign Languages Publishing House, Moscow
• Godfrin H & Lauter HJ 1995, "Experimental properties of ³He adsorbed on graphite", in Halperin WP (ed.), Progress in Low Temperature Physics, volume 14, Elsevier Science B.V., Amsterdam, {{ISBN|978-0-08-053993-5}}
• Godovikov AA & Nenasheva N 2020, Structural-chemical Systematics of Minerals, 3rd ed., Springer, Cham, Switzerland, {{isbn|978-3-319-72877-3}}
• Goldsmith RH 1982, "Metalloids", Journal of Chemical Education, vol. 59, no. 6, pp. 526–527, {{doi|10.1021/ed059p526}}
• Goldwhite H & Spielman JR 1984, College Chemistry, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, San Diego, {{isbn|978-0-15-601561-5}}
• Goodrich BG 1844, A Glance at the Physical Sciences, Bradbury, Soden & Co., Boston
• Gresham et al. 2015, Lubrication and lubricants, in Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, John Wiley & Sons, {{doi|10.1002/0471238961.1221021802151519.a01.pub3}}, accessed Jun 3, 2024
• Grondzik WT et al. 2010, Mechanical and Electrical Equipment for Buildings, 11th ed., John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, {{isbn|978-0-470-19565-9}}
• Government of Canada 2015, [https://web.archive.org/web/20160305173014/http://science.gc.ca/default.asp?lang=en#46;gc.ca Periodic table of the elements], accessed August 30, 2015
• Graves Jr JL 2022, A Voice in the Wilderness: A Pioneering Biologist Explains How Evolution Can Help Us Solve Our Biggest Problems, Basic Books, New York, {{isbn|978-1-6686-1610-9}},
• Green D 2012, The Elements, Scholastic, Southam, Warwickshire, {{isbn|978-1-4071-3155-9}}
• Greenberg A 2007, From alchemy to chemistry in picture and story, John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, NJ, 978-0-471-75154-0
• Greenwood NN 2001, Main group element chemistry at the millennium, Journal of the Chemical Society, Dalton Transactions, no. 14, pp. 2055–66, {{doi|10.1039/b103917m}}
• Greenwood NN & Earnshaw A 2002, Chemistry of the Elements, 2nd ed., Butterworth-Heinemann, {{ISBN|978-0-7506-3365-9}}
• Grochala W 2018, "On the position of helium and neon in the Periodic Table of Elements", Foundations of Chemistry, vol. 20, pp. 191–207, {{doi|10.1007/s10698-017-9302-7}}
• Hall RA 2021, Pop Goes the Decade: The 2000s, ABC-CLIO, Santa Barbara, California, {{isbn|978-1-4408-6812-2}}
• Haller EE 2006, [https://www.osti.gov/servlets/purl/922705 "Germanium: From its discovery to SiGe devices"], Materials Science in Semiconductor Processing, vol. 9, nos 4–5, accessed 9 October 2013
• Hampel CA & Hawley GG 1976, Glossary of Chemical Terms, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, {{ISBN|978-0-442-23238-2}}
• Hanley JJ & Koga KT 2018, "Halogens in terrestrial and cosmic geochemical systems: Abundances, geochemical behaviors, and analytical methods" in The Role of Halogens in Terrestrial and Extraterrestrial Geochemical Processes: Surface, Crust, and Mantle, Harlov DE & Aranovich L (eds.), Springer, Cham, {{isbn|978-3-319-61667-4}}
• Harbison RD, Bourgeois MM & Johnson GT 2015, Hamilton and Hardy's Industrial Toxicology, 6th ed., John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, {{ISBN|978-0-470-92973-5}}
• Hare RA & Bache F 1836, Compendium of the Course of Chemical Instruction in the Medical Department of the University of Pennsylvania, 3rd ed., JG Auner, Philadelphia
• Harris TM 1803, The Minor Encyclopedia, vol. III, West & Greenleaf, Boston
• Hein M & Arena S 2011, Foundations of College Chemistry, 13th ed., John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, New Jersey, {{isbn|978-0470-46061-0}}
• Hengeveld R & Fedonkin MA 2007, "Bootstrapping the energy flow in the beginning of life", Acta Biotheoretica, vol. 55, {{doi|10.1007/s10441-007-9019-4}}
• Herman ZS 1999, "The nature of the chemical bond in metals, alloys, and intermetallic compounds, according to Linus Pauling", in Maksić, ZB, Orville-Thomas WJ (eds.), 1999, Pauling's Legacy: Modern Modelling of the Chemical Bond, Elsevier, Amsterdam, {{doi|10.1016/S1380-7323(99)80030-2}}
• Hermann A, Hoffmann R & Ashcroft NW 2013, "Condensed astatine: Monatomic and metallic", Physical Review Letters, vol. 111, {{doi|10.1103/PhysRevLett.111.116404}}
• Hérold A 2006, [https://web.archive.org/web/20120215003543/http://depa.pquim.unam.mx/amyd/archivero/An_arrangement_of_the_chemical_elements_5006.pdf "An arrangement of the chemical elements in several classes inside the periodic table according to their common properties"], Comptes Rendus Chimie, vol. 9, no. 1, {{doi|10.1016/j.crci.2005.10.002}}
• Herzfeld K 1927, "On atomic properties which make an element a metal", Physical Review, vol. 29, no. 5, {{doi|10.1103/PhysRev.29.701}}
• Hill G, Holman J & Hulme PG 2017, Chemistry in Context, 7th ed., Oxford University Press, Oxford, {{isbn|978-0-19-839618-5}}
• Hoefer F 1845, Nomenclature et Classifications Chimiques, J.-B. Baillière, Paris
• Holderness A & Berry M 1979, Advanced Level Inorganic Chemistry, 3rd ed., Heinemann Educational Books, London, {{ISBN|978-0-435-65435-1}}
• Horvath AL 1973, "Critical temperature of elements and the periodic system", Journal of Chemical Education, vol. 50, no. 5, {{doi|10.1021/ed050p335}}
• House JE 2008, Inorganic Chemistry, Elsevier, Amsterdam, {{ISBN|978-0-12-356786-4}}
• House JE 2013, Inorganic Chemistry, 2nd ed., Elsevier, Kidlington, {{isbn|978-0-12-385110-9}}
• Huang Y 2018, Thermodynamics of materials corrosion, in Huang Y & Zhang J (eds), Materials Corrosion and Protection, De Gruyter, Boston, pp. 25–58, {{doi|10.1515/9783110310054-002}}
• Humphrey TPJ 1908, "Systematic course of study, Chemistry and physics", Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. 80, p. 58
• Hussain et al. 2023, "Tuning the electronic properties of molybdenum di-sulphide monolayers via doping using first-principles calculations", Physica Scripta, vol. 98, no. 2, {{doi|10.1088/1402-4896/acacd1}}
• Imberti C & Sadler PJ, 2020, "150 years of the periodic table: New medicines and diagnostic agents", in Sadler PJ & van Eldik R 2020, Advances in Inorganic Chemistry, vol. 75, Academic Press, {{ISBN|978-0-12-819196-5}}
• [https://iupac.org/what-we-do/periodic-table-of-elements/ IUPAC Periodic Table of the Elements], accessed October 11, 2021
• Janas D, Cabrero-Vilatela, A & Bulmer J 2013, "Carbon nanotube wires for high-temperature performance", Carbon, vol. 64, pp. 305–314, {{doi|10.1016/j.carbon.2013.07.067}}
• Jenkins GM & Kawamura K 1976, Polymeric Carbons—Carbon Fibre, Glass and Char, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, {{ISBN|978-0-521-20693-8}}
• Jentzsch AV & Matile S 2015, "Anion transport with halogen bonds", in Metrangolo P & Resnati G (eds.), Halogen Bonding I: Impact on Materials Chemistry and Life Sciences, Springer, Cham, {{isbn|978-3-319-14057-5}}
• Jensen WB 1986, Classification, symmetry and the periodic table, Computers & Mathematics with Applications, vol. 12B, nos. 1/2, pp. 487−510, {{doi|10.1016/0898-1221(86)90167-7}}
• Johnson RC 1966, Introductory Descriptive Chemistry, WA Benjamin, New York
• Jolly WL 1966, The Chemistry of the Non-metals, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey
• Jones BW 2010, Pluto: Sentinel of the Outer Solar System, Cambridge University, Cambridge, {{ISBN|978-0-521-19436-5}}
• Jordan JM 2016 " 'Ancient episteme' and the nature of fossils: a correction of a modern scholarly error", History and Philosophy of the Life Sciences, vol. 38, no, 1, pp. 90–116, {{doi|10.1007/s40656-015-0094-6}}
• Kaiho T 2017, Iodine Made Simple, CRC Press, e-book, {{doi|10.1201/9781315158310}}
• Keeler J & Wothers P 2013, Chemical Structure and Reactivity: An Integrated Approach, Oxford University Press, Oxford, {{isbn|978-0-19-960413-5}}
• Kemshead WB 1875, Inorganic chemistry, William Collins, Sons, & Company, London
• Kernion MC & Mascetta JA 2019, Chemistry: The Easy Way, 6th ed., Kaplan, New York, {{isbn|978-1-4380-1210-0}}
• King AH 2019, "Our elemental footprint", Nature Materials, vol. 18, {{doi|10.1038/s41563-019-0334-3}}
• King RB 1994, Encyclopedia of Inorganic Chemistry, vol. 3, John Wiley & Sons, New York, {{isbn|978-0-471-93620-6}}
• King RB 1995, Inorganic Chemistry of Main Group Elements, VCH, New York, {{ISBN|978-1-56081-679-9}}
• Kiiski et al. 2016, "Fertilizers, 1. General", in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, {{doi|10.1002/14356007.a10_323.pub4}}
• Kläning UK & Appelman EH 1988, "Protolytic properties of perxenic acid", Inorganic Chemistry, vol. 27, no. 21, {{doi|10.1021/ic00294a018}}
• Kneen WR, Rogers MJW & Simpson P 1972, Chemistry: Facts, Patterns, and Principles, Addison-Wesley, London, {{ISBN|978-0-201-03779-1}}
• Knight J 2002, Science of Everyday Things: Real-life chemistry, Gale Group, Detroit, {{isbn|9780787656324}}
• Koenig SH 1962, in Proceedings of the International Conference on the Physics of Semiconductors, held at Exeter, July 16–20, 1962, The Institute of Physics and the Physical Society, London
• Kosanke et al. 2012, Encyclopedic Dictionary of Pyrotechnics (and Related Subjects), Part 3 – P to Z, Pyrotechnic Reference Series No. 5, Journal of Pyrotechnics, Whitewater, Colorado, {{ISBN|978-1-889526-21-8}}
• Kubaschewski O 1949, "The change of entropy, volume and binding state of the elements on melting", Transactions of the Faraday Society, vol. 45, {{doi|10.1039/TF9494500931}}
• Labinger JA 2019, "The history (and pre-history) of the discovery and chemistry of the noble gases", in Giunta CJ, Mainz VV & Girolami GS (eds.), 150 Years of the Periodic Table: A Commemorative Symposium, Springer Nature, Cham, Switzerland, {{ISBN|978-3-030-67910-1}}
• Lanford OE 1959, Using Chemistry, McGraw-Hill, New York
• Larrañaga MD, Lewis RJ & Lewis RA 2016, Hawley's Condensed Chemical Dictionary, 16th ed., Wiley, Hoboken, New York, {{isbn|978-1-118-13515-0}}
• Lavoisier A 1790, Elements of Chemistry, R Kerr (trans.), William Creech, Edinburgh
• Lee JD 1996, Concise Inorganic Chemistry, 5th ed., Blackwell Science, Oxford, {{ISBN|978-0-632-05293-6}}
• Lémery N 1699, Traité universel des drogues simples, mises en ordre alphabetique, L d'Houry, Paris, p. 118
• Lewis RJ 1993, Hawley's Condensed Chemical Dictionary, 12th ed., Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, {{ISBN|978-0-442-01131-4}}
• Lewis RS & Deen WM 1994, "Kinetics of the reaction of nitric oxide with oxygen in aqueous solutions", Chemical Research in Toxicology, vol. 7, no. 4, pp. 568–574, {{doi|10.1021/tx00040a013}}
• Liptrot GF 1983, Modern Inorganic Chemistry, 4th ed., Bell & Hyman, {{isbn|978-0-7135-1357-8}}
• Los Alamos National Laboratory 2021, [https://periodic.lanl.gov/index.shtml Periodic Table of Elements: A Resource for Elementary, Middle School, and High School Students], accessed September 19, 2021
• Lundgren A & Bensaude-Vincent B 2000, [https://books.google.com/books?id=9Wki6iUlkvUC&pg=PA409 Communicating chemistry: textbooks and their audiences, 1789–1939], Science History, Canton, MA, {{ISBN|0-88135-274-8}}
• MacKay KM, MacKay RA & Henderson W 2002, Introduction to Modern Inorganic Chemistry, 6th ed., Nelson Thornes, Cheltenham, {{ISBN|978-0-7487-6420-4}}
• Mackin M 2014, Study Guide to Accompany Basics for Chemistry, Elsevier Science, Saint Louis, {{ISBN|978-0-323-14652-4}}
• Malone LJ & Dolter T 2008, Basic Concepts of Chemistry, 8th ed., John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, {{isbn|978-0-471-74154-1}}
• Mann et al. 2000, Configuration energies of the d-block elements, Journal of the American Chemical Society, vol. 122, no. 21, pp. 5132–5137, {{doi|10.1021/ja9928677}}
• Maosheng M 2020, "Noble gases in solid compounds show a rich display of chemistry with enough pressure", Frontiers in Chemistry, vol. 8, {{doi|10.3389/fchem.2020.570492}}
• Maroni M, Seifert B & Lindvall T (eds) 1995, "Physical pollutants", in Indoor Air Quality: A Comprehensive Reference Book, Elsevier, Amsterdam, {{ISBN|978-0-444-81642-9}}
• Martin JW 1969, Elementary Science of Metals, Wykeham Publications, London
• Matson M & Orbaek AW 2013, Inorganic Chemistry for Dummies, John Wiley & Sons: Hoboken, {{isbn|978-1-118-21794-8}}
• Matula RA 1979, "Electrical resistivity of copper, gold, palladium, and silver", Journal of Physical and Chemical Reference Data, vol. 8, no. 4, {{doi|10.1063/1.555614}}
• Mazej Z 2020, "Noble-gas chemistry more than half a century after the first report of the noble-gas compound", Molecules, vol. 25, no. 13, {{doi|10.3390/molecules25133014}}, {{PMID|32630333}}, {{PMC|7412050}}
• McMillan P 2006, "A glass of carbon dioxide", Nature, vol. 441, {{doi|10.1038/441823a}}
• Mendeléeff DI 1897, The Principles of Chemistry, vol. 2, 5th ed., trans. G Kamensky, AJ Greenaway (ed.), Longmans, Green & Co., London
• Messler Jr RW 2011, The Essence of Materials for Engineers, Jones and Bartlett Learning, Sudbury, Massachusetts, {{isbn|978-0-7637-7833-0}}
• Mewes et al. 2019, "Copernicium: A relativistic noble liquid", Angewandte Chemie International Edition, vol. 58, pp. 17964–17968, {{doi|10.1002/anie.201906966}}
• Mingos DMP 2019, "The discovery of the elements in the Periodic Table", in Mingos DMP (ed.), The Periodic Table I. Structure and Bonding, Springer Nature, Cham, {{doi|10.1007/978-3-030-40025-5}}
• Moeller T 1958, Qualitative Analysis: An Introduction to Equilibrium and Solution Chemistry, McGraw-Hill, New York
• Moeller T et al. 1989, Chemistry: With Inorganic Qualitative Analysis, 3rd ed., Academic Press, New York, {{isbn|978-0-12-503350-3}}
• Moody B 1991, Comparative Inorganic Chemistry, 3rd ed., Edward Arnold, London, {{ISBN|978-0-7131-3679-1}}
• Moore JT 2016, Chemistry for Dummies, 2nd ed., ch. 16, Tracking periodic trends, John Wiley & Sons: Hoboken, {{isbn|978-1-119-29728-4}}
• Morgan JW, & Anders E 1980, "Chemical composition of earth, venus, and mercury", Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 77, no. 12, pp.  6973–6977
• Morely HF & Muir MM 1892, Watt's Dictionary of Chemistry, vol. 3, Longman's Green, and Co., London
• Moss, TS 1952, Photoconductivity in the Elements, Butterworths Scientific, London
• Myers RT 1979, "Physical and chemical properties and bonding of metallic elements", Journal of Chemical Education, vol. 56, no. 11, pp. 712–73, {{doi|10.1021/ed056p71}}
• Obodovskiy I 2015, Fundamentals of Radiation and Chemical Safety, Elsevier, Amsterdam, {{isbn|978-0-12-802026-5}}
• Oderberg DS 2007, [https://books.google.com/books?id=O0pqmkvkhtIC Real Essentialism], Routledge, New York, {{ISBN|978-1-134-34885-5}}
• Ostriker JP & Steinhardt PJ 2001, "The quintessential universe", Scientific American, vol. 284, no. 1, pp. 46–53 {{PMID|11132422}}, {{doi| 10.1038/scientificamerican0101-46}}
• Oxford English Dictionary 1989, "nonmetal"
• Orisakwe OE 2012, Other heavy metals: antimony, cadmium, chromium and mercury, in Pacheco-Torgal F, Jalali S & Fucic A (eds), Toxicity of Building Materials, Woodhead Publishing, Oxford, pp. 297–333, {{doi|10.1533/9780857096357.297}}
• Parameswaran P et al. 2020, "Phase evolution and characterization of mechanically alloyed hexanary Al_16.6Mg_16.6Ni_16.6Cr_16.6Ti_16.6Mn_16.6 high entropy alloy", Metal Powder Report, vol. 75, no. 4, {{doi|10.1016/j.mprp.2019.08.001}}
• Parish RV 1977, The Metallic Elements, Longman, London, {{ISBN|978-0-582-44278-8}}
• Partington JR 1944, A Text-book of Inorganic Chemistry, 5th ed., Macmillan & Co., London
• Partington JR 1964, A history of chemistry, vol. 4, Macmillan, London
• Pauling L 1947, General chemistry: An introduction to descriptive chemistry and modern chemical theory, WH Freeman, San Francisco
• Pawlicki T, Scanderbeg DJ & Starkschall G 2016, Hendee's Radiation Therapy Physics, 4th ed., John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, NJ, p. 228, {{isbn|978-0-470-37651-5}}
• Petruševski VM & Cvetković J 2018, "On the 'true position' of hydrogen in the Periodic Table", Foundations of Chemistry, vol. 20, pp. 251–260, {{doi|10.1007/s10698-018-9306-y}}
• Phillips CSG & Williams RJP 1965, Inorganic Chemistry, vol. 1, Principles and non-metals, Clarendon Press, Oxford
• Pitzer K 1975, "Fluorides of radon and elements 118", Journal of the Chemical Society, Chemical Communications, no. 18, {{doi|10.1039/C3975000760B}}
• Porterfield WW 1993, Inorganic Chemistry, Academic Press, San Diego, {{isbn|978-0-12-562980-5}}
• Povh B & Rosina M 2017, Scattering and Structures: Essentials and Analogies in Quantum Physics, 2nd ed., Springer, Berlin, {{doi|10.1007/978-3-662-54515-7}}
• Powell P & Timms P 1974, The Chemistry of the Non-Metals, Chapman and Hall, London, {{isbn|978-0-412-12200-2}}
• Power PP 2010, Main-group elements as transition metals, Nature, vol. 463, 14 January 2010, pp. 171–177, {{doi|10.1038/nature08634}}
• Puddephatt RJ & Monaghan PK 1989, The Periodic Table of the Elements, 2nd ed., Clarendon Press, Oxford, {{ISBN|978-0-19-855516-2}}
• Rahm M, Zeng T & Hoffmann R 2019, "Electronegativity seen as the ground-state average valence electron binding energy", Journal of the American Chemical Society, vol. 141, no. 1, pp. 342–351, {{doi|10.1021/jacs.8b10246}}
• Ramdohr P 1969, The Ore Minerals and Their Intergrowths, Pergamon Press, Oxford
• Rao CNR & Ganguly PA 1986, "New criterion for the metallicity of elements", Solid State Communications, vol. 57, no. 1, pp. 5–6, {{doi|10.1016/0038-1098(86)90659-9}}
• Rao KY 2002, [https://books.google.com/books?id=BfyWUnv_-rEC Structural chemistry of glasses], Elsevier, Oxford, {{ISBN|0-08-043958-6}}
• Rayner-Canham G 2018, "Organizing the transition metals", in Scerri E & Restrepo G (Ed's.) Mendeleev to Oganesson: A multidisciplinary perspective on the periodic table, Oxford University, New York, {{ISBN|978-0-190-668532}}
• Rayner-Canham G 2020, The Periodic Table: Past, Present and Future, World Scientific, New Jersey, {{ISBN|978-981-121-850-7}}
• Redmer R, Hensel F & Holst B (eds) 2010, "Metal-to-Nonmetal Transitions", Springer, Berlin, {{isbn|978-3-642-03952-2}}
• Regnault MV 1853, Elements of Chemistry, vol. 1, 2nd ed., Clark & Hesser, Philadelphia
• Reilly C 2002, Metal Contamination of Food, Blackwell Science, Oxford, {{ISBN|978-0-632-05927-0}}
• Reinhardt et al. 2015, [https://www.boconline.co.uk/en/images/Inerting-in-the-chemical-industry_tcm410-166975.pdf Inerting in the chemical industry], Linde, Pullach, Germany, accessed October 19, 2021
• Remy H 1956, Treatise on Inorganic Chemistry, Anderson JS (trans.), Kleinberg J (ed.), vol. II, Elsevier, Amsterdam
• Renouf E 1901, "Lehrbuch der Anorganischen Chemie", Science, vol. 13, no. 320, {{doi|10.1126/science.13.320.268}}
• Restrepo G, Llanos EJ & Mesa H 2006, "Topological space of the chemical elements and its properties", Journal of Mathematical Chemistry, vol. 39, {{doi|10.1007/s10910-005-9041-1}}
• Rieck GD 1967, Tungsten and its Compounds, Pergamon Press, Oxford
• Ritter SK 2011, [https://cen.acs.org/articles/89/i9/Case-Missing-Xenon.html "The case of the missing xenon"], Chemical & Engineering News, vol. 89, no. 9, {{ISSN|0009-2347}}
• Rochow EG 1966, The Metalloids, DC Heath and Company, Boston
• Rosenberg E 2013, Germanium-containing compounds, current knowledge and applications, in Kretsinger RH, Uversky VN & Permyakov EA (eds), Encyclopedia of Metalloproteins, Springer, New York, {{doi|10.1007/978-1-4614-1533-6_582}}
• Roscoe HE & Schorlemmer FRS 1894, A Treatise on Chemistry: Volume II: The Metals, D Appleton, New York
• Royal Society of Chemistry 2021, [https://www.rsc.org/periodic-table#:~:text=Classification-,Metal,Non,--metal Periodic Table: Non-metal], accessed September 3, 2021
• Rudakiya DM & Patel Y 2021, Bioremediation of metals, metalloids, and nonmetals, in Panpatte DG & Jhala YK (eds), Microbial Rejuvenation of Polluted Environment, vol. 2, Springer Nature, Singapore, pp. 33–49, {{doi|10.1007/978-981-15-7455-9_2}}
• Rudolph J 1973, [https://archive.org/details/chemistryformode0000unse Chemistry for the Modern Mind], Macmillan, New York
• Russell AM & Lee KL 2005, [https://books.google.com/books?id=fIu58uZTE-gC Structure-Property Relations in Nonferrous Metals], Wiley-Interscience, New York, {{ISBN|0-471-64952-X}}
• Salinas JT 2019 Exploring Physical Science in the Laboratory, Moreton Publishing, Englewood, Colorado, {{isbn|978-1-61731-753-8}}
• Salzberg HW 1991, From Caveman to Chemist: Circumstances and Achievements, American Chemical Society, Washington, DC, {{ISBN|0-8412-1786-6}}
• Sanderson RT 1967, Inorganic Chemistry, Reinhold, New York
• Scerri E (ed.) 2013, 30-Second Elements: The 50 Most Significant Elements, Each Explained In Half a Minute, Ivy Press, London, {{isbn|978-1-84831-616-4}}
• Scerri E 2020, The Periodic Table: Its Story and Its Significance, Oxford University Press, New York, {{isbn|978-0-19091-436-3}}
• Schaefer JC 1968, "Boron" in Hampel CA (ed.), The Encyclopedia of the Chemical Elements, Reinhold, New York
• Schmedt auf der Günne J, Mangstl M & Kraus F 2012, "Occurrence of difluorine F₂ in nature—In situ proof and quantification by NMR spectroscopy", Angewandte Chemie International Edition, vol. 51, no. 31, {{doi|10.1002/anie.201203515}}
• Schweitzer GK & Pesterfield LL 2010, Aqueous Chemistry of the Elements, Oxford University Press, Oxford, {{isbn|978-0-19-539335-4}}
• Scott D 2014, Around the World in 18 Elements, Royal Society of Chemistry, e-book, {{ISBN|978-1-78262-509-4}}
• Scott EC & Kanda FA 1962, The Nature of Atoms and Molecules: A General Chemistry, Harper & Row, New York
• Scott WAH 2001, Chemistry Basic Facts, 5th ed., HarperCollins, Glasgow, {{isbn|978-0-00-710321-8}}
• Seese WS & Daub GH 1985, Basic Chemistry, 4th ed., Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, {{isbn|978-0-13-057811-2}}
• Segal BG 1989, Chemistry: Experiment and Theory, 2nd ed., John Wiley & Sons, New York, {{ISBN|0-471-84929-4}}
• Shanabrook BV, Lannin JS & Hisatsune IC 1981, "Inelastic light scattering in a onefold-coordinated amorphous semiconductor", Physical Review Letters, vol. 46, no. 2, 12 January, {{doi|10.1103/PhysRevLett.46.130}}
• Shang et al. 2021, "Ultrahard bulk amorphous carbon from collapsed fullerene", Nature, vol. 599, pp. 599–604, {{doi|10.1038/s41586-021-03882-9}}
• Shchukarev SA 1977, New views of D. I. Mendeleev's system. I. Periodicity of the stratigraphy of atomic electronic shells in the system, and the concept of Kainosymmetry", Zhurnal Obshchei Kimii, vol. 47, no. 2, pp. 246–259
• Shkol’nikov EV 2010, "Thermodynamic characterization of the amphoterism of oxides M₂O₃ (M = {{abbr|AS|sulfur}}, {{abbr|Sb|antimony}}, {{abbr|Bi|bismuth}}) and their hydrates in aqueous media, Russian Journal of Applied Chemistry, vol. 83, no. 12, pp. 2121–2127, {{doi|10.1134/S1070427210120104}}
• Sidorov TA 1960, "The connection between structural oxides and their tendency to glass formation", Glass and Ceramics, vol. 17, no. 11, {{doi|10.1007BF00670116}}
• Siekierski S & Burgess J 2002, Concise Chemistry of the Elements, Horwood Press, Chichester, {{ISBN|978-1-898563-71-6}}
• Slye OM Jr 2008, "Fire extinguishing agents", in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, {{doi|10.1002/14356007.a11_113.pub2}}
• Smith A 1906, Introduction to Inorganic Chemistry, The Century Co., New York
• Smith A & Dwyer C 1991, Key Chemistry: Investigating Chemistry in the Contemporary World: Book 1: Materials and Everyday Life, Melbourne University Press, Carlton, Victoria, {{isbn|978-0-522-84450-4}}
• Smith DW 1990, [https://archive.org/details/inorganicsubstan0000smit Inorganic Substances: A Prelude to the Study of Descriptive Chemistry], Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, {{isbn|978-0-521-33136-4}}
• Smits et al. 2020, "Oganesson: A noble gas element that is neither noble nor a gas", Angewandte Chemie International Edition, vol. 59, pp. 23636–23640, {{doi|10.1002/anie.202011976}}
• Smulders E & Sung E 2011, "Laundry Detergents, 2, Ingredients and Products", In Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, {{doi|10.1002/14356007.o15_o13}}
• Spencer JN, Bodner GM, Rickard LY 2012, Chemistry: Structure & Dynamics, 5th ed., John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, {{isbn|978-0-470-58711-9}}
• Stein L 1969, "Oxidized radon in halogen fluoride solutions", Journal of the American Chemical Society, vol. 19, no. 19, {{doi|10.1021/ja01047a042}}
• Stein L 1983, "The chemistry of radon", Radiochimica Acta, vol. 32, {{doi|10.1524/ract.1983.32.13.163}}
• Steudel R 2020, Chemistry of the Non-metals: Syntheses – Structures – Bonding – Applications, in collaboration with D Scheschkewitz, Berlin, Walter de Gruyter, {{doi|10.1515/9783110578065}}
• Still B 2016 [https://archive.org/details/secretlifeofperi0000stil/ The Secret Life of the Periodic Table], Cassell, London, {{ISBN|978-1-84403-885-5}}
• Stillman JM 1924, The Story of Early Chemistry, D. Appleton, New York
• Stott RWA 1956, Companion to Physical and Inorganic Chemistry, Longmans, Green and Co, London
• Stuke J 1974, "Optical and electrical properties of selenium", in Zingaro RA & Cooper WC (eds.), Selenium, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, pp. 174
• Strathern P 2000, Mendeleyev's dream: The Quest for the Elements, Hamish Hamilton, London, {{ISBN|9780425184677}}
• Suresh CH & Koga NA 2001, "A consistent approach toward atomic radii”, Journal of Physical Chemistry A, vol. 105, no. 24. {{doi|10.1021/jp010432b}}
• Tang et al. 2021, "Synthesis of paracrystalline diamond", Nature, vol. 599, pp. 605–610, {{doi|10.1038/s41586-021-04122-w}}
• Taniguchi M, Suga S, Seki M, Sakamoto H, Kanzaki H, Akahama Y, Endo S, Terada S & Narita S 1984, "Core-exciton induced resonant photoemission in the covalent semiconductor black phosphorus", Solid State Communications, vo1. 49, no. 9, pp. 867–7, {{doi|10.1016/0038-1098(84)90441-1}}
• Taylor MD 1960, First Principles of Chemistry, Van Nostrand, Princeton
• The Chemical News and Journal of Physical Science 1864, [https://archive.org/details/s713id13683310/page/22/mode/2up?view=theater "Notices of books: Manual of the Metalloids"], vol. 9, p. 22
• The Chemical News and Journal of Physical Science 1897, "Notices of books: A Manual of Chemistry, Theoretical and Practical", by WA Tilden", vol. 75, pp. 188–189
• Thornton BF & Burdette SC 2010, [http://acshist.scs.illinois.edu/bulletin_open_access/v35-2/v35-2%20p86-96.pdf "Finding eka-iodine: Discovery priority in modern times"], Bulletin for the History of Chemistry, vol. 35, no. 2, accessed September 14, 2021
• Tidy CM 1887, Handbook of Modern Chemistry, 2nd ed., Smith, Elder & Co., London
• Timberlake KC 1996, Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, 6th ed., HarperCollinsCollege, {{isbn|978-0-673-99054-9}}
• Toon R 2011, [https://edu.rsc.org/feature/the-discovery-of-fluorine/2020249.article "The discovery of fluorine"], Education in Chemistry, Royal Society of Chemistry, accessed 7 October 2023
• Tregarthen L 2003, Preliminary Chemistry, Macmillan Education: Melbourne, {{isbn|978-0-7329-9011-4}}
• Tyler PM 1948, From the Ground Up: Facts and Figures of the Mineral Industries of the United States, McGraw-Hill, New York
• Vassilakis AA, Kalemos A & Mavridis A 2014, "Accurate first principles calculations on chlorine fluoride ClF and its ions ClF^±", Theoretical Chemistry Accounts, vol. 133, no. 1436, {{doi|10.1007/s00214-013-1436-7}}
• Vernon R 2013, "Which elements are metalloids?", Journal of Chemical Education, vol. 90, no. 12, pp. 1703‒1707, {{doi|10.1021/ed3008457}}
• Vernon R 2020, "Organising the metals and nonmetals", Foundations of Chemistry, vol. 22, pp. 217‒233{{doi|10.1007/s10698-020-09356-6}} (open access)
• Vij et al. 2001, Polynitrogen chemistry. Synthesis, characterization, and crystal structure of surprisingly stable fluoroantimonate salts of N⁵⁺. Journal of the American Chemical Society, vol. 123, no. 26, pp. 6308−6313, {{doi|10.1021/ja010141g}}
• Wächtershäuser G 2014, "From chemical invariance to genetic variability", in Weigand W and Schollhammer P (eds.), Bioinspired Catalysis: Metal Sulfur Complexes, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, {{doi|10.1002/9783527664160.ch1}}
• Wakeman TH 1899, [http://iapsop.com/archive/materials/freethinkers_magazine/free_thought_magazine_v17_1899.pdf "Free thought—Past, present and future"], Free Thought Magazine, vol. 17
• Wang HS, Lineweaver CH & Ireland TR 2018, The elemental abundances (with uncertainties) of the most Earth-like planet, Icarus, vol. 299, pp. 460–474, {{doi|10.1016/j.icarus.2017.08.024}}
• Wasewar KL 2021, "Intensifying approaches for removal of selenium", in Devi et al. (eds.), Selenium contamination in water, John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, pp. 319–355, {{isbn|978-1-119-69354-3}}
• Weeks ME & Leicester HM 1968, Discovery of the Elements, 7th ed., Journal of Chemical Education, Easton, Pennsylvania
• Weetman C & Inoue S 2018, The road travelled: After main-group elements as transition metals, ChemCatChem, vol. 10, no. 19, pp. 4213–4228, {{doi|10.1002/cctc.201800963}}
• Welcher SH 2009, High marks: Regents Chemistry Made Easy, 2nd ed., High Marks Made Easy, New York, {{ISBN|978-0-9714662-0-3}}
• Weller et al. 2018, Inorganic Chemistry, 7th ed., Oxford University Press, Oxford, {{isbn|978-0-19-252295-5}}
• Wells AF 1984, Structural Inorganic Chemistry, 5th ed., Clarendon Press, Oxford, {{ISBN|978-0-19-855370-0}}
• White JH 1962, Inorganic Chemistry: Advanced and Scholarship Levels, University of London Press, London
• Whiteford GH & and Coffin RG 1939, Essentials of College Chemistry, 2nd ed., Mosby Co., St Louis
• Whitten KW & Davis RE 1996, General Chemistry, 5th ed., Saunders College Publishing, Philadelphia, {{isbn| 978-0-03-006188-2}}
• Wibaut P 1951, Organic Chemistry, Elsevier Publishing Company, New York
• Wiberg N 2001, [https://books.google.com/books?id=Mtth5g59dEIC Inorganic Chemistry], Academic Press, San Diego, {{ISBN|978-0-12-352651-9}}
• Williams RPJ 2007, "Life, the environment and our ecosystem", Journal of Inorganic Biochemistry, vol. 101, nos. 11–12, {{doi|10.1016/j.jinorgbio.2007.07.006}}
• Windmeier C & Barron RF 2013, "Cryogenic technology", in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, {{doi|10.1002/14356007.b03_20.pub2}}
• Winstel G 2000, "Electroluminescent materials and devices", in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, {{doi|10.1002/14356007.a09_255}}
• Wismer RK 1997, Student Study Guide, General Chemistry: Principles and Modern Applications, 7th ed., Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, {{isbn| 978-0-13-281990-9}}
• Woodward et al. 1999, "The electronic structure of metal oxides", In Fierro JLG (ed.), Metal Oxides: Chemistry and Applications, CRC Press, Boca Raton, {{ISBN|1-4200-2812-X}}
• World Economic Forum 2021, [https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2021/12/abundance-elements-earth-crust/ Visualizing the abundance of elements in the Earth's crust], accessed 21 March 2024
• Wulfsberg G 2000, Inorganic Chemistry, University Science Books, Sausalito, California, {{ISBN|978-1-891389-01-6}}
• Yamaguchi M & Shirai Y 1996, "Defect structures", in Stoloff NS & Sikka VK (eds.), Physical Metallurgy and Processing of Intermetallic Compounds, Chapman & Hall, New York, {{ISBN|978-1-4613-1215-4}}
• Yang J 2004, "Theory of thermal conductivity", in Tritt TM (ed.), Thermal Conductivity: Theory, Properties, and Applications, Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, New York, pp. 1–20, {{isbn|978-0-306-48327-1}}
• Yin et al. 2018, Hydrogen-assisted post-growth substitution of tellurium into molybdenum disulfide monolayers with tunable compositions, Nanotechnology, vol. 29, no 14, {{doi|10.1088/1361-6528/aaabe8}}
• Yoder CH, Suydam FH & Snavely FA 1975, Chemistry, 2nd ed, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, New York, {{ISBN|978-0-15-506470-6}}
• Young JA 2006, "Iodine", Journal of Chemical Education, vol. 83, no. 9, {{doi|10.1021/ed083p1285}}
• Young et al. 2018, General Chemistry: Atoms First, Cengage Learning: Boston, {{isbn|978-1-337-61229-6}}
• Zhao J, Tu Z & Chan SH 2021, "Carbon corrosion mechanism and mitigation strategies in a proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC): A review", Journal of Power Sources, vol. 488, #229434, {{doi|10.1016/j.jpowsour.2020.229434}}
• Zhigal'skii GP & Jones BK 2003, The Physical Properties of Thin Metal Films, Taylor & Francis, London, {{isbn|978-0-415-28390-8}}
• Zhu W 2020, Chemical Elements In Life, World Scientific, Singapore, {{ISBN|978-981-121-032-7}}
• Zhu et al. 2014, "Reactions of xenon with iron and nickel are predicted in the Earth's inner core", Nature Chemistry, vol. 6, {{doi|10.1038/nchem.1925}}, {{PMID|24950336}}
• Zhu et al. 2022, Introduction: basic concept of boron and its physical and chemical properties, in Fundamentals and Applications of Boron Chemistry, vol. 2, Zhu Y (ed.), Elsevier, Amsterdam, {{isbn|978-0-12-822127-3}}
• Zumdahl SS & DeCoste DJ 2010, Introductory Chemistry: A Foundation, 7th ed., Cengage Learning, Mason, Ohio, {{isbn|978-1-111-29601-8}}

{{refend}}

• {{Commons category-inline|Nonmetals}}

{{Navbox periodic table}}

{{Periodic table (navbox)}}

{{Authority control}}

Category:Nonmetals

Category:Periodic table