proto-Hmong–Mien language

Ratliff (2021) estimates that the split between Hmongic and Mienic had occurred before 2500 BP, since the Old Chinese words {{linktext|鐵}} tiě ‘iron’ and {{linktext|下}} xià ‘descend’ were both borrowed separately by Proto-Hmongic and Proto-Mienic.{{cite book|last=Ratliff|first=Martha|title=The Languages and Linguistics of Mainland Southeast Asia|chapter=Classification and historical overview of Hmong-Mien languages|publisher=De Gruyter|date=2021|doi=10.1515/9783110558142-014|pages=247–260|isbn=9783110558142 }}

In earlier studies, the date of proto-Hmong-Mien has been estimated to be about 2500 BP by Sagart, Blench, and Sanchez-Mazas (2004),Sagart, Laurent, Roger Blench, and Alicia Sanchez-Nazas (eds.) (2004). The peopling of East Asia: Putting Together Archaeology, Linguistics and Genetics. London: RoutledgeCurzon. {{ISBN|0-415-32242-1}}. as well as by Ratliff (2021:247). It has been estimated to about 4243 BP by the Automated Similarity Judgment Program (ASJP),{{cite web |url=http://wwwstaff.eva.mpg.de/~wichmann/AutomatedDatingFinal.pdf |title=Automated Dating of the World's Language Families based on Lexical Similarity|accessdate=2013-12-30 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131127082301/http://wwwstaff.eva.mpg.de/~wichmann/AutomatedDatingFinal.pdf |archivedate=2013-11-27 }} however, ASJP is not widely accepted among historical linguists as a sufficiently rigorous method to establish or evaluate relationships between language families, since it only makes use of 40 basic vocabulary items.Cf. comments by Adelaar, Blust and Campbell in Holman, Eric W., et al. (2011) "Automated Dating of the World's Language Families Based on Lexical Similarity." Current Anthropology, vol. 52, no. 6, pp. 841–875.

Reconstructions of Proto-Hmong–Mien include the following.{{cite book|last=Taguchi|first=Yoshihisa|title=The Languages and Linguistics of Mainland Southeast Asia|chapter=Historiography of Hmong-Mien linguistics|publisher=De Gruyter|date=2021|doi=10.1515/9783110558142-008|pages=139–148|isbn=9783110558142 }}

• Herbert Purnell (1970)Purnell, Herbert C., Jr. 1970. Toward a reconstruction of Proto-Miao-Yao. PhD dissertation, Cornell University. is the first comprehensive reconstruction of Proto-Hmong-Mien, Proto-Hmongic, and Proto-Mienic.
• Wang Fushi & Mao Zongwu (1995)Wang Fushi 王辅世, Mao Zongwu 毛宗武. 1995. Miao-Yao yu guyin gouni 苗瑤语古音构拟. Beijing: China Social Sciences Academy Press 中国社会科学出版社. is the first comprehensive reconstruction of Proto-Hmong-Mien by Chinese scholars.
• Chen Qiguang (2001)Chen, Qiguang 陈其光. 2001. Han-Zang, Miao-Yao tongyuanci zhuanti yanjiu 汉藏、苗瑶同源词专题研究 [A comparative study of Chinese and Miao-Yao]", pp.129–651. Vol. 2 in the series: Ting Pang-hsin 丁邦新 & Sun Hongkai 孙宏开 (eds.), Hanzangyu Tongyuanci Yanjiu 汉藏语同源词研究 [A Study of Sino-Tibetan cognate vocabulary]. Nanning: Guangxi Minzu Chubanshe 广西民族出版社. {{ISBN|9787536340343}}. reconstructs Proto-Hmong-Mien based on 15 datapoints: Hmu (Yanghao 养蒿), Qo Xiong (Layiping 腊乙坪), Hmong (Dananshan 大南山), Xijia (Shibanzhai 石板寨), Pa Hng (Gundong 滚董), Younuo (Huangluo 黄落), Dongnu (Qibainong 七百弄), Nunu (Xishan 西山), She (Xiashuicun 下水村), Jiongnai (Longhua 龙华), Pana (Xinle 新乐), Iu Mien (Dapingjiang 大坪江), Kim Mun (Yanyuan 烟园 in Qiongzhong County 琼中县, Hainan), Biao Min (Shuanglong 双龙), Zao Min (Daping 大坪). A revised reconstruction was later published as Chen (2013).Chen Qiguang [陈其光] (2013). Miao Yao yuwen [苗瑶语文]. Beijing: Ethnic Publishing House [民族出版社]. {{ISBN|9787566003263}}
• Wu Anqi (2002)Wu, Anqi 吴安其. 2002. Hanzangyu tongyuan yanjiu 汉藏语同源研究. Beijing: Minzu University Press 中央民族大学出版社. {{ISBN|7-81056-611-3}} reconstructs approximately 100 Swadesh list items for Proto-Hmong-Mien.
• Martha Ratliff (2010) is the first comprehensive reconstruction of Proto-Hmong-Mien by a Western scholar since Purnell (1970).
• Weera Ostapirat (2016) proposes sesquisyllables and velarization in Proto-Hmong-Mien initials, parallel to sesquisyllables and pharyngealization in Old Chinese.
• Li Yunbing (2018){{cite book|title=Miao Yaoyu bijiao yanjiu 苗瑶语比较研究 (A comparative study of Hmong-Mien languages)|last=Li|first=Yunbing 李云兵|date=2018|publisher=The Commercial Press 商务印书馆|location=Beijing|oclc=1112270585|isbn=9787100165068}} reconstructs Proto-Hmong-Mien initials and finals, which are listed separately.

In China, the first comprehensive reconstruction of Proto-Hmongic (Proto-Miao) was undertaken by Wang Fushi (1979).Wang, Fushi. 1979. Miaoyu fangyan sheng yun mu bijiao 苗语方言声韵母比较 [The comparison of the initials and finals of the Miao dialects]. Unpublished manuscript. Beijing. Wang's 1979 manuscript was subsequently revised and published as Wang (1994).Wang, Fushi 王輔世. 1994. Miaoyu guyin gouni 苗语古音構擬 / Reconstruction of Proto-Miao Language. Tokyo: Tokyo University of Foreign Studies, Research Institute for Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa (ILCAA) / Ajia Afurika Gengo Bunka Kenkyūjo 國立亞非語言文化硏究所.

Proto-Mienic (Proto-Mjuenic; reconstruction excludes Biao Min and Zao Min) has been reconstructed by Luang-Thongkum (1993).L-Thongkum, Theraphan. 1993. [http://sealang.net/sala/archives/pdf8/theraphan1993view.pdf A view on Proto-Mjuenic (Yao)]. Mon-Khmer Studies 22:163-230. A comprehensive reconstruction of Proto-Mienic has been published by Liu (2021).{{cite book|title=Yaoyu fangyan lishi bijiao yanjiu 瑶语方言历史比较研究|last=Liu|first=Wen 刘文|date=2021|publisher=Social Sciences Press Social Sciences Literature Press|location=Beijing|oclc=1294576509|isbn=9787520181464}}

Martha Ratliff (2010) used 11 criterion languages for her reconstruction.

1. East Hmongic (Qiandong); Northern vernacular: Yanghao 养蒿, Yanghao Township, Taijiang County, Guizhou
2. North Hmongic (Xiangxi); Western vernacular: Jiwei 吉卫, Jiwei Township, Huayuan County, Hunan
3. West Hmongic (Chuanqiandian): White Hmong of Laos and Thailand
4. West Hmongic (Chuanqiandian); Mashan subdialect, Central vernacular: Zongdi 宗地, Zongdi Township, Ziyun County, Guizhou
5. West Hmongic (Chuanqiandian); Luobohe subdialect: Fuyuan 复员, Fuyuan County, Yunnan
6. Hmongic; Jiongnai: Changdong Township 长垌, Jinxiu County, Guangxi
7. Hmongic; Baiyun Pa-Hng: Baiyun 白云, Rongshui County, Guangxi
8. Mienic; Mien, Luoxiang vernacular: Luoxiang Township 罗香, Jinxiu County, Guangxi
9. Mienic; Mun: Lanjin Township 览金, Lingyun County, Guangxi
10. Mienic; Biao Min: Dongshan Yao Township 东山, Quanzhou County, Guangxi
11. Mienic; Zao Min: Daping Township 大平, Liannan County, Guangdong

Wang & Mao (1995) base their Proto-Hmong–Mien reconstruction on the following 23 criterion Hmong-Mien languages.

1. Yanghao 养蒿; Hmu, North (ISO 639-3: [{{ethnolink|hea}}])
2. Jiwei 吉卫; Qo Xiong, West [{{ethnolink|mmr}}]
3. Xianjin 先进 ( = Dananshan 大南山); Chuanqiandian Miao, 1st lect [{{ethnolink|cqd}}]
4. Shimenkan 石门坎; Diandongbei Miao [{{ethnolink|hmd}}]
5. Qingyan 青岩;{{efn|Baituo, Qingyan Township, Huaxi District, Guiyang 贵阳市花溪区青岩乡摆托寨}} Guiyang Miao, North [{{ethnolink|huj}}]
6. Gaopo 高坡; Huishui Miao, North [{{ethnolink|hmi}}]
7. Zongdi 宗地; Mashan Miao, Central [{{ethnolink|hmm}}]
8. Fuyuan 复员;{{efn|Yejipo, Ganba Township, Fuquan County 福泉县甘坝乡野鸡坡寨}} Luobohe Miao, 2nd lect [{{ethnolink|hml}}]
9. Fengxiang 枫香; Chong'anjiang Miao [{{ethnolink|hmj}}]
10. Qibainong 七百弄; Bunu, Dongnu [{{ethnolink|bwx}}]
11. Yaoli 瑶里;{{efn|Mangjiang, Yaoli Township, Nandan County 南丹县瑶里乡芒降村}} Nao Klao, Baonuo [{{ethnolink|bwx}}]
12. Wenjie 文界; Pa-Hng, Sanjiang [{{ethnolink|pha}}]
13. Changdong 长峒; Jiongnai [{{ethnolink|pnu}}]
14. Duozhu 多祝;{{efn|Chenhu, Duozhu Township, Huidong County 惠东县多祝乡陈湖村}} She [{{ethnolink|shx}}]
15. Jiangdi 江底; Iu Mien, Guangdian [{{ethnolink|ium}}]
16. Xiangjiang 湘江; Iu Mien, Xiangnan [{{ethnolink|ium}}]
17. Luoxiang 罗香; Luoxiang Mien {{a.k.a.}} Ao Biao [{{ethnolink|ium}}]
18. Changping 长坪; Changping Mien {{a.k.a.}} Biao Mon [{{ethnolink|ium}}]
19. Liangzi 梁子; Kim Mun [{{ethnolink|mji}}]
20. Lanjin 览金; Kim Mun [{{ethnolink|mji}}]
21. Dongshan 东山; Biao Mon, Dongshan [{{ethnolink|bmt}}]
22. Sanjiang 三江; Biao Mon, Shikou {{a.k.a.}} Chao Kong Meng [{{ethnolink|bmt}}]
23. Daping 大坪; Dzao Min [{{ethnolink|bpn}}]

Martha Ratliff's 2010 reconstruction contains the following phonemic inventory.

• 51–54 consonants (including pre-glottalized and pre-nasalized consonants)
• 9 monophthong vowels
• 7 diphthongs
• 11 nasal rimes

The full set of Proto-Hmong–Mien initial consonants is (Ratliff 2010: 31):

The 3 medial consonants are *-j-, *-l-, and *-r-.

The 6 final stop consonants are *-p, *-t, *-k, *-m, *-n, and *-ŋ.

The Proto-Hmong–Mien vowels are (11 total) (Ratliff 2010: 108):

Proto-Hmong–Mien has the following syllable structure (Ratliff 2010:10):

{{quote|  (C) C {{IPA|[j/w/l] [i̯/u̯]}} (V) V C (C)^T}}

Ratliff (2010) does not reconstruct vowel length for either Proto-Mienic or Proto-Hmong–Mien; in contrast, Li (2018) reconstructs vowel length for both. Even though Mienic languages usually have vowel length, Ratliff ascribes this to areal features that were borrowed after the breakup of Proto-Mienic.Ratliff, Martha. 2007. "[http://sealang.net/sala/archives/pdf8/ratliff2007contrastive.pdf Contrastive Vowel Length in Mienic: Inheritance or Diffusion?]" In SEALS XIII Papers from the 13th Annual Meeting of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society 2003, edited by Iwasaki Shoichi et al. Canberra, Australia, 223-229. Pacific Linguistics, Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, The Australian National University. Neighboring languages with vowel length include Yue Chinese and Zhuang.

Ostapirat (2016)Ostapirat, Weera. 2016. [http://www.ling.sinica.edu.tw/Files/LL/Docments/Journals/17.1/17.1.6.pdf Issues in the Reconstruction and Affiliation of Proto-Miao-Yao] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191113104046/http://www.ling.sinica.edu.tw/Files/LL/Docments/Journals/17.1/17.1.6.pdf |date=2019-11-13 }}. Language and Linguistics 17(1): 133–145. {{doi|10.1177/1606822X15614522}} revises various reconstructed Proto-Hmong–Mien consonant initials proposed by Ratliff (2010). He suggests that many proto-initials are in fact sesquisyllables, in line with Baxter & Sagart's (2014) Old Chinese reconstruction and Pittayaporn's (2009) Proto-Tai reconstruction. Examples include reconstructing *m.l- and *m.r- where Ratliff (2010) reconstructs *mbl- and *mbr-, respectively. Hmong-Mien presyllables are further discussed in Strecker (2021).{{cite journal|last1=Strecker|first1=David|title=The morphology and semantics of presyllables in Hmong-Mien languages|journal=Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area|volume=44|issue=1|year=2021|pages=55–74|issn=0731-3500|doi=10.1075/ltba.20007.str|s2cid=233535102 }} ([https://www.academia.edu/45476196/Presyllables_in_Hmong_Mien Pre-print version])

Ostapirat (2016) also reconstructs velarized initial consonants (*Cˠ-) where Ratliff (2010) reconstructs -j- or -w-. Similarly, Norquest (2020) also reconstructs velarized initial consonants for Proto-Kra–Dai.Norquest, Peter. 2020. [http://hdl.handle.net/2429/74055 A Hypothesis on the Origin of Preglottalized Sonorants in Kra-Dai]. 38th West Coast Conference on Formal Linguistics. Vancouver: Department of Linguistics, University of British Columbia. {{doi|10.14288/1.0389866}}

Additionally, Ostapirat revises Ratliff's uvulars (*q-, etc.) as velars (*k-, etc.), and her palatals as either alveolars or palatals.

Below are some reconstructions from Ostapirat (2016) compared with those of Ratliff (2010).

Taguchi (2023) discusses several revisions in the phonological reconstruction of Proto-Hmong–Mien and suggests a classification based on lexical evidence rather than phonological sound changes.Taguchi, Yoshihisa. 2023. Toward a new reconstruction of Proto-Hmong-Mien. 26th Himalayan Languages Symposium, 4-6 September 2023. Paris: INALCO. Rimes are simplified, while nasal codas in open rimes in Proto-Hmongic are posited to have derived from historical nasal initial consonants.Taguchi, Yoshihisa. (2022) Nasal transfer in Hmongic. Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area 45/1:72-92. Taguchi (2023) also suggests that Ratliff's (2010) Proto-Hmongic *k- and *q- are in fact secondary developments from Proto-Hmong–Mien *kr- and *k-, respectively.

Below are some words roughly belonging to the semantic domains of agriculture and subsistence from Ratliff (2004),{{cite book |last = Ratliff |first = Martha |title = Vocabulary of environment and subsistence in the Hmong–Mien proto-language |editor1= Tapp |editor2=Michaud |editor3=Culas |editor4=Lee |work = Symposium on the Hmong/Miao in Asia |year = 2004 |pages = 147–165 |location = Chiang Mai, Thailand |publisher = Silkworm Books }} with the Proto-Hmong-Mien and Proto-Hmongic reconstructions from Ratliff (2010), and Old Chinese reconstructions from Baxter & Sagart (2014)Baxter, William H.; Sagart, Laurent. 2014. [https://ocbaxtersagart.lsait.lsa.umich.edu/ The Baxter-Sagart reconstruction of Old Chinese]. College of LSA, University of Michigan. Accessed 19 February 2023. for comparison (note that the Old Chinese forms are not necessarily cognate with the Hmong–Mien forms). Terms for domesticated animals and non-rice crops are usually shared with Chinese, while vocabulary relating to hunting, rice crops, and local plants and animals are usually not shared with Chinese.

The ethnonym Hmong is reconstructed as *hmʉŋ^A in Proto-Hmongic by Ratliff (2010), while Mien is reconstructed as *mjæn^A in Proto-Mienic. In comparison, William H. Baxter and Laurent Sagart (2014)Baxter, William H. and Laurent Sagart. 2014. Old Chinese: A New Reconstruction. Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-19-994537-5}}. reconstruct the Old Chinese name of the Mán 蠻 (Nanman 南蠻, or southern foreigners) as {{linktext|蠻}} *mˤro[n]; additionally, Sidwell & Rau (2015) reconstruct the Proto-Austroasiatic word for 'person' as *mraʔ.Sidwell, Paul and Felix Rau (2015). "[https://brill.com/display/book/9789004283572/B9789004283572_005.xml Austroasiatic Comparative-Historical Reconstruction: An Overview]." In Jenny, Mathias and Paul Sidwell, eds (2015). The Handbook of Austroasiatic Languages. Leiden: Brill. {{doi|10.1163/9789004283572_005}}

Proto-Hmong–Mien shares many lexical similarities with neighboring language families, including Austroasiatic, Kra-Dai (Tai-Kadai), Austronesian, and Tibeto-Burman (Ratliff 2010). Martha Ratliff (2010:233-237) lists the following lexical resemblances between Proto-Hmong–Mien (abbreviated below as PHM) and other language families. Proto-Hmongic and Proto-Mienic are provided if the Proto-Hmong–Mien form is not reconstructed.

Many lexical resemblances are found between the Hmong-Mien and Austroasiatic language families (Ratliff 2010), some of which had earlier been proposed by Haudricourt (1951).Haudricourt, André-Georges. 1951. [https://www.persee.fr/doc/befeo_0336-1519_1951_num_44_2_5185 Introduction à la phonologie historique des langues miao-yao] [An introduction to the historical phonology of the Miao-Yao languages]. Bulletin de l'École Française d'Extrême-Orient 44(2). 555–576. Proto-Austroasiatic (PAA) reconstructions are from Sidwell (2024).{{cite journal |last1=Sidwell |first1=Paul |date=2024 |title=500 Proto Austroasiatic Etyma: Version 1.0 |url=https://hdl.handle.net/10524/52519 |journal=Journal of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=i-xxxiii |issn=1836-6821 |access-date=2024-06-15 |publisher=University of Hawaiʻi Press |location=Honolulu|hdl=10524/52519 }}

;Lexical resemblances with Austroasiatic

• PHM *ʔu̯əm 'water'; Proto-Palaungic *ʔoːm
• PHM *ntshjamX 'blood'; PAA *ɕaːm, *mɕaːm
• PHM *ntju̯əŋH 'tree'; PAA *Clɔːŋ
• PHM *ʔɲæmX 'to weep, cry'; PAA *jaːmˀ
• PHM *pənX 'to shoot'; PAA *paɲˀ
• PHM *tu̯eiX 'tail'; PAA *sntaʔ
• PHM *mpeiH 'to dream'; PAA *ʔmpoːˀ
• PHM *ʔpu̯ɛŋX 'full'; PAA *bi(ː)ŋ
• Proto-Hmongic *mbrɔ^D 'ant'; PAA *suːcˀ
• Proto-Mienic *səp^D 'centipede'; PAA *kʔiːpˀ
• PHM *klup 'grasshopper'
• PHM *ntshjeiX 'head louse'; PAA *ciʔ

Other Austroasiatic parallels listed by Kosaka (2002:94) are:Kosaka, Ryuichi. 2002. "[http://sealang.net/sala/archives/pdf8/kosaka2002affiliation.pdf On the affiliation of Miao-Yao and Kadai: can we posit the Miao-Dai Family?]" In Mon-Khmer Studies, 32: 71-100.

• PHM *tshuŋX 'bone'; PAA *cʔaːŋ
• PHM *S-phreiX 'head'; PAA *ɓoːkˀ
• PHM *pji̯əuX 'fruit'; PAA *pleʔ
• PHM *pjɔu 'three'; PAA *peːˀ

Ostapirat (2018:116-117)Ostapirat, Weera. 2018. "[https://minpaku.repo.nii.ac.jp/?action=repository_uri&item_id=7894&file_id=22&file_no=1 Macrophyletic Trees of East Asian Languages Re examined]." In Let's Talk about Trees, ed. by Ritsuko Kikusawa and Lawrence A. Reid. Osaka: Senri Ethnological Studies, Minpaku. {{doi|10.15021/00009006}} lists compares the following basic vocabulary items in Hmong-Mien and Austroasiatic. Proto-Palaungic as reconstructed by Sidwell (2015) has also been reconstructed.

Further lexical resemblances between Hmong-Mien and Austroasiatic are listed in Hsiu (2017).Hsiu, Andrew. 2017. [https://sites.google.com/site/msealangs/home/blog/hm-aa Hmong-Mien and Austroasiatic look-alikes].

Many lexical resemblances are found between the Hmong-Mien and Kra-Dai language families, although the tones often do not correspond (Ratliff 2010). Proto-Tai (abbreviated here as PT) reconstructions are from Pittayaporn (2009).Pittayaporn, Pittayawat. 2009. The Phonology of Proto-Tai. Ph.D. dissertation. Department of Linguistics, Cornell University. Many of the Proto-Tai forms also have close parallels with Proto-Austronesian.

;Lexical resemblances with Kra-Dai

• Proto-Hmongic *kɛŋ^B 'I, 1.{{sc|SG}}'; PT *kuː^A (strong form), *kaw^A (weak form)
• PHM *mu̯ei 'thou, 2.{{sc|SG}}'; PT *mɯŋ^A (strong form), *maɰ^A (weak form)
• PHM *təjH 'to die', *dəjH 'to kill'; PT *p.taːj^A 'to die'
• PHM *ʔneinX 'this'; PT *naj^C
• PHM *m-nɔk 'bird'; PT *C̬.nok^D
• PHM *mbrəuX 'fish'; PT *plaː^A
• Proto-Hmongic *hmaŋ^C 'wild dog'; PT *ʰmaː^A 'dog'
• Proto-Hmongic *ʔlin^A 'monkey'; PT *liːŋ^A

Kosaka (2002) lists many lexical resemblances between Kra-Dai and Hmong-Mien languages, and proposes that they form part of a larger Miao-Dai language family.

Many lexical resemblances are found between the Hmong-Mien and Austronesian language families, some of which are also shared with Kra-Dai and Austroasiatic (Ratliff 2010). Proto-Austronesian (abbreviated here as PAN) and Proto-Malayo-Polynesian (abbreviated here as PMP) reconstructions are from Blust (n.d.).Blust, Robert. n.d. [http://www.trussel2.com/acd/ Austronesian Comparative Dictionary]. Manuscript.

;Lexical resemblances with Austronesian and Kra-Dai

• Proto-Hmongic *kɛŋ^B 'I, 1.{{sc|SG}}'; PMP *-ku 'my'
• PHM *mu̯ei 'thou, 2.{{sc|SG}}'; PAN *-mu '2nd person'
• PHM *mi̯əu 'you (plural), 2.{{sc|PL}}'; PAN *-mu '2nd person'
• PHM *təjH 'to die'; PAN *ma-aCay
• PHM *dəjH 'to kill'; PAN *pa-aCay
• PHM *m-nɔk 'bird'; PMP *manuk

;Lexical resemblances with Austronesian and Austroasiatic

• PHM *tu̯eiX 'tail'; PMP *buntut
• PHM *pu̯ɛŋX 'full'; PMP *penuq
• PHM *pənX 'to shoot'; PMP *panaq
• PHM *mpeiH 'to dream'; PAN *Sepi, PMP *hi(m)pi

;Other lexical resemblances with Austronesian

• PHM *mlu̯ɛjH 'soft'; PMP *ma-lumu
• PHM *dəp 'bite'; PMP *ketep
• PHM *klæŋ 'insect, worm, maggot'; PAN *qulej 'maggot'
• PHM *tɛmX 'body louse'; PAN *CumeS, PMP *tumah 'clothes louse'

Ratliff notes that the Hmong-Mien numerals from 4-9 and various culture-related vocabulary have been borrowed from Tibeto-Burman. The Proto-Tibeto-Burman (abbreviated as PTB) forms provided below are from James Matisoff (2003).{{citation

| first = James A. | last = Matisoff | authorlink = James Matisoff

| title = Handbook of Proto-Tibeto-Burman: System and Philosophy of Sino-Tibetan Reconstruction

| location = Berkeley | publisher = University of California Press

| year = 2003

| isbn = 978-0-520-09843-5

| url = http://escholarship.org/uc/item/19d79619

| postscript = .

}}

;Lexical borrowings from Tibeto-Burman

• PHM *plei 'four' < PTB *b-ləy (STEDT #[http://stedt.berkeley.edu/~stedt-cgi/rootcanal.pl/etymon/2409 2409])
• PHM *prja 'five' < PTB *b-ŋa (STEDT #[http://stedt.berkeley.edu/~stedt-cgi/rootcanal.pl/etymon/1306 1306])
• PHM *kruk 'six' < PTB *d-k-ruk (STEDT #[http://stedt.berkeley.edu/~stedt-cgi/rootcanal.pl/etymon/2621 2621])
• PHM *dzjuŋH 'seven'
• PHM *jat 'eight' < PTB *b-r-gyat ~ *b-g-ryat (STEDT #[http://stedt.berkeley.edu/~stedt-cgi/rootcanal.pl/etymon/2259 2259])
• PHM *N-ɟuə 'nine' < PTB *d/s-kəw (STEDT #[http://stedt.berkeley.edu/~stedt-cgi/rootcanal.pl/etymon/2364 2364])
• Proto-Hmongic *hnɛŋ^A and Proto-Mienic *hnu̯ɔi^A 'sun, day' < PTB *s-nəy (STEDT #[http://stedt.berkeley.edu/~stedt-cgi/rootcanal.pl/etymon/85 85])
• PHM *hlaH 'moon, month' < PTB *s-la (STEDT #[http://stedt.berkeley.edu/~stedt-cgi/rootcanal.pl/etymon/1016 1016])
• PHM *hməŋH 'night' (also 'dark') < PTB *s-muːŋ 'dark' (STEDT #[http://stedt.berkeley.edu/~stedt-cgi/rootcanal.pl/etymon/522 522]; #[http://stedt.berkeley.edu/~stedt-cgi/rootcanal.pl/etymon/2465 2465])
• PHM *ʔɲam 'sister-in-law' (also 'daughter-in-law') < PTB *nam 'daughter-in-law' (STEDT #[http://stedt.berkeley.edu/~stedt-cgi/rootcanal.pl/etymon/2486 2486])
• PHM *ʔweiX 'son-in-law' < PTB *krwəy (STEDT #[http://stedt.berkeley.edu/~stedt-cgi/rootcanal.pl/etymon/2348 2348])
• PHM *hlep 'to slice' < PTB *s-lep (STEDT #[http://stedt.berkeley.edu/~stedt-cgi/rootcanal.pl/etymon/2401 2401])
• PHM *hmjænX 'footprint, track' < PTB *s-naŋ 'to follow' (STEDT #[http://stedt.berkeley.edu/~stedt-cgi/rootcanal.pl/etymon/2488 2488])
• Proto-Hmongic *mjæn^B 'horse' < PTB *mraŋ (STEDT #[http://stedt.berkeley.edu/~stedt-cgi/rootcanal.pl/etymon/1431 1431])

Additionally, Paul K. Benedict (1987)Benedict, Paul K. 1987. "[http://sealang.net/sala/archives/pdf8/benedict1987early.pdf Early MY/TB Loan Relationships]." In Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area, 10, no. 2: 12-21. notes that Proto-Hmong–Mien contains loanwords from an unknown Tibeto-Burman language or branch, which Benedict refers to as Donor Miao-Yao. Benedict (1987:20) believes that these Tibeto-Burman loanwords predate Hmong-Mien's contact with Old Chinese. Some numerals that Benedict (1987) reconstructed for Proto-Donor Miao-Yao are given below.

• *pli^A 'four'
• *pra^A 'five'
• *truk 'six'
• *znis 'seven'
• *hryat 'eight'
• *t-gu^A 'nine'
• *gup 'ten'

Guillaume Jacques (2021) notes that there are Tibeto-Burman parallels for various Hmong-Mien words that are found specifically in rGyalrongic and neighboring Qiangic languages. These include the words for 'snow' (cf. Jiangdi Mien bwan⁵), 'scold' (Proto-Hmongic *qe^C), 'walnut' (Proto-Hmongic *qlow^C), and 'bamboo' (Proto-Hmong-Mien *hləwX).{{cite book | last=Jacques | first=Guillaume | chapter=Chapter 11: Hmong-Mien and Rgyalrongic | publisher=Brill | date=2021-05-20 | url=https://brill.com/display/book/9789004448568/BP000022.xml | access-date=2023-01-19 | pages=150–153 | editor-last=Kupchik | editor-first=John | editor-last2=Alonso de la Fuente | editor-first2=José Andrés | editor-last3=Miyake | editor-first3=Marc Hideo | editor-last4=Vovin | editor-first4=Alexander | title=Studies in Asian historical linguistics, philology and beyond: festschrift presented to Alexander V. Vovin in honor of his 60th birthday | publication-place=Leiden | isbn=978-90-04-44856-8 | oclc=1250436437}}

• Proto-Hmong-Mien reconstructions (Wiktionary)
• Proto-Hmongic reconstructions (Wiktionary)
• Proto-Mienic reconstructions (Wiktionary)
• Hmong-Mien comparative vocabulary list (Wiktionary)

{{Notelist}}

{{Reflist}}

{{refbegin}}

• Aumann, Greg; Sidwell, Paul. (2004). [http://sealang.net/sala/archives/pdf8/aumann2004subgrouping.pdf "Subgrouping of Mienic Languages: Some Observations"]. In Papers from the Eleventh Annual Meeting of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society (pp. 13–27).
• {{cite journal |last = Benedict |first = Paul K. |year=1942 |title = Thai, Kadai and Indonesian: a new alignment in southeastern Asia |journal = American Anthropologist |volume = 44 |issue = 4 |pages = 576–601 |doi = 10.1525/aa.1942.44.4.02a00040 |doi-access = free }}
• Chen Qiguang [陈其光] (2013). Miao and Yao language [苗瑶语文]. Beijing: Ethnic Publishing House [民族出版社]. {{ISBN|9787566003263}}
• {{cite web |url = http://language.psy.auckland.ac.nz/austronesian/language.php?id=739 |work = Austronesian Basic Vocabulary Database |title = Proto-Hmong–Mien word list |publisher = Department of Psychology, University of Auckland |author1 = Greenhill, S.J. |author2 = Blust. R |author3 = Gray, R.D. |year = 2008 |accessdate = 2011-04-09 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110520125107/http://language.psy.auckland.ac.nz/austronesian/language.php?id=739 |archive-date = 2011-05-20 |url-status = dead }}
• {{cite web |url = http://language.psy.auckland.ac.nz/austronesian/language.php?id=746 |work = Austronesian Basic Vocabulary Database |title = Proto-Hmongic word list |publisher = Department of Psychology, University of Auckland |author1 = Greenhill, S.J. |author2 = Blust. R |author3 = Gray, R.D. |year = 2008 |accessdate = 2011-04-09 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110521085637/http://language.psy.auckland.ac.nz/austronesian/language.php?id=746 |archive-date = 2011-05-21 |url-status = dead }}
• {{cite web |url = http://language.psy.auckland.ac.nz/austronesian/language.php?id=747 |work = Austronesian Basic Vocabulary Database |title = Proto-Mienic word list |publisher = Department of Psychology, University of Auckland |author1 = Greenhill, S.J. |author2 = Blust. R |author3 = Gray, R.D. |year = 2008 |accessdate = 2011-04-09 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110521085627/http://language.psy.auckland.ac.nz/austronesian/language.php?id=747 |archive-date = 2011-05-21 |url-status = dead }}
• {{cite book |last=Li |first=Yunbing 李云兵 |date=2018 |title=Miao Yao yu bijiao yanjiu 苗瑶语比较研究 (A comparative study of Hmong-Mien languages) |location=Beijing |publisher=The Commercial Press |oclc=1112270585 |isbn=9787100165068}}
• {{cite book |last=Liu |first=Wen 刘文 |date=2021 |title=Yaoyu fangyan lishi bijiao yanjiu 瑶语方言历史比较研究 |location=Beijing |publisher=Shehui kexue wenxian chubanshe Social Sciences Literature Press |oclc=1294576509 |isbn=9787520181464}}
• Miyake, Marc. 2012. [http://www.amritas.com/120421.htm#04170201 Were there Hmong in the Tangut Empire?]
• {{cite book |surname = Niederer |given = Barbara |year=1998 |title = Les langues Hmong-Mjen (Miao-Yao): phonologie historique |location = Munich |publisher = Lincom Europa }}
• {{cite journal |surname = Ostapirat |given = Weera |title = Issues in the Reconstruction and Affiliation of Proto-Miao-Yao |journal = Language and Linguistics |volume = 17 |issue = 1 |year = 2016 |pages = 133–145 |url = http://www.ling.sinica.edu.tw/Files/LL/Docments/Journals/17.1/17.1.6.pdf |doi = 10.1177/1606822X15614522 |access-date = 2016-05-24 |archive-date = 2019-11-13 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20191113104046/http://www.ling.sinica.edu.tw/Files/LL/Docments/Journals/17.1/17.1.6.pdf |url-status = dead }} (revision of [http://iscll-14.ling.sinica.edu.tw/files-pdf/InvitedSpeeches/Ostapirat.pdf paper] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140611062703/http://iscll-14.ling.sinica.edu.tw/files-pdf/InvitedSpeeches/Ostapirat.pdf |date=2014-06-11 }} presented at IsCLL-14, Taipei, Taiwan)
• {{cite book |last = Ratliff |first = Martha |year = 1992 |title = Meaningful Tone: A Study of Tonal Morphology in Compounds, Form Classes, and Expressive Phrases in White Hmong |location =Dekalb, Illinois |publisher = Center for Southeast Asian Studies, Northern Illinois University |isbn = 1-877979-77-5 }}
• {{cite book |last = Ratliff |first = Martha |title = Vocabulary of Environment and Subsistence in the Hmong–Mien Protolanguage |editor1= Tapp |editor2=Michaud |editor3=Culas |editor4=Lee |work = Symposium on the Hmong/Miao in Asia. |year = 2004 |pages = 147–165 |location = Chiang Mai, Thailand |publisher = Silkworm Books }}
• {{cite book |last = Ratliff |first = Martha |year = 2010 |title = Hmong–Mien language history |location = Canberra, Australia |publisher = Pacific Linguistics |isbn = 978-0-85883-615-0 |hdl=1885/146760 |hdl-access=free |ref=none }}
• {{cite web |url = http://starling.rinet.ru/cgi-bin/query.cgi?basename=\data\china\bigchina |title = Database query to Chinese characters |year = 1998 |work = The Tower of Babel (Starling online) |publisher = George Starostin |author1 = Sergei Starostin |author2 = G. Bronnikov |author3 = Phil Krylov |accessdate = 2011-04-09 }} (multiple entries)
• Solnit, David B. (1996). [http://sealang.net/sala/archives/pdf8/solnit1996evidence.pdf "Some evidence from Biao Min on the initials of Proto-Mienic (Yao) and Proto-Hmong-Mien (Miao-Yao)"]. Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area, 19(1), 1-18.
• Wang Fushi 王辅世, Mao Zongwu 毛宗武. 1995. Miao-Yao yu guyin gouni 苗瑤语古音构拟. Beijing: China Social Sciences Academy Press 中国社会科学出版社.

{{refend}}

{{Hmong-Mien languages}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Proto-Hmong-Mien Language}}

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Hmong-Mien