tibet

File:Tibet provinces.png (8th century) overlaid on a map of modern borders]]

{{Main|Etymology of Tibet}}

The Tibetan name for their land, Bod ({{Bo-textonly|བོད་}}), means 'Tibet' or 'Tibetan Plateau', although it originally meant the central region around Lhasa, now known in Tibetan as Ü ({{Bo-textonly|དབུས}}).{{Citation needed|reason=Please, provide a source for this statement|date=June 2017}} The Standard Tibetan pronunciation of Bod ({{IPA|bo|pʰøʔ˨˧˨|}}) is transcribed as: Bhö in Tournadre Phonetic Transcription; Bö in the THL Simplified Phonetic Transcription; and Poi in Tibetan pinyin. Some scholars believe the first written reference to Bod ('Tibet') was the ancient Bautai people recorded in the Egyptian-Greek works Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (1st century CE) and Geographia (Ptolemy, 2nd century CE),Beckwith (1987), pg. 7 itself from the Sanskrit form Bhauṭṭa of the Indian geographical tradition.Étienne de la Vaissière, "The Triple System of Orography in Ptolemy's Xinjiang", Exegisti Monumenta: Festschrif in Honour of Nicholas Sims-Williams, eds. Werner Sundermann, Almut Hintze & François de Blois (Wiesbaden, Germany: Harrassowitz, 2009), 532.

The best-known medieval Chinese name for Tibet is Tubo ({{lang-zh|s={{linktext|吐蕃}}|links=no}}; or {{lang-zh|hp=Tǔbō|links=no|c=|s=|t=|labels=no}}, {{linktext|lang=zh|土蕃}} or {{lang|zh|Tǔfān}}, {{linktext|lang=zh|土番}}). This name first appears in Chinese characters as {{lang|zh-hans-CN|土番}} in the 7th century (Li Tai) and as {{lang|zh-hans-CN|吐蕃}} in the 10th century (Old Book of Tang, describing 608–609 emissaries from Tibetan King Namri Songtsen to Emperor Yang of Sui). In the Middle Chinese language spoken during that period, as reconstructed by William H. Baxter, {{lang|zh-hans-CN|土番}} was pronounced thu{{Smallcaps|x}}-phjon, and {{lang|zh-hans-CN|吐蕃}} was pronounced thu{{Smallcaps|x}}-pjon (with the {{Smallcaps|x}} representing a shang tone).{{cite web |url=http://www-personal.umich.edu/~wbaxter/etymdict.html |title=An Etymological Dictionary of Common Chinese Characters |last1=Baxter |first1=William H. |date=March 30, 2001 |access-date=April 16, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110411153909/http://www-personal.umich.edu/~wbaxter/etymdict.html |archive-date=April 11, 2011}}

Other pre-modern Chinese names for Tibet include:

• Wusiguo ({{lang-zh|s=烏斯國|hp=Wūsīguó|links=no}}; cf. Tibetan: dbus, Ü, {{IPA|bo|wyʔ˨˧˨|}});
• Wusizang ({{lang-zh|s=烏斯藏|hp=wūsīzàng|links=no}}, cf. Tibetan: dbus-gtsang, Ü-Tsang);
• Tubote ({{lang-zh|s=圖伯特|hp=Túbótè|links=no}}); and
• Tanggute ({{lang-zh|s=唐古忒|hp=Tánggǔtè|links=no}}, cf. Tangut).

American Tibetologist Elliot Sperling has argued in favor of a recent tendency by some authors writing in Chinese to revive the term Tubote ({{lang-zh|s=图伯特|t=圖伯特|hp=Túbótè|links=no}}) for modern use in place of Xizang, on the grounds that Tubote more clearly includes the entire Tibetan plateau rather than simply the Tibet Autonomous Region.{{cite web |url=https://sites.google.com/site/tibetanpoliticalreview/articles/tubotetibetandthepowerofnaming |title=Tubote, Tibet, and the Power of Naming |website=Tibetan Political Review |author=Elliot Sperling | access-date=July 31, 2018 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160328133904/https://sites.google.com/site/tibetanpoliticalreview/articles/tubotetibetandthepowerofnaming | archive-date=March 28, 2016 | url-status=live |df=mdy-all}}

The English word Tibet or Thibet dates back to the 18th century.The word Tibet was used in the context of the first British mission to this country under George Bogle in 1774.

See Markham, Clements R., ed. [1876] 1971. Narratives of the Mission of George Bogle to Tibet and the Journey of Thomas Manning to Lhasa. New Delhi: Manjushri Publishing House. Historical linguists generally agree that "Tibet" names in European languages are loanwords from Arabic {{transliteration|ar|ALA|Ṭībat}} or {{transliteration|ar|ALA|Tūbātt}} ({{langx|ar|طيبة، توبات}}), itself deriving from Turkic {{lang|trk|Töbäd}} (plural of {{lang|trk|töbän}}), literally 'The Heights'.Behr, Wolfgang, 1994. "[https://web.archive.org/web/20151016045150/https://books.google.com/books?id=NHN6KTAVR28C&pg=PA559&dq=t%C3%B6p%C3%BCt&lr=&hl=tr&sig=x1RLRVdRn9zBxkX84i5X45GZh84 Stephan V. Beyer 'The Classical Tibetan Language' (book review)]." Pp. 558–59 in Oriens 34, edited by R. Sellheim. Leiden: E.J. Brill. Archived from the [https://books.google.com/books?id=NHN6KTAVR28C&dq=t%C3%B6p%C3%BCt&pg=PA559 original] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164813/https://books.google.com/books?id=NHN6KTAVR28C&dq=t%C3%83%C2%B6p%C3%83%C2%BCt&pg=PA559 |date=March 26, 2023 }} on October 16, 2015.

{{Main|Standard Tibetan}}

File:"TIBETO-BURMAN" GROUPS 1967 map with group key, "COMMUNIST CHINA ETHNOLINGUISTIC GROUPS" by the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency, Directorate of Intelligence, Office of Basic Geographic Intelligence, 1967 (cropped).jpg

Linguists generally classify the Tibetan language as a Tibeto-Burman language of the Sino-Tibetan language family, although the boundaries between 'Tibetan' and certain other Himalayan languages can be unclear. According to Matthew Kapstein:

From the perspective of historical linguistics, Tibetan most closely resembles Burmese among the major languages of Asia. Grouping these two together with other apparently related languages spoken in the Himalayan lands, as well as in the highlands of Southeast Asia and the Sino-Tibetan frontier regions, linguists have generally concluded that there exists a Tibeto-Burman family of languages. More controversial is the theory that the Tibeto-Burman family is itself part of a larger language family, called Sino-Tibetan, and that through it Tibetan and Burmese are distant cousins of Chinese.Kapstein 2006, pg. 19

File:People of Tibet46.jpg attending a horse festival]]

The language has numerous regional dialects which are generally not mutually intelligible. It is employed throughout the Tibetan plateau and Bhutan and is also spoken in parts of Nepal and northern India, such as Sikkim. In general, the dialects of central Tibet (including Lhasa), Kham, Amdo and some smaller nearby areas are considered Tibetan dialects. Other forms, particularly Dzongkha, Sikkimese, Sherpa, and Ladakhi, are considered by their speakers, largely for political reasons, to be separate languages. However, if the latter group of Tibetan-type languages are included in the calculation, then 'greater Tibetan' is spoken by approximately 6 million people across the Tibetan Plateau. Tibetan is also spoken by approximately 150,000 exile speakers who have fled from modern-day Tibet to India and other countries.{{citation needed|date=January 2023}}

Although spoken Tibetan varies according to the region, the written language, based on Classical Tibetan, is consistent throughout. This is probably due to the long-standing influence of the Tibetan empire, whose rule embraced (and extended at times far beyond) the present Tibetan linguistic area, which runs from Gilgit Baltistan in the west to Yunnan and Sichuan in the east, and from north of Qinghai Lake south as far as Bhutan. The Tibetan language has its own script which it shares with Ladakhi and Dzongkha, and which is derived from the ancient Indian Brāhmī script.Kapstein 2006, p. 22.

Starting in 2001, the local deaf sign languages of Tibet were standardized, and Tibetan Sign Language is now being promoted across the country.

The first Tibetan-English dictionary and grammar book was written by Alexander Csoma de Kőrös in 1834.[https://books.google.com/books?id=a78IAAAAQAAJ&q=csoma Essay towards a Dictionary, Tibetan and English. Prepared, with assistance of Bandé Sangs-rgyas Phuntshogs ... by Alexander Csoma de Kőrös, etc., Calcutta: Baptist Mission Press, 1834] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164813/https://books.google.com/books?id=a78IAAAAQAAJ&q=csoma |date=March 26, 2023 }}.

{{Main|History of Tibet}}

{{Further|History of European exploration in Tibet|Foreign relations of Tibet}}

=== Early history ===

{{Main|Neolithic Tibet|Zhangzhung|Pre-Imperial Tibet}}

File:Madhya pradesh, epoca candella, tirthankara rishabhanatha, x-xi sec.JPG, the first Tirthankara of Jainism, is considered to have attained nirvana near Mount Kailash in Tibet in Jain tradition.{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y4aVRLGhf-8C&q=Rishabhdev+Tibet&pg=RA1-PA273 |title=Faith & Philosophy of Jainism |isbn=978-81-7835-723-2 |last1=Jain |first1=Arun Kumar |year=2009 |publisher=Gyan Publishing House| access-date=October 18, 2020| archive-date=April 14, 2023| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230414142806/https://books.google.com/books?id=y4aVRLGhf-8C&q=Rishabhdev+Tibet&pg=RA1-PA273| url-status=live}}]]

File:Songstengampo.jpg]]Humans inhabited the Tibetan Plateau at least 21,000 years ago.{{cite journal |last1=Zhao |first1=M |last2=Kong |first2=QP |last3=Wang |first3=HW |last4=Peng |first4=MS |last5=Xie |first5=XD |last6=Wang |first6=WZ |last7=Jiayang |first7=Duan JG |last8=Cai |first8=MC |last9=Zhao |first9=SN | last10 = Cidanpingcuo | first10 = Tu YQ |last11=Wu |first11=SF |last12=Yao |first12=YG |last13=Bandelt |first13=HJ |last14=Zhang |first14=YP |year=2009 |title=Mitochondrial genome evidence reveals successful Late Paleolithic settlement on the Tibetan Plateau |journal=Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A |volume=106 |issue=50 |pages=21230–21235 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0907844106 |pmid=19955425 |pmc=2795552 |bibcode=2009PNAS..10621230Z | doi-access = free | issn = 0027-8424}} This population was largely replaced around 3,000 BP by Neolithic immigrants from northern China, but there is a partial genetic continuity between the Paleolithic inhabitants and contemporary Tibetan populations.

The earliest Tibetan historical texts identify the Zhang Zhung culture as a people who migrated from the Amdo region into what is now the region of Guge in western Tibet.Norbu 1989, pp. 127–128 Zhang Zhung is considered to be the original home of the Bön religion.Helmut Hoffman in McKay 2003 vol. 1, pp. 45–68 By the 1st century BCE, a neighboring kingdom arose in the Yarlung valley, and the Yarlung king, Drigum Tsenpo, attempted to remove the influence of the Zhang Zhung by expelling the Zhang's Bön priests from Yarlung.{{cite book |last1=Karmay |first1=Samten Gyaltsen |title=The Treasury of Good Sayings: A Tibetan History of Bon |date=2005 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publisher |isbn=978-81-208-2943-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vhetCgcQReIC&pg=PA66 |language=en |pages=66ff |access-date=December 3, 2022 |archive-date=December 3, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203202548/https://books.google.com/books?id=vhetCgcQReIC&pg=PA66 |url-status=live}} He was assassinated and Zhang Zhung continued its dominance of the region until it was annexed by Songtsen Gampo in the 7th century. Prior to Songtsen Gampo, the kings of Tibet were more mythological than factual, and there is insufficient evidence of their existence.Haarh, Erik: Extract from "The Yar Lun Dynasty", in: The History of Tibet, ed. Alex McKay, Vol. 1, London 2003, p. 147; Richardson, Hugh: The Origin of the Tibetan Kingdom, in: The History of Tibet, ed. Alex McKay, Vol. 1, London 2003, p. 159 (and list of kings p. 166-167).

{{main|Tibetan Empire}}

File:Tibetan empire greatest extent 780s-790s CE.png

The history of a unified Tibet begins with the rule of Songtsen Gampo (604–650{{nbsp}}CE), who united parts of the Yarlung River Valley and founded the Tibetan Empire. He also brought in many reforms, and Tibetan power spread rapidly, creating a large and powerful empire. It is traditionally considered that his first wife was the Princess of Nepal, Bhrikuti, and that she played a great role in the establishment of Buddhism in Tibet. In 640, he married Princess Wencheng, the niece of the Chinese emperor Taizong of Tang China.Forbes, Andrew; Henley, David (2011). 'The First Tibetan Empire' in: China's Ancient Tea Horse Road. Chiang Mai: Cognoscenti Books. ASIN: B005DQV7Q2

Under the next few Tibetan kings, Buddhism became established as the state religion and Tibetan power increased even further over large areas of Central Asia, while major inroads were made into Chinese territory, even reaching the Tang's capital Chang'an (modern Xi'an) in late 763.Beckwith 1987, pg. 146 However, the Tibetan occupation of Chang'an only lasted for fifteen days, after which they were defeated by Tang and its ally, the Turkic Uyghur Khaganate.

File:Miran Fort BLP466 PHOTO1187 2 60.jpg]]

The Kingdom of Nanzhao (in Yunnan and neighbouring regions) remained under Tibetan control from 750 to 794, when they turned on their Tibetan overlords and helped the Chinese inflict a serious defeat on the Tibetans.Marks, Thomas A. (1978). "Nanchao and Tibet in South-western China and Central Asia." The Tibet Journal. Vol. 3, No. 4. Winter 1978, pp. 13–16.

In 747, the hold of Tibet was loosened by the campaign of general Gao Xianzhi, who tried to re-open the direct communications between Central Asia and Kashmir. By 750, the Tibetans had lost almost all of their central Asian possessions to the Chinese. However, after Gao Xianzhi's defeat by the Arabs and Qarluqs at the Battle of Talas (751) and the subsequent civil war known as the An Lushan Rebellion (755), Chinese influence decreased rapidly and Tibetan influence resumed.

At its height in the 780s to 790s, the Tibetan Empire reached its highest glory when it ruled and controlled a territory stretching from modern-day Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Burma, China, India, Nepal, Pakistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan.

In 821/822{{nbsp}}CE, Tibet and China signed a peace treaty. A bilingual account of this treaty, including details of the borders between the two countries, is inscribed on a stone pillar which stands outside the Jokhang temple in Lhasa.A Corpus of Early Tibetan Inscriptions. H. E. Richardson. Royal Asiatic Society (1985), pp. 106–43. {{ISBN|0-947593-00-4}}. Tibet continued as a Central Asian empire until the mid-9th century, when a civil war over succession led to the collapse of imperial Tibet. The period that followed is known traditionally as the Era of Fragmentation, when political control over Tibet became divided between regional warlords and tribes with no dominant centralized authority. An Islamic invasion from Bengal took place in 1206.

{{main|Mongol conquest of Tibet|Tibet under Yuan rule}}

File:Yuen Dynasty 1294 - Goryeo as vassal.png, c. 1294]]

The Mongol Yuan dynasty, through the Bureau of Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs, or Xuanzheng Yuan, ruled Tibet through a top-level administrative department. One of the department's purposes was to select a dpon-chen ("great administrator"), usually appointed by the lama and confirmed by the Mongol emperor in Beijing.Dawa Norbu. [https://books.google.com/books?id=kD8gTL6IIDYC&dq=Xuanzheng+Yuan&pg=PA139 China's Tibet Policy] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230414142810/https://books.google.com/books?id=kD8gTL6IIDYC&dq=Xuanzheng+Yuan&pg=PA139 |date=April 14, 2023 }}, p. 139. Psychology Press. The Sakya lama retained a degree of autonomy, acting as the political authority of the region, while the dpon-chen held administrative and military power. Mongol rule of Tibet remained separate from the main provinces of China, but the region existed under the administration of the Yuan dynasty. If the Sakya lama ever came into conflict with the dpon-chen, the dpon-chen had the authority to send Chinese troops into the region.

Tibet retained nominal power over religious and regional political affairs, while the Mongols managed a structural and administrativeWylie. p.104: 'To counterbalance the political power of the lama, Khubilai appointed civil administrators at the Sa-skya to supervise the mongol regency.' rule over the region, reinforced by the rare military intervention. This existed as a "diarchic structure" under the Yuan emperor, with power primarily in favor of the Mongols. Mongolian prince Khuden gained temporal power in Tibet in the 1240s and sponsored Sakya Pandita, whose seat became the capital of Tibet. Drogön Chögyal Phagpa, Sakya Pandita's nephew became Imperial Preceptor of Kublai Khan, founder of the Yuan dynasty.

Yuan control over the region ended with the Ming overthrow of the Yuan and Tai Situ Changchub Gyaltsen's revolt against the Mongols.Rossabi 1983, p. 194 Following the uprising, Tai Situ Changchub Gyaltsen founded the Phagmodrupa dynasty, and sought to reduce Yuan influences over Tibetan culture and politics.Norbu, Dawa (2001) p. 57

{{main|Phagmodrupa dynasty|Rinpungpa|Tsangpa}}

{{further|Sino-Tibetan relations during the Ming dynasty}}

File:Gyantse Dzong4.jpg]]

Between 1346 and 1354, Tai Situ Changchub Gyaltsen toppled the Sakya and founded the Phagmodrupa dynasty. The following 80 years saw the founding of the Gelug school (also known as Yellow Hats) by the disciples of Je Tsongkhapa, and the founding of the important Ganden, Drepung and Sera monasteries near Lhasa. However, internal strife within the dynasty and the strong localism of the various fiefs and political-religious factions led to a long series of internal conflicts. The minister family Rinpungpa, based in Tsang (West Central Tibet), dominated politics after 1435. In 1565 they were overthrown by the Tsangpa dynasty of Shigatse which expanded its power in different directions of Tibet in the following decades and favoured the Karma Kagyu sect.

{{Multiple image

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| image1 = Khoshut Khanate.png

| caption1 = The Khoshut Khanate, 1642–1717

| image2 = Carte la plus generale et qui comprend la Chine, la Tartarie Chinoise, et le Thibet (1734).jpg

| caption2 = Tibet in 1734. Royaume de Thibet ("Kingdom of Tibet") in la Chine, la Tartarie Chinoise, et le Thibet ("China, Chinese Tartary, and Tibet") on a 1734 map by Jean Baptiste Bourguignon d'Anville, based on earlier Jesuit maps.

| image3 = Qing china.jpg

| caption3 = Tibet in 1892 during the Qing dynasty

}}

{{Main|Ganden Phodrang}}

In 1578, Altan Khan of the Tümed Mongols gave Sonam Gyatso, a high lama of the Gelugpa school, the name Dalai Lama, Dalai being the Mongolian translation of the Tibetan name Gyatso "Ocean".Laird 2006, pp. 142–143.

The 5th Dalai Lama (1617–1682) is known for unifying the Tibetan heartland under the control of the Gelug school of Tibetan Buddhism, after defeating the rival Kagyu and Jonang sects and the secular ruler, the Tsangpa prince, in a prolonged civil war. His efforts were successful in part because of aid from Güshi Khan, the Oirat leader of the Khoshut Khanate. With Güshi Khan as a largely uninvolved overlord, the 5th Dalai Lama and his intimates established a civil administration which is referred to by historians as the Lhasa state. This Tibetan regime or government is also referred to as the Ganden Phodrang.

{{main|Chinese expedition to Tibet (1720)|Tibet under Qing rule}}

File:布达拉宫.jpg]]

Qing dynasty rule in Tibet began with their 1720 expedition to the country when they expelled the invading Dzungars. Amdo came under Qing control in 1724, and eastern Kham was incorporated into neighbouring Chinese provinces in 1728.Wang Jiawei, "The Historical Status of China's Tibet", 2000, pp. 162–6. Meanwhile, the Qing government sent resident commissioners called Ambans to Lhasa. In 1750, the Ambans and the majority of the Han Chinese and Manchus living in Lhasa were killed in a riot, and Qing troops arrived quickly and suppressed the rebels in the next year. Like the preceding Yuan dynasty, the Manchus of the Qing dynasty exerted military and administrative control of the region, while granting it a degree of political autonomy. The Qing commander publicly executed a number of supporters of the rebels and, as in 1723 and 1728, made changes in the political structure and drew up a formal organization plan. The Qing now restored the Dalai Lama as ruler, leading the governing council called Kashag,Kychanov, E.I. and Melnichenko, B.I. Istoriya Tibeta s drevneishikh vremen do nashikh dnei [History of Tibet since Ancient Times to Present]. Moscow: Russian Acad. Sci. Publ., p.89-92 but elevated the role of Ambans to include more direct involvement in Tibetan internal affairs. At the same time, the Qing took steps to counterbalance the power of the aristocracy by adding officials recruited from the clergy to key posts.Goldstein 1997, pg. 18

For several decades, peace reigned in Tibet, but in 1792, the Qing Qianlong Emperor sent a large Chinese army into Tibet to push the invading Nepalese out. This prompted yet another Qing reorganization of the Tibetan government, this time through a written plan called the "Twenty-Nine Regulations for Better Government in Tibet". Qing military garrisons staffed with Qing troops were now also established near the Nepalese border.Goldstein 1997, pg. 19 Tibet was dominated by the Manchus in various stages in the 18th century, and the years immediately following the 1792 regulations were the peak of the Qing imperial commissioners' authority; but there was no attempt to make Tibet a Chinese province.Goldstein 1997, pg. 20

In 1834, the Sikh Empire invaded and annexed Ladakh, a culturally Tibetan region that was an independent kingdom at the time. Seven years later, a Sikh army led by General Zorawar Singh invaded western Tibet from Ladakh, starting the Sino-Sikh War. A Qing-Tibetan army repelled the invaders but was in turn defeated when it chased the Sikhs into Ladakh. The war ended with the signing of the Treaty of Chushul between the Chinese and Sikh empires.The Sino-Indian Border Disputes, by Alfred P. Rubin, The International and Comparative Law Quarterly, Vol. 9, No. 1. (Jan. 1960), pp. 96–125.

File:Putuo Zongcheng Temple.jpg, a Buddhist temple complex in Chengde, Hebei, built between 1767 and 1771. The temple was modeled after the Potala Palace.]]

As the Qing dynasty weakened, its authority over Tibet also gradually declined, and by the mid-19th century, its influence was minuscule. Qing authority over Tibet had become more symbolic than real by the late 19th century,Goldstein 1989, pg. 44Goldstein 1997, pg. 22Brunnert, H. S. and Hagelstrom, V. V. _Present Day Political Organization of China_, Shanghai, 1912. p. 467.{{cite web |author=Stas Bekman: stas (at) stason.org |url=http://stason.org/TULARC/travel/tibet/B6-What-was-Tibet-s-status-during-China-s-Qing-dynasty-164.html |title=What was Tibet's status during China's Qing dynasty (1644–1912)? |publisher=Stason.org |access-date=August 26, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080407223734/http://stason.org/TULARC/travel/tibet/B6-What-was-Tibet-s-status-during-China-s-Qing-dynasty-164.html |archive-date=April 7, 2008 |url-status=live}} although in the 1860s, the Tibetans still chose for reasons of their own to emphasize the empire's symbolic authority and make it seem substantial.The Cambridge History of China, vol. 10, p. 407.

In 1774, a Scottish nobleman, George Bogle, travelled to Shigatse to investigate prospects of trade for the East India Company. His efforts, while largely unsuccessful, established permanent contact between Tibet and the Western world.Teltscher 2006, pg. 57 However, in the 19th century, tensions between foreign powers and Tibet increased. The British Empire was expanding its territories in India into the Himalayas, while the Emirate of Afghanistan and the Russian Empire were both doing likewise in Central Asia.{{citation needed|date=October 2022}}

In 1904, a British expedition to Tibet, spurred in part by a fear that Russia was extending its power into Tibet as part of the Great Game, was launched. Although the expedition initially set out with the stated purpose of resolving border disputes between Tibet and Sikkim, it quickly turned into a military invasion. The British expeditionary force, consisting of mostly Indian troops, quickly invaded and captured Lhasa, with the Dalai Lama fleeing to the countryside.Smith 1996, pp. 154–6 Afterwards, the leader of the expedition, Sir Francis Younghusband, negotiated the Convention Between Great Britain and Tibet with the Tibetans, which guaranteed the British great economic influence but ensured the region remained under Chinese control. The Qing imperial resident, known as the Amban, publicly repudiated the treaty, while the British government, eager for friendly relations with China, negotiated a new treaty two years later known as the Convention Between Great Britain and China Respecting Tibet. The British agreed not to annex or interfere in Tibet in return for an indemnity from the Chinese government, while China agreed not to permit any other foreign state to interfere with the territory or internal administration of Tibet.

In 1910, the Qing government sent a military expedition of its own under Zhao Erfeng to establish direct Manchu-Chinese rule and, in an imperial edict, deposed the Dalai Lama, who fled to British India. Zhao Erfeng defeated the Tibetan military conclusively and expelled the Dalai Lama's forces from the province. His actions were unpopular, and there was much animosity against him for his mistreatment of civilians and disregard for local culture.{{citation needed|date=October 2022}}

{{Main|Tibet (1912–1951)}}

File:Bundesarchiv Bild 135-KB-17-040, Tibetexpedition, Geer mit Argali.jpg]]

File:Bundesarchiv Bild 135-S-12-50-09, Tibetexpedition, Ragyapas, Geier.jpg, an outcast group, early 20th century. Their hereditary occupation included disposal of corpses and leather work.]]

After the Xinhai Revolution (1911–1912) toppled the Qing dynasty and the last Qing troops were escorted out of Tibet, the new Republic of China apologized for the actions of the Qing and offered to restore the Dalai Lama's title.Mayhew, Bradley and Michael Kohn. (2005). Tibet, p. 32. Lonely Planet Publications. {{ISBN|1-74059-523-8}}. The Dalai Lama refused any Chinese title and declared himself ruler of an independent Tibet.Shakya 1999, pg. 5 In 1913, Tibet and Outer Mongolia concluded a treaty of mutual recognition.{{Cite web |url=http://ww38.ltwa.net/library/index.php?option=com_multicategories&view=article&id=170&catid=30:news&Itemid=12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121030061528/http://www.ltwa.net/library/index.php?option=com_multicategories&view=article&id=170&catid=30%3Anews&Itemid=12 |url-status=dead |title=ltwa.net|archive-date=October 30, 2012 |website=ww38.ltwa.net}} The ROC continued to view the former Qing territory as its own, including Tibet.{{Cite book |last=Laikwan |first=Pang |title=One and All: The Logic of Chinese Sovereignty |date=2024 |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=9781503638815 |location=Stanford, CA |doi=10.1515/9781503638822}}{{Rp|page=69}} For the next 36 years, the 13th Dalai Lama and the regents who succeeded him governed Tibet. During this time, Tibet fought Chinese warlords for control of the ethnically Tibetan areas in Xikang and Qinghai (parts of Kham and Amdo) along the upper reaches of the Yangtze River.Wang Jiawei, "The Historical Status of China's Tibet", 2000, p. 150. In 1914, the Tibetan government signed the Simla Convention with Britain, which recognized Chinese suzerainty over Tibet in return for a border settlement. China refused to sign the convention.{{citation |last1=Fisher |first1=Margaret W. |last2=Rose |first2=Leo E. |last3=Huttenback |first3=Robert A. |title=Himalayan Battleground: Sino-Indian Rivalry in Ladakh |date=1963 |publisher=Praeger |url=https://archive.org/details/himalayanbattleg0000unse/mode/2up |via=archive.org |pages=77–78 |quote=By refusing to sign it, however, the Chinese lost an opportunity to become the acknowledged suzerain of Tibet. The Tibetans were therefore free to make their own agreement with the British.}} Tibet continued to lack clear boundaries or international recognition of its status.{{Rp|page=69}}

When in the 1930s and 1940s the regents displayed negligence in affairs, the Kuomintang Government of the Republic of China took advantage of this to expand its reach into the territory.{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WIJFuD-cH_IC&q=dalai+lama+kuomintang+brief+civil+war |title=The Search for the Panchen Lama |author=Isabel Hilton |year=2001 |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company |page=112 |isbn=978-0-393-32167-8 |access-date=June 28, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160610000748/https://books.google.com/books?id=WIJFuD-cH_IC&dq=ma+bufang+taiwan&q=dalai+lama+kuomintang+brief+civil+war#v=snippet&q=dalai%20lama%20kuomintang%20brief%20civil%20war&f=false |archive-date=June 10, 2016|url-status=live}} On December 20, 1941, Kuomintang leader Chiang Kai-Shek noted in his diary that Tibet would be among the territories which he would demand as restitution for China following the conclusion of World War II.{{Cite book |last=Mitter |first=Rana |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1141442704 |title=China's good war : how World War II is shaping a new nationalism |date=2020 |publisher=The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-98426-4 |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |pages=45 |oclc=1141442704 |access-date=October 15, 2022 |archive-date=April 2, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230402121743/https://www.worldcat.org/title/1141442704 |url-status=live}}

{{Main|History of Tibet (1950–present)}}

File:Thank you India. 50 Years in Exile. Manali. 2010.jpg, 2010.]]

Emerging with control over most of mainland China after the Chinese Civil War, the People's Republic of China annexed Tibet in 1950 and negotiated the Seventeen Point Agreement with the newly enthroned 14th Dalai Lama's government, affirming the People's Republic of China's sovereignty but granting the area autonomy. Subsequently, on his journey into exile, the 14th Dalai Lama completely repudiated the agreement, which he has repeated on many occasions.[https://web.archive.org/web/20110928101214/http://www.tibet.net/en/index.php?id=183&rmenuid=11 "The 17-Point Agreement" The full story as revealed by the Tibetans and Chinese who were involved] Archived on September 28, 2011.Dalai Lama, Freedom in Exile Harper San Francisco, 1991 According to the CIA, the Chinese used the Dalai Lama to gain control of the military's training and actions.{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP82-00457R009600210006-1.pdf |title=1.Chinese Communist Troops in Tibet, 2. Chinese Communist Program for Tibet |access-date=February 10, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170123133521/https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP82-00457R009600210006-1.pdf |archive-date=January 23, 2017 |url-status=dead}}

The Dalai Lama had a strong following as many people from Tibet looked at him not just as their political leader, but as their spiritual leader.{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP82R00025R000100060024-3.pdf |title=Notes for DCI briefing of Senate Foreign Relations Committee on 28 April 1959 |access-date=February 10, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170123081300/https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP82R00025R000100060024-3.pdf |archive-date=January 23, 2017 |url-status=dead}} After the Dalai Lama's government fled to Dharamsala, India, during the 1959 Tibetan Rebellion, it established a rival government-in-exile. Afterwards, the Central People's Government in Beijing renounced the agreement and began implementation of the halted social and political reforms.{{Cite book |title=Governing China's Multiethnic Frontiers |page=197 |first=Morris |last=Rossabi |chapter=An Overview of Sino-Tibetan Relations |publisher=University of Washington Press |year=2005}} During the Great Leap Forward, over 200,000 Tibetans may have died{{cite web |url=http://www.refworld.org/docid/49749d3dc.html |title=World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples – China : Tibetans |publisher=Minority Rights Group International |date=July 2008 |access-date=April 23, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141101012043/http://www.refworld.org/docid/49749d3dc.html |archive-date=November 1, 2014 |url-status=live}} and approximately 6,000 monasteries were destroyed during the Cultural Revolution—destroying the vast majority of historic Tibetan architecture.{{Cite book |title=Freedom of religion and belief: a world report |first1=Kevin |last1=Boyle |first2=Juliet |last2=Sheen |publisher=Routledge |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-415-15977-7}}

In 1980, General Secretary and reformist Hu Yaobang visited Tibet and ushered in a period of social, political, and economic liberalization. At the end of the decade, however, before the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989, monks in the Drepung and Sera monasteries started protesting for independence. The government halted reforms and started an anti-separatist campaign.{{cite magazine |title=As Tibet Goes... |first1=David |last1=Bank |first2=Peter |last2=Leyden |magazine=Mother Jones |date=January 1990 |volume=15 |issue=1 |issn=0362-8841}} Human rights organisations have been critical of the Beijing and Lhasa governments' approach to human rights in the region when cracking down on separatist convulsions that have occurred around monasteries and cities, most recently in the 2008 Tibetan unrest.

The central region of Tibet is now an autonomous region within China, the Tibet Autonomous Region. The Tibet Autonomous Region is a province-level entity of the People's Republic of China. It is governed by a People's Government, led by a chairman. In practice, however, the chairman is subordinate to the branch secretary of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). In 2010, it was reported that, as a matter of convention, the chairman had almost always been an ethnic Tibetan, while the party secretary had always been ethnically non-Tibetan.{{Cite news |date=January 15, 2010 |title=Leadership shake-up in China's Tibet: state media |publisher=France 24 |agency=Agence France-Presse |location=France |url=http://www.france24.com/en/20100115-leadership-shake-chinas-tibet-state-media |url-status=dead |access-date=July 29, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100118095132/http://www.france24.com/en/20100115-leadership-shake-chinas-tibet-state-media |archive-date=January 18, 2010}}

{{Main|Geography of Tibet}}

File:Tibet and surrounding areas topographic map 3.png and surrounding areas above 1600 m – topography. Tibet is often called the "roof of the world".]]

File:拷贝 (70097727).jpeg

All of modern China, including Tibet, is considered a part of East Asia.{{cite web |url=http://science.nationalgeographic.com/science/earth/surface-of-the-earth/plateaus-article.html |title=plateaus|access-date=May 16, 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090401160422/http://science.nationalgeographic.com/science/earth/surface-of-the-earth/plateaus-article.html|archive-date=April 1, 2009|url-status=dead}} Historically, some European sources also considered parts of Tibet to lie in Central Asia. Tibet is west of the Central China plain. In China, Tibet is regarded as part of {{lang|zh|西部}} ({{transliteration|zh|Xībù}}), a term usually translated by Chinese media as "the Western section", meaning "Western China".{{citation needed|date=February 2025}}

File:View over Lhasa. 1993.jpg

File:IMG 0839 Yarlong Tsangpo.jpg]]

Tibet has some of the world's tallest mountains, with several of them making the top ten list. Mount Everest, located on the border with Nepal, is, at {{convert|8848.86|m|ft|0}}, the highest mountain on earth. Several major rivers have their source in the Tibetan Plateau (mostly in present-day Qinghai Province). These include the Yangtze, Yellow River, Indus River, Mekong, Ganges, Salween and the Yarlung Tsangpo River (Brahmaputra River).{{cite web |url=http://www.circleofblue.org/waternews/world/china-tibet-and-the-strategic-power-of-water/ |title=Circle of Blue, 8 May 2008 China, Tibet, and the strategic power of water |publisher=Circleofblue.org |date=May 8, 2008 |access-date=March 26, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080702122515/http://www.circleofblue.org/waternews/world/china-tibet-and-the-strategic-power-of-water/ |archive-date=July 2, 2008 |url-status=dead}} The Yarlung Tsangpo Grand Canyon, along the Yarlung Tsangpo River, is among the deepest and longest canyons in the world.{{citation needed|date=February 2025}}

Tibet has been called the "Water Tower" of Asia, and China is investing heavily in water projects in Tibet.{{cite web |url=http://www.futurewater.nl/uk/projects/tibet/ |title=The Water Tower Function of the Tibetan Autonomous Region. |publisher=Futurewater.nl |access-date=August 26, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120425233325/http://www.futurewater.nl/uk/projects/tibet/ |archive-date=April 25, 2012 |url-status=dead}}{{cite web |url=http://english.people.com.cn/90780/91344/7571032.html |title=China to spend record amount on Tibetan water projects. |publisher=English.people.com.cn |date=August 16, 2011 |access-date=August 26, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111227231909/http://english.people.com.cn/90780/91344/7571032.html |archive-date=December 27, 2011 |url-status=live}}

File:Yamdrok Lake (37228713076).jpg]]

The Indus and Brahmaputra rivers originate from the vicinities of Lake Mapam Yumco in Western Tibet, near Mount Kailash. The mountain is a holy pilgrimage site for both Hindus and Tibetans. The Hindus consider the mountain to be the abode of Lord Shiva. The Tibetan name for Mount Kailash is Khang Rinpoche. Tibet has numerous high-altitude lakes referred to in Tibetan as tso or co. These include Qinghai Lake, Lake Manasarovar, Namtso, Pangong Tso, Yamdrok Lake, Siling Co, Lhamo La-tso, Lumajangdong Co, Lake Puma Yumco, Lake Paiku, Como Chamling, Lake Rakshastal, Dagze Co and Dong Co. The Qinghai Lake (Koko Nor) is the largest lake in the People's Republic of China.{{citation needed|date=February 2025}}

The climate is severely dry nine months of the year, and average annual snowfall is only {{convert|46|cm|inch|abbr=in}}, due to the rain shadow effect. Western passes receive small amounts of fresh snow each year but remain traversible all year round. Low temperatures are prevalent throughout these western regions, where bleak desolation is unrelieved by any vegetation bigger than a low bush, and where the wind sweeps unchecked across vast expanses of arid plain. The Indian monsoon exerts some influence on eastern Tibet. Northern Tibet is subject to high temperatures in the summer and intense cold in the winter.{{citation needed|date=February 2025}}

{{Weather box

|location = Lhasa (1986−2015 normals, extremes 1951−2022)

|metric first = Y

|single line = Y

|Jan high C = 8.4

|Feb high C = 10.1

|Mar high C = 13.3

|Apr high C = 16.3

|May high C = 20.5

|Jun high C = 24.0

|Jul high C = 23.3

|Aug high C = 22.0

|Sep high C = 20.7

|Oct high C = 17.5

|Nov high C = 12.9

|Dec high C = 9.3

| Jan mean C = −0.3

| Feb mean C = 2.3

| Mar mean C = 5.9

| Apr mean C = 9.0

| May mean C = 13.1

| Jun mean C = 16.7

| Jul mean C = 16.5

| Aug mean C = 15.4

| Sep mean C = 13.8

| Oct mean C = 9.4

| Nov mean C = 3.8

| Dec mean C = −0.1

|Jan low C = −7.4

|Feb low C = −4.7

|Mar low C = −0.8

|Apr low C = 2.7

|May low C = 6.8

|Jun low C = 10.9

|Jul low C = 11.4

|Aug low C = 10.7

|Sep low C = 8.9

|Oct low C = 3.1

|Nov low C = −3.0

|Dec low C = −6.8

|Jan record high C = 20.5

|Feb record high C = 21.3

|Mar record high C = 25.1

|Apr record high C = 25.9

|May record high C = 29.4

|Jun record high C = 30.8

|Jul record high C = 30.4

|Aug record high C = 27.2

|Sep record high C = 26.5

|Oct record high C = 24.8

|Nov record high C = 22.8

|Dec record high C = 20.1

|Jan record low C = −16.5

|Feb record low C = −15.4

|Mar record low C = −13.6

|Apr record low C = −8.1

|May record low C = −2.7

|Jun record low C = 2.0

|Jul record low C = 4.5

|Aug record low C = 3.3

|Sep record low C = 0.3

|Oct record low C = −7.2

|Nov record low C = −11.2

|Dec record low C = −16.1

|precipitation colour = green

|Jan precipitation mm = 0.9

|Feb precipitation mm = 1.8

|Mar precipitation mm = 2.9

|Apr precipitation mm = 8.6

|May precipitation mm = 28.4

|Jun precipitation mm = 75.9

|Jul precipitation mm = 129.6

|Aug precipitation mm = 133.5

|Sep precipitation mm = 66.7

|Oct precipitation mm = 8.8

|Nov precipitation mm = 0.9

|Dec precipitation mm = 0.3

|Jan humidity = 26

|Feb humidity = 25

|Mar humidity = 27

|Apr humidity = 36

|May humidity = 41

|Jun humidity = 48

|Jul humidity = 59

|Aug humidity = 63

|Sep humidity = 59

|Oct humidity = 45

|Nov humidity = 34

|Dec humidity = 29

|unit precipitation days = 0.1 mm

|Jan precipitation days = 0.6

|Feb precipitation days = 1.2

|Mar precipitation days = 2.1

|Apr precipitation days = 5.4

|May precipitation days = 9.0

|Jun precipitation days = 14.0

|Jul precipitation days = 19.4

|Aug precipitation days = 19.9

|Sep precipitation days = 14.6

|Oct precipitation days = 4.1

|Nov precipitation days = 0.6

|Dec precipitation days = 0.4

|Jan sun = 250.9 |Jan percentsun = 78

|Feb sun = 231.2 |Feb percentsun = 72

|Mar sun = 253.2 |Mar percentsun = 66

|Apr sun = 248.8 |Apr percentsun = 65

|May sun = 280.4 |May percentsun = 66

|Jun sun = 260.7 |Jun percentsun = 61

|Jul sun = 227.0 |Jul percentsun = 53

|Aug sun = 214.3 |Aug percentsun = 54

|Sep sun = 232.7 |Sep percentsun = 62

|Oct sun = 280.3 |Oct percentsun = 80

|Nov sun = 267.1 |Nov percentsun = 84

|Dec sun = 257.2 |Dec percentsun = 82

|year percentsun = 67

|source 1 = China Meteorological Administration,{{cite web |url=http://old-cdc.cma.gov.cn/shuju/search1.jsp?dsid=SURF_CLI_CHN_MUL_MMON_19712000_CES&tpcat=SURF&type=table&pageid=3 | script-title = zh:中国地面国际交换站气候标准值月值数据集（1971－2000年） | access-date = May 4, 2010 |publisher=China Meteorological Administration |language=zh | archive-date = October 16, 2013 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131016192548/http://old-cdc.cma.gov.cn/shuju/search1.jsp?dsid=SURF_CLI_CHN_MUL_MMON_19712000_CES&tpcat=SURF&type=table&pageid=3 | url-status = dead}} all-time extreme temperature{{cite web |url=http://www.mherrera.org/temp.htm |title=Extreme Temperatures Around the World|access-date= February 21, 2013|archive-date= June 22, 2013|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130622141215/http://www.mherrera.org/temp.htm|url-status= live}}{{cite web |url=https://ogimet.com/cgi-bin/gsynres?ind=55591&ano=2022&mes=3&day=29&hora=18&min=0&ndays=30 |title=55591: Lhasa (China) |author= |date=March 28, 2022 |website=ogimet.com |publisher=OGIMET|access-date= March 29, 2022 |quote=|archive-date= March 29, 2022|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20220329195147/https://ogimet.com/cgi-bin/gsynres?ind=55591&ano=2022&mes=3&day=29&hora=18&min=0&ndays=30|url-status= live}}

|source 2 =[http://cdc.cma.gov.cn/dataSetLogger.do?changeFlag=pageid=3 China Meteorological Administration National Meteorological Information Center]

}}

{{Weather box

|location=Leh (1951–1980)

|metric first=Yes

|single line=Yes

|Jan record high C=8.3

|Feb record high C=12.8

|Mar record high C=19.4

|Apr record high C=23.9

|May record high C=28.9

|Jun record high C=34.8

|Jul record high C=34.0

|Aug record high C=34.2

|Sep record high C=30.6

|Oct record high C=25.6

|Nov record high C=20.0

|Dec record high C=12.8

|year record high C=34.8

|Jan high C=-2.0

|Feb high C=1.5

|Mar high C=6.5

|Apr high C=12.3

|May high C=16.2

|Jun high C=21.8

|Jul high C=25.0

|Aug high C=25.3

|Sep high C=21.7

|Oct high C=14.6

|Nov high C=7.9

|Dec high C=2.3

|year high C=12.8

|Jan low C=-14.4

|Feb low C=-11.0

|Mar low C=-5.9

|Apr low C=-1.1

|May low C=3.2

|Jun low C=7.4

|Jul low C=10.5

|Aug low C=10.0

|Sep low C=5.8

|Oct low C=-1.0

|Nov low C=-6.7

|Dec low C=-11.8

|year low C=-1.3

|Jan record low C=-28.3

|Feb record low C=-26.4

|Mar record low C=-19.4

|Apr record low C=-12.8

|May record low C=-4.4

|Jun record low C=-1.1

|Jul record low C=0.6

|Aug record low C=1.5

|Sep record low C=-4.4

|Oct record low C=-8.5

|Nov record low C=-17.5

|Dec record low C=-25.6

|year record low C=-28.3

|rain colour=green

|Jan rain mm=9.5

|Feb rain mm=8.1

|Mar rain mm=11.0

|Apr rain mm=9.1

|May rain mm=9.0

|Jun rain mm=3.5

|Jul rain mm=15.2

|Aug rain mm=15.4

|Sep rain mm=9.0

|Oct rain mm=7.5

|Nov rain mm=3.6

|Dec rain mm=4.6

|year rain mm=105.5

|Jan rain days=1.3

|Feb rain days=1.1

|Mar rain days=1.3

|Apr rain days=1.0

|May rain days=1.1

|Jun rain days=0.4

|Jul rain days=2.1

|Aug rain days=1.9

|Sep rain days=1.2

|Oct rain days=0.4

|Nov rain days=0.5

|Dec rain days=0.7

|year rain days=13.0

|time day=17:30 IST

|Jan humidity=51

|Feb humidity=51

|Mar humidity=46

|Apr humidity=36

|May humidity=30

|Jun humidity=26

|Jul humidity=33

|Aug humidity=34

|Sep humidity=31

|Oct humidity=27

|Nov humidity=40

|Dec humidity=46

|year humidity=

|source 1=India Meteorological Department{{cite web |url=http://www.imd.gov.in/section/climate/extreme/leh2.htm |title=Leh Climatological Table Period: 1951–1980 |publisher=India Meteorological Department |access-date=April 11, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180225132218/http://www.imd.gov.in/section/climate/extreme/leh2.htm |archive-date=February 25, 2018 |url-status=dead}}{{cite web |url=http://www.mausam.gov.in/WEBIMD/ClimatologicalAction.do?function=getStationDetails&actionParam=1¶m=2&station=Leh |title=Leh Climatological Table Period: 1951–1980 |publisher=India Meteorological Department |access-date=April 4, 2020 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721172646/http://www.mausam.gov.in/WEBIMD/ClimatologicalAction.do?function=getStationDetails&actionParam=1¶m=2&station=Leh |archive-date=July 21, 2011}}

}}

Sus scrofa expanded from its origin in southeast Asia into the Plateau, acquiring and fixing adaptive alleles for the high-altitude environment.{{cite journal |last1=Frantz |first1=Laurent |last2=Meijaard |first2=Erik |last3=Gongora |first3=Jaime |last4=Haile |first4=James |last5=Groenen |first5=Martien A.M. |last6=Larson |first6=Greger |title=The Evolution of Suidae |journal=Annual Review of Animal Biosciences |publisher=Annual Reviews |volume=4 |issue=1 |date=February 15, 2016 |issn=2165-8102 |doi=10.1146/annurev-animal-021815-111155 |pages=61–85 |pmid=26526544}} The forests of Tibet are home to black bears, red pandas, musk deer, barking deer, and squirrels. Monkeys such as rhesus macaques and langurs live in the warmer forest zones. Tibetan antelopes, gazelles, and kiangs gaze on the grasslands of the Tibetan plateau. There are more than 500 bird species in Tibet. Because of the high altitude and harsh climate, there are few insects in Tibet.

Snow leopards are hunted for their fur and the eggs of black-necked cranes have been collected as a delicacy food.

File:Gongbo'gyamda, Nyingchi, Tibet, China - panoramio (19).jpg in Gongbo'gyamda County, eastern Tibet]]

Cultural Tibet consists of several regions. These include Amdo (A mdo) in the northeast, which is administratively part of the provinces of Qinghai, Gansu, and Sichuan. Kham (Khams) in the southeast encompasses parts of western Sichuan, northern Yunnan, southern Qinghai, and the eastern part of the Tibet Autonomous Region. Ü-Tsang (dBus gTsang) (Ü in the center, Tsang in the center-west, and Ngari (mNga' ris) in the far west) covered the central and western portion of Tibet Autonomous Region.Petech, L., [https://books.google.com/books?id=V1GkmBOQLkAC China and Tibet in the Early XVIIIth Century: History of the Establishment of Chinese Protectorate in Tibet] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101191608/https://books.google.com/books?id=V1GkmBOQLkAC&printsec=frontcover&sig=6eAnf2zWcz7L113XKhOc8cCv8MI |date=January 1, 2016 }}, p51 & p98

Tibetan cultural influences extend to the neighboring states of Bhutan, Nepal, regions of India such as Sikkim, Ladakh, Lahaul, and Spiti, Northern Pakistan Baltistan or Balti-yul in addition to designated Tibetan autonomous areas in adjacent Chinese provinces.

{{Further|List of populated places in the Tibet Autonomous Region}}

File:Jokhang Temple Lhasa Tibet China 西藏 拉萨 大昭寺 - panoramio (6).jpg temple, Lhasa]]

There are over 800 settlements in Tibet. Lhasa is Tibet's traditional capital and the capital of Tibet Autonomous Region.{{Cite book |last=Heinrichs |first=Ann |title=Enchantment of the World: Tibet |publisher=Children's Press |year=1996 |isbn=0-516-20155-7 |pages=19–20, 62, 143 |language=English}} It contains two world heritage sites – the Potala Palace and Norbulingka, which were the residences of the Dalai Lama. Lhasa contains a number of significant temples and monasteries, including Jokhang and Ramoche Temple.

Shigatse is the second largest city in the Tibet AR, west of Lhasa. Gyantse and Qamdo are also amongst the largest.

Other cities and towns in cultural Tibet include Shiquanhe (Gar), Nagchu, Bamda, Rutog, Nyingchi, Nedong, Coqên, Barkam, Sagya, Gertse, Pelbar, Lhatse, and Tingri; in Sichuan, Kangding (Dartsedo); in Qinghai, Jyekundo (Yushu), Machen, and Golmud; in India, Tawang, Leh, and Gangtok, and in Pakistan, Skardu, Kharmang, and Khaplu.

{{Update section|date=October 2021}}{{Main|Economy of Tibet}}

File:Bos grunniens at Yundrok Yumtso Lake.jpg is an integral part of Tibetan life.]]

The Tibetan economy is dominated by subsistence agriculture. Due to limited arable land, the primary occupation of the Tibetan Plateau is raising livestock, such as sheep, cattle, goats, camels, yaks, dzo, and horses.

The main crops grown are barley, wheat, buckwheat, rye, potatoes, and assorted fruits and vegetables. Tibet is ranked the lowest among China's 31 provinces{{cite web |url=http://www.tibetjustice.org/reports/enviro/globalization.pdf |title=Globalization To Tibet |last=Tsering |first=Tashi |website=Tibet Justice Center |page=9 |access-date=July 10, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120320160524/http://www.tibetjustice.org/reports/enviro/globalization.pdf |archive-date=March 20, 2012 |url-status=live}} on the Human Development Index according to UN Development Programme data.{{cite web |url=http://www.tew.org/development/devel.tibet.update.html |title=Tibet Environmental Watch – Development |publisher=Tew.org |access-date=March 26, 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110608141028/http://www.tew.org/development/devel.tibet.update.html |archive-date=June 8, 2011}} In recent years, due to increased interest in Tibetan Buddhism, tourism has become an increasingly important sector, and is actively promoted by the authorities.{{cite web |url=http://www.xzta.gov.cn/yww/ |title=China TIBET Tourism Bureau |access-date=March 7, 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090831193021/http://www.xzta.gov.cn/yww/ |archive-date=August 31, 2009}} Tourism brings in the most income from the sale of handicrafts. These include Tibetan hats, jewelry (silver and gold), wooden items, clothing, quilts, fabrics, Tibetan rugs and carpets. The Central People's Government exempts Tibet from all taxation and provides 90% of Tibet's government expenditures.Grunfeld 1996, p. 224.Xu Mingxu, "Intrugues and Devoutness", Brampton, p. 134, {{ISBN|1-896745-95-4}}The 14th Dalai Lama affirmed that Tibetans within the TAR have never paid taxes to the Central People's Government, see {{ill|Pierre-Antoine Donnet|lt=Donnet, Pierre-Antoine|fr|Pierre-Antoine Donnet}}, "Tibet mort ou vif", 1994, p104 [Taiwan edition], {{ISBN|957-13-1040-9}}{{cite news |title=Tibet's economy depends on Beijing |url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=6083766 |date=August 26, 2002 |publisher=NPR News|access-date=February 24, 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171226130442/https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=6083766|archive-date=December 26, 2017|url-status=live}} However, most of this investment goes to pay migrant workers who do not settle in Tibet and send much of their income home to other provinces.{{cite web |url=https://thediplomat.com/2014/01/how-xi-can-solve-the-tibet-problem/ |title=How Xi Can Solve The Tibet Problem |last1=Brown |first1=Kerry |date=January 11, 2014 |website=thediplomat.com |publisher=The Diplomat |access-date=January 10, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140111025432/https://thediplomat.com/2014/01/how-xi-can-solve-the-tibet-problem/ |archive-date=January 11, 2014 |url-status=live}}

File:Farmer namtso.jpgs constitute about 40% of the ethnic Tibetan population.[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/shared/spl/hi/picture_gallery/06/asia_pac_tibetan_nomads/html/1.stm In pictures: Tibetan nomads] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180719114044/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/shared/spl/hi/picture_gallery/06/asia_pac_tibetan_nomads/html/1.stm |date=July 19, 2018 }} BBC News]]

Forty percent of the rural cash income in the Tibet Autonomous Region is derived from the harvesting of the fungus Ophiocordyceps sinensis (formerly Cordyceps sinensis); contributing at least 1.8 billion yuan, (US$225 million) to the region's GDP.{{cite journal |title=Yartsa Gunbu (Cordyceps sinensis) and the Fungal Commodification of Tibet's Rural Economy |author=Daniel Winkler |journal=Economic Botany |date=November 2008 |volume=62 |issue=3 |pages=291–305 |doi=10.1007/s12231-008-9038-3 |bibcode=2008EcBot..62..291W |s2cid=29381859}}

File:Tromzikhang 2018 01.jpg market in Lhasa]]

The Qingzang railway linking the Tibet Autonomous Region to Qinghai Province was opened in 2006, but it was controversial.{{cite news |title=China opens world's highest railway |url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/newsitems/200607/s1676433.htm |date=July 1, 2005 |publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation |access-date=July 1, 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060706191619/http://www.abc.net.au/news/newsitems/200607/s1676433.htm |archive-date=July 6, 2006}}{{cite news |title=China completes railway to Tibet |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4345494.stm |date=October 15, 2005 |work=BBC News |access-date=July 4, 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060823211433/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4345494.stm |archive-date=August 23, 2006 |url-status=live}}{{cite news |title=Dalai Lama Urges 'Wait And See' On Tibet Railway |url=http://www.tibetlink.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=329&Itemid=2 |date=June 30, 2006 |publisher=Deutsche Presse Agentur |access-date=July 4, 2006 |archive-url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160522174107/http://www.tibetlink.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=329&Itemid=2 |archive-date=May 22, 2016 |url-status=dead}}

In January 2007, the Chinese government issued a report outlining the discovery of a large mineral deposit under the Tibetan Plateau.{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/01/25/business/worldbusiness/25iht-mine.4345769.html |title=Valuable mineral deposits found along Tibet railroad route |newspaper=New York Times |date=January 25, 2007|access-date=January 6, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160724080417/http://www.nytimes.com/2007/01/25/business/worldbusiness/25iht-mine.4345769.html|archive-date=July 24, 2016|url-status=live}} The deposit has an estimated value of $128 billion and may double Chinese reserves of zinc, copper, and lead. The Chinese government sees this as a way to alleviate the nation's dependence on foreign mineral imports for its growing economy. However, critics worry that mining these vast resources will harm Tibet's fragile ecosystem and undermine Tibetan culture.

On January 15, 2009, China announced the construction of Tibet's first expressway, the Lhasa Airport Expressway, a {{convert|37.9|km|mi|1|abbr=on}} stretch of controlled-access highway in southwestern Lhasa. The project will cost 1.55 billion yuan (US$227 million).{{cite web |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=20601080&sid=a_Tg57.MXpcY&refer=asia |title=China Says 'Sabotage' by Dalai Lama Supporters Set Back Tibet |last=Peng |first=James |website=Bloomberg News |date=January 16, 2009|access-date=February 7, 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071014072312/http://bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=20601080|archive-date=October 14, 2007|url-status=live}}

From January 18–20, 2010, a national conference on Tibet and areas inhabited by Tibetans in Sichuan, Yunnan, Gansu and Qinghai was held in China and a plan to improve development of the areas was announced. The conference was attended by General secretary Hu Jintao, Wu Bangguo, Wen Jiabao, Jia Qinglin, Li Changchun, Xi Jinping, Li Keqiang, He Guoqiang and Zhou Yongkang, all members of Politburo Standing Committee of the Chinese Communist Party. The plan called for improvement of rural Tibetan income to national standards by 2020 and free education for all rural Tibetan children. China has invested 310 billion yuan (about 45.6 billion U.S. dollars) in Tibet since 2001.[http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/china/2010-01/22/c_13147500.htm "China to achieve leapfrog development, lasting stability in Tibet"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100127211201/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/china/2010-01/22/c_13147500.htm |date=January 27, 2010 }} news.xinhuanet.com/english{{Better source needed|date=October 2021}}

The State Council approved Tibet Lhasa Economic and Technological Development Zone as a state-level development zone in 2001. It is located in the western suburbs of Lhasa, the capital of the Tibet Autonomous Region. It is {{convert|50|km|mi|abbr=off}} away from the Gonggar Airport, and {{convert|2|km|mi|1|abbr=on}} away from Lhasa Railway Station and {{convert|2|km|mi|1|abbr=on}} away from 318 national highway.

The zone has a planned area of {{convert|5.46|km2|2|abbr=on}} and is divided into two zones. Zone A developed a land area of {{convert|2.51|km2|2|abbr=on}} for construction purposes. It is a flat zone, and has the natural conditions for good drainage.{{cite web |url=http://rightsite.asia/en/industrial-zone/lasa-economic-technology-development-zone/ |title=Lhasa Economic & Technology Development Zone |publisher=RightSite.asia |access-date=December 31, 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706085318/http://rightsite.asia/en/industrial-zone/lasa-economic-technology-development-zone |archive-date=July 6, 2011}}

{{See also|History of Tibet (1950–present)|Tibet Autonomous Region#Demographics{{!}}Demographics of Tibet Autonomous Region}}

File:Flag of Tibet.svg, also known as the "Snow Lion flag" (gangs seng dar cha), was used by the de facto independent state of Tibet as the national flag. It continues to be used by the Tibetan government-in-exile and by supporters of the Tibetan independence movement.]]

File:Tibetan "Lamanis".jpg

File:IMG 0996 Lhasa Barkhor.jpg

File:October is Domestic Violence Awareness Month.jpg

Historically, the population of Tibet consisted of primarily ethnic Tibetans and some other ethnic groups. According to tradition the original ancestors of the Tibetan people, as represented by the six red bands in the Tibetan flag, are: the Se, Mu, Dong, Tong, Dru and Ra. Other traditional ethnic groups with significant population or with the majority of the ethnic group residing in Tibet (excluding a disputed area with India) include Bai people, Blang, Bonan, Dongxiang, Han, Hui people, Lhoba, Lisu people, Miao, Mongols, Monguor (Tu people), Menba (Monpa), Mosuo, Nakhi, Qiang, Nu people, Pumi, Salar, and Yi people.

The proportion of the non-Tibetan population in Tibet is disputed. On the one hand, the Central Tibetan Administration of the Dalai Lama accuses China of actively swamping Tibet with migrants in order to alter Tibet's demographic makeup.{{cite web |url=http://www.tibet.net/en/print.php?id=236&articletype=articale |publisher=Central Tibetan Administration |title=Population Transfer Programmes |year=2003 |access-date=July 29, 2010 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20100730030042/http://www.tibet.net/en/print.php?id=236&articletype=articale |archive-date=July 30, 2010 |url-status=dead}} On the other hand, according to the 2010 Chinese census ethnic Tibetans comprise 90% of a total population of 3 million in the Tibet Autonomous Region.{{cite web |url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/china/2011-05/04/c_13858686.htm |title=Tibet's population tops 3 million; 90% are Tibetans |publisher=Xinhua News Agency |date=May 4, 2011 |access-date=December 4, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110513202105/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/china/2011-05/04/c_13858686.htm |archive-date=May 13, 2011 |url-status=dead}}{{Better source needed|reason=The current source is insufficiently reliable (WP:NOTRS).|date=January 2023}}

{{Main|Tibetan culture}}

File:Tibetischer Kulturraum Karte.png

{{Main|Religion in Tibet}}

{{Main|Tibetan Buddhism}}

File:Monkhood in Tibet, Xigatse area, August 2005.jpg

File:Phugtal col.jpg in south-east Zanskar]]

File:Young monks of Drepung.jpg Monastery]]

Religion is extremely important to the Tibetans and has a strong influence over all aspects of their lives. Bön is the indigenous religion of Tibet, but has been almost eclipsed by Tibetan Buddhism, a distinctive form of Mahayana and Vajrayana, which was introduced into Tibet from the Sanskrit Buddhist tradition of northern India.{{cite book |last=Conze |first=Edward |author-link= Edward Conze |title=A Short History of Buddhism |year=1993 |publisher=Oneworld |isbn=978-1-85168-066-5}} Tibetan Buddhism is practiced not only in Tibet but also in Mongolia, parts of northern India, the Buryat Republic, the Tuva Republic, and in the Republic of Kalmykia and some other parts of China. During China's Cultural Revolution, nearly all Tibet's monasteries were ransacked and destroyed by the Red Guards.[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/7307495.stm Tibetan monks: A controlled life] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090218083955/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/7307495.stm |date=February 18, 2009 }}. BBC News. March 20, 2008.[http://voyage.typepad.com/china/2007/04/tibet_during_th.html Tibet During the Cultural Revolution] Pictures from a Tibetan People's Liberation Army's officer [http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20100505143725/http%3A//voyage%2Etypepad%2Ecom/china/2007/04/tibet_during_th%2Ehtml Archived copy] at the Library of Congress (May 5, 2010).[https://archive.today/20090724113809/http://articles.latimes.com/2008/mar/26/opinion/oe-buruma26 The last of the Tibetans] Los Angeles Times. March 26, 2008. A few monasteries have begun to rebuild since the 1980s (with limited support from the Chinese government) and greater religious freedom has been granted – although it is still limited. Monks returned to monasteries across Tibet and monastic education resumed even though the number of monks imposed is strictly limited.{{cite web |url-status=live |url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9B0DE3DB123BF937A25755C0A961948260&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=all |title=Tibet's Buddhist Monks Endure to Rebuild a Part of the Past |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230414142825/https://www.nytimes.com/1987/06/14/weekinreview/tibet-s-buddhist-monks-endure-to-rebuild-a-part-of-the-past.html?sec=&spon=&pagewanted=all |archive-date=April 14, 2023 |website=The New York Times |date=June 14, 1987 |last=Gargan |first=Edward A.}}Laird 2006, pp. 351, 352 Before the 1950s, between 10 and 20% of males in Tibet were monks.{{cite book |last=Goldstein |first=Melvyn C. |title=A History of Modern Tibet: Volume 2 The Calm before the Storm, 1951–1955 |year=2007 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley, CA}}

Tibetan Buddhism has five main traditions (the suffix pa is comparable to "er" in English):

• Gelug(pa), Way of Virtue, also known casually as Yellow Hat, whose spiritual head is the Ganden Tripa and whose temporal head is the Dalai Lama. Successive Dalai Lamas ruled Tibet from the mid-17th to mid-20th centuries. This order was founded in the 14th to 15th centuries by Je Tsongkhapa, based on the foundations of the Kadampa tradition. Tsongkhapa was renowned for both his scholasticism and his virtue. The Dalai Lama belongs to the Gelugpa school, and is regarded as the embodiment of the Bodhisattva of Compassion.Avalokitesvara, Chenrezig
• Kagyu(pa), Oral Lineage. This contains one major subsect and one minor subsect. The first, the Dagpo Kagyu, encompasses those Kagyu schools that trace back to Gampopa. In turn, the Dagpo Kagyu consists of four major sub-sects: the Karma Kagyu, headed by a Karmapa, the Tsalpa Kagyu, the Barom Kagyu, and Pagtru Kagyu. The once-obscure Shangpa Kagyu, which was famously represented by the 20th-century teacher Kalu Rinpoche, traces its history back to the Indian master Niguma, sister of Kagyu lineage holder Naropa. This is an oral tradition which is very much concerned with the experiential dimension of meditation. Its most famous exponent was Milarepa, an 11th-century mystic.
• Nyingma(pa), The Ancient Ones. This is the oldest, the original order founded by Padmasambhava.
• Sakya(pa), Grey Earth, headed by the Sakya Trizin, founded by Khon Konchog Gyalpo, a disciple of the great translator Drokmi Lotsawa. Sakya Pandita 1182–1251 CE was the great-grandson of Khon Konchog Gyalpo. This school emphasizes scholarship.
• Jonang(pa) Its origins in Tibet can be traced to early 12th century master Yumo Mikyo Dorje, but became much wider known with the help of Dolpopa Sherab Gyaltsen, a monk originally trained in the Sakya school. The Jonang school was widely thought to have become extinct in the late 17th century at the hands of the 5th Dalai Lama, who forcibly annexed the Jonang monasteries to his Gelug school, declaring them heretical. Thus, Tibetologists were astonished when fieldwork turned up several active Jonangpa monasteries, including the main monastery, Tsangwa, located in Zamtang County, Sichuan. Almost 40 monasteries, comprising about 5000 monks, have subsequently been found, including some in the Amdo Tibetan and rGyalgrong areas of Qinghai, Sichuan and Tibet. One of the primary supporters of the Jonang lineage in exile has been the 14th Dalai Lama of the Gelugpa lineage. The Jonang tradition has recently officially registered with the Tibetan Government in exile to be recognized as the fifth living Buddhist tradition of Tibetan Buddhism. The 14th Dalai Lama assigned Jebtsundamba Khutuktu of Mongolia (who is considered to be an incarnation of Taranatha) as the leader of the Jonang tradition.

The Chinese government continued to pursue a strategy of forced assimilation and suppression of Tibetan Buddhism, as demonstrated by the laws designed to control the next reincarnation of the Dalai Lama and those of other Tibetan eminent lamas. Monks and nuns who refused to denounce the Dalai Lama have been expelled from their monasteries, imprisoned, and tortured.{{cite web |date=April 2020 |title=USCIRF 2020 Annual Report on International Religious Freedoms |url=https://www.uscirf.gov/sites/default/files/USCIRF%202020%20Annual%20Report_Final_42920.pdf |access-date=August 28, 2021 |publisher=United States Commission on International Religious Freedom |archive-date=August 3, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803033034/https://www.uscirf.gov/sites/default/files/USCIRF%202020%20Annual%20Report_Final_42920.pdf |url-status=live}}

It was reported in June 2021 that amidst the 2020–2022 China–India skirmishes, the People's Liberation Army had been forming a new unit for Tibetans who would be taken to Buddhist monks for religious blessings after completing their training.{{Cite web |last=Rezaul H Laskar |date=June 22, 2021 |title=China raises new militias of Tibetan youth, deploys 1st batch in Chumbi Valley |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/china-raises-new-militias-of-tibetan-youth-deploys-1st-batch-in-chumbi-valley-101624371160233.html |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220623100826/https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/china-raises-new-militias-of-tibetan-youth-deploys-1st-batch-in-chumbi-valley-101624371160233.html |archive-date=June 23, 2022 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en |access-date=June 23, 2022}}

{{See also|Catholic Church in Tibet}}

The first Christians documented to have reached Tibet were the Nestorians, of whom various remains and inscriptions have been found in Tibet. They were also present at the imperial camp of Möngke Khan at Shira Ordo, where they debated in 1256 with Karma Pakshi (1204/6-83), head of the Karma Kagyu order.Kapstein 2006, pp. 31, 71, 113.Stein 1972, pp. 36, 77–78. Desideri, who reached Lhasa in 1716, encountered Armenian and Russian merchants.Françoise Pommaret, Françoise Pommaret-Imaeda (2003). [https://books.google.com/books?id=WhzF0N_X5KwC&pg=PA159 Lhasa in the Seventeenth Century: The Capital of the Dalai Lamas] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170328235314/https://books.google.com/books?id=WhzF0N_X5KwC&pg=PA159&dq&hl=en |date=March 28, 2017 }}. BRILL. p. 159. {{ISBN|90-04-12866-2}}

Roman Catholic Jesuits and Capuchins arrived from Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries. Portuguese missionaries Jesuit Father António de Andrade and Brother Manuel Marques first reached the kingdom of Gelu in western Tibet in 1624 and was welcomed by the royal family who allowed them to build a church later on.Graham Sanderg, The Exploration of Tibet: History and Particulars (Delhi: Cosmo Publications, 1973), pp. 23–26; Thomas Holdich, Tibet, The Mysterious (London: Alston Rivers, 1906), p. 70.Sir Edward Maclagan, The Jesuits and The Great Mogul (London: Burns, Oates & Washbourne Ltd., 1932), pp. 344–345. By 1627, there were about a hundred local converts in the Guge kingdom.Lettera del P. Alano Dos Anjos al Provinciale di Goa, 10 Novembre 1627, quoted from Wu Kunming, Zaoqi Chuanjiaoshi jin Zang Huodongshi (Beijing: Zhongguo Zangxue chubanshe, 1992), p. 163. Later on, Christianity was introduced to Rudok, Ladakh and Tsang and was welcomed by the ruler of the Tsang kingdom, where Andrade and his fellows established a Jesuit outpost at Shigatse in 1626.Extensively using Italian and Portuguese archival materials, Wu's work gives a detailed account of Cacella's activities in Tsang. See Zaoqi Chuanjiaoshi jin Zang Huodongshi, esp. chapter 5.

In 1661 another Jesuit, Johann Grueber, crossed Tibet from Sining to Lhasa (where he spent a month), before heading on to Nepal.Narratives of the Mission of George Bogle to Tibet, and of the Journey of Thomas Manning to Lhasa, pp. 295–302. Clements R. Markham. (1876). Reprint Cosmo Publications, New Delhi. 1989. He was followed by others who actually built a church in Lhasa. These included the Jesuit Father Ippolito Desideri, 1716–1721, who gained a deep knowledge of Tibetan culture, language and Buddhism, and various Capuchins in 1707–1711, 1716–1733 and 1741–1745,Stein 1972, p. 85. Christianity was used by some Tibetan monarchs and their courts and the Karmapa sect lamas to counterbalance the influence of the Gelugpa sect in the 17th century until in 1745 when all the missionaries were expelled at the lama's insistence.{{cite web |url=http://www.pacificrim.usfca.edu/research/pacrimreport/pacrimreport36.html |title=When Christianity and Lamaism Met: The Changing Fortunes of Early Western Missionaries in Tibet |author=Hsiao-ting Lin|author1-link=Lin Hsiao-ting |publisher=Pacificrim.usfca.edu |access-date=March 26, 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100626095547/http://www.pacificrim.usfca.edu/research/pacrimreport/pacrimreport36.html |archive-date=June 26, 2010}}{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/country_profiles/6299565.stm |title=BBC News Country Profiles Timeline: Tibet|access-date=March 11, 2009 |date=November 5, 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090311184520/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/country_profiles/6299565.stm|archive-date=March 11, 2009|url-status=live}}Lettera del P. Antonio de Andrade. Giovanni de Oliveira. Alano Dos Anjos al Provinciale di Goa, 29 Agosto, 1627, quoted from Wu, Zaoqi Chuanjiaoshi jin Zang Huodongshi, p. 196; Maclagan, The Jesuits and The Great Mogul, pp. 347–348.Cornelius Wessels, Early Jesuit Travellers in Central Asia, 1603–1721 (The Hague: Nijhoff, 1924), pp. 80–85.Maclagan, The Jesuits and The Great Mogul, pp. 349–352; Filippo De Filippi ed., An Account of Tibet, pp. 13–17.Relação da Missão do Reino de Uçangue Cabeça dos do Potente, Escrita pello P. João Cabral da Comp. de Jesu. fol. 1, quoted from Wu, Zaoqi Chuanjiaoshi jin Zang Huodongshi, pp. 294–297; Wang Yonghong, "Luelun Tianzhujiao zai Xizang di Zaoqi Huodong", Xizang Yanjiu, 1989, No. 3, pp. 62–63.

In 1877, the Protestant James Cameron from the China Inland Mission walked from Chongqing to Batang in Garzê Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture, Sichuan province, and "brought the Gospel to the Tibetan people." Beginning in the 20th century, in Dêqên Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture in Yunnan, a large number of Lisu people and some Yi and Nu people converted to Christianity. Famous earlier missionaries include James O. Fraser, Alfred James Broomhall and Isobel Kuhn of the China Inland Mission, among others who were active in this area.{{cite web |title=Yunnan Province of China Government Web |url=http://www.eng.yn.gov.cn/yunnanEnglish/145529160029175808/20050623/378813.html | access-date=February 15, 2008 | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090312021316/http://www.eng.yn.gov.cn/yunnanEnglish/145529160029175808/20050623/378813.html | archive-date=March 12, 2009 |df=mdy-all}}Kapstein 2006, pp. 31, 206

Proselytising has been illegal in China since 1949. But {{As of|2013|lc=y}}, many Christian missionaries were reported to be active in Tibet with the tacit approval of Chinese authorities, who view the missionaries as a counterforce to Tibetan Buddhism or as a boon to the local economy.{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/feb/21/going-undercover-christian-evangelists-tibet |title=Going undercover, the evangelists taking Jesus to Tibet |newspaper=The Guardian |date=February 21, 2013 | access-date=February 21, 2013 |author=Kaiman, Jonathan | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130826064439/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/feb/21/going-undercover-christian-evangelists-tibet | archive-date=August 26, 2013 | url-status=live |df=mdy-all}}

{{Main|Islam in Tibet}}

File:A new Muslim Mosque in Lhasa.jpg]]

Muslims have been living in Tibet since as early as the 8th or 9th century. In Tibetan cities, there are small communities of Muslims, known as Kachee (Kache), who trace their origin to immigrants from three main regions: Kashmir (Kachee Yul in ancient Tibetan), Ladakh and the Central Asian Turkic countries. Islamic influence in Tibet also came from Persia. A Muslim Sufi Syed Ali Hamdani preached to the people of Baltistan, then known as little Tibet. After 1959, a group of Tibetan Muslims made a case for Indian nationality based on their historic roots to Kashmir and the Indian government declared all Tibetan Muslims Indian citizens later on that year.Masood Butt, [http://www.tibet.com/Muslim/tibetan-muslim.html 'Muslims of Tibet'] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060910081317/http://www.tibet.com/Muslim/tibetan-muslim.html|date=September 10, 2006}}, Government of Tibet in exile, January/February 1994 Other Muslim ethnic groups who have long inhabited Tibet include Hui, Salar, Dongxiang and Bonan. There is also a well established Chinese Muslim community (gya kachee), which traces its ancestry back to the Hui ethnic group of China.

{{Main|Tibetan art}}

Tibetan representations of art are intrinsically bound with Tibetan Buddhism and commonly depict deities or variations of Buddha in various forms from bronze Buddhist statues and shrines, to highly colorful thangka paintings and mandalas.{{Citation needed|date=October 2021}} Thangkas are Tibet's traditional cloth paintings. Rendered on cotton cloth with a thin rod at the top, they portray Buddhist deities or themes in color and detail.

File:Thanka.jpg|A thangka painting in Sikkim

File:Tibetan - A Ritual Box - Walters 572299 - Reverse.jpg|A ritual box

File:Old Ceremonial Tibetan Apron used by Head Priests - Courtesy the Wovensouls Collection.jpg|A ceremonial priest's yak bone apron

{{Main|Tibetan culture#Architecture}}

Tibetan architecture contains Chinese and Indian influences, and reflects a deeply Buddhist approach. The Buddhist wheel, along with two dragons, can be seen on nearly every Gompa in Tibet. The design of the Tibetan Chörtens can vary, from roundish walls in Kham to squarish, four-sided walls in Ladakh.

The most distinctive feature of Tibetan architecture is that many of the houses and monasteries are built on elevated, sunny sites facing the south, and are often made out of a mixture of rocks, wood, cement and earth. Little fuel is available for heat or lighting, so flat roofs are built to conserve heat, and multiple windows are constructed to let in sunlight. Walls are usually sloped inwards at 10 degrees as a precaution against the frequent earthquakes in this mountainous area.

Standing at {{convert|117|m|ft|abbr=off}} in height and {{convert|360|m|ft|abbr=off}} in width, the Potala Palace is the most important example of Tibetan architecture. Formerly the residence of the Dalai Lama, it contains over one thousand rooms within thirteen stories, and houses portraits of the past Dalai Lamas and statues of the Buddha. It is divided between the outer White Palace, which serves as the administrative quarters, and the inner Red Quarters, which houses the assembly hall of the Lamas, chapels, 10,000 shrines, and a vast library of Buddhist scriptures. The Potala Palace is a World Heritage Site, as is Norbulingka, the former summer residence of the Dalai Lama.

{{Main|Music of Tibet}}

The music of Tibet reflects the cultural heritage of the trans-Himalayan region, centered in Tibet but also known wherever ethnic Tibetan groups are found in India, Bhutan, Nepal and further abroad. First and foremost Tibetan music is religious music, reflecting the profound influence of Tibetan Buddhism on the culture.

Tibetan music often involves chanting in Tibetan or Sanskrit, as an integral part of the religion. These chants are complex, often recitations of sacred texts or in celebration of various festivals. Yang chanting, performed without metrical timing, is accompanied by resonant drums and low, sustained syllables. Other styles include those unique to the various schools of Tibetan Buddhism, such as the classical music of the popular Gelugpa school, and the romantic music of the Nyingmapa, Sakyapa and Kagyupa schools.Crossley-Holland, Peter. (1976). "The Ritual Music of Tibet." The Tibet Journal. Vol. 1, Nos. 3 & 4, Autumn 1976, pp. 47–53.

Nangma dance music is especially popular in the karaoke bars of the urban center of Tibet, Lhasa. Another form of popular music is the classical gar style, which is performed at rituals and ceremonies. Lu are a type of songs that feature glottal vibrations and high pitches. There are also epic bards who sing of Gesar, who is a hero to ethnic Tibetans.

{{Main|Tibetan festivals}}

File:IMG 1016 Lhasa Barkhor.jpg]]

Tibet has various festivals, many for worshipping the Buddha,{{cite journal |author=Chiley Chudza |title=A Brief Introduction of Tibet Seasonal Festival Folklore - CNKI |script-title=zh:西藏岁时节日民俗概述 |language=zh|trans-title=A Brief Introduction of Tibet Seasonal Festival Folklore |journal=Journal of Tibet University (Chinese Version) |date=2007 |issue=2 |pages=26–32 |doi=10.16249/j.cnki.1005-5738.2007.02.006}} that take place throughout the year. Losar is the Tibetan New Year Festival. Preparations for the festive event are manifested by special offerings to family shrine deities, painted doors with religious symbols, and other painstaking jobs done to prepare for the event. Tibetans eat Guthuk (barley noodle soup with filling) on New Year's Eve with their families. The Monlam Prayer Festival follows it in the first month of the Tibetan calendar, falling between the fourth and the eleventh days of the first Tibetan month. It involves dancing and participating in sports events, as well as sharing picnics. The event was established in 1049 by Tsong Khapa, the founder of the Dalai Lama and the Panchen Lama's order.

{{Main|Tibetan cuisine}}

{{see also|List of Tibetan dishes}}File:Thupka with Momo - Tibetan Sytle.JPG with Momo – Tibetan Style]]The most important crop in Tibet is barley, and dough made from barley flour—called tsampa—is the staple food of Tibet. This is either rolled into noodles or made into steamed dumplings called momos. Meat dishes are likely to be yak, goat, or mutton, often dried, or cooked into a spicy stew with potatoes. Mustard seed is cultivated in Tibet, and therefore features heavily in its cuisine. Yak yogurt, butter and cheese are frequently eaten, and well-prepared yogurt is considered something of a prestige item. Butter tea is a very popular drink.

{{See also|Traditional games of Tibet}}{{Empty section|date=January 2024}}

{{Portal|China|Asia}}

• Index of Tibet-related articles
• List of Major National Historical and Cultural Sites in Tibet
• Outline of Tibet
• Sinicization of Tibet
• Chinese Settlements in Tibet
• Free Tibet

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{{refend}}

{{Sister project links|voy=Tibet}}

• [http://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/indiv/eastasian/Tibetan/links.html Tibetan Resources on the Web] from Columbia University Libraries
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20101013201011/http://tibet.prm.ox.ac.uk/index.php British photographs of Tibet 1920–1950]
• [http://dharma-haven.org/tibetan/language.htm The Language of Tibet]
• [http://english.people.com.cn/features/tibetpaper/tibet.html White Paper on Tibetan Culture] released by the Information Office of the State Council of the People's Republic of China June 22
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20110624075605/http://www4.uwm.edu/libraries/digilib/tibet/ Historical maps and images of Tibet] presented by University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee Libraries Digital Collections
• [http://www.thlib.org/ The Tibetan & Himalayan Library (THL)]
• {{cite EB1911 |wstitle=Tibet |volume= 26 | pages = 916-928 |short=x }}

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