voiceless alveolar fricative#Voiceless alveolar sibilant

{{Infobox IPA

|ipa symbol=s

|above=Voiceless alveolar sibilant

|ipa number=132

|decimal1=115

|x-sampa=s

|kirshenbaum=s

|braille=s

|imagefile=IPA Unicode 0x0073.svg

}}

{{Infobox IPA

|above=Voiceless dentalized alveolar sibilant

|ipa symbol=s̪

|ipa symbol2=s̟

|ipa number=130

|x-sampa=s_d

}}

{{Infobox IPA

|above=Voiceless alveolar retracted sibilant

|ipa number=

|decimal1=115

|decimal2=826

|ipa symbol=s̠

|ipa-image=

|ipa symbol2=sᶴ

|x-sampa=

|kirshenbaum=

}}

The voiceless alveolar sibilant is a common consonant sound in vocal languages. It is the sound in English words such as sea and pass, and is represented in the International Phonetic Alphabet with {{angbr IPA|s}}. It has a characteristic high-pitched, highly perceptible hissing sound. For this reason, it is often used to get someone's attention, using a call often written as {{notatypo|sssst!}} or {{notatypo|psssst!}}.

The voiceless alveolar sibilant {{IPA|[s]}} is one of the most common sounds cross-linguistically. If a language has fricatives, it will most likely have {{IPA|[s]}}.{{sfnp|Maddieson|1984|p=?}} However, some languages have a related sibilant sound, such as {{IPA|[ʃ]}}, but no {{IPA|[s]}}. In addition, sibilants are absent from most Australian Aboriginal languages, in which fricatives are rare; however, {{IPA|[s]}} does occur in Kalaw Lagaw Ya.{{cite Q|Q56228341}}

The term "voiceless alveolar sibilant" is potentially ambiguous in that it can refer to at least two different sounds. Various languages of northern Iberia (e.g., Astur-Leonese, Catalan, Basque, Galician, Portuguese and Spanish) have a so-called "voiceless apico-alveolar sibilant" that lacks the strong hissing of the {{IPA|[s]}} described in this article but has a duller, more "grave" sound quality somewhat reminiscent of a voiceless retroflex sibilant. Basque, Mirandese and some Portuguese dialects in northeast Portugal (as well as medieval Spanish and Portuguese in general) have both types of sounds in the same language.

There is no general agreement about what actual feature distinguishes these sounds. Spanish phoneticians normally describe the difference as {{lcons|apical}} (for the northern Iberian sound) vs. {{lcons|laminal}} (for the more common sound), but Ladefoged and Maddieson{{sfnp|Ladefoged|Maddieson|1996|p=?}} claim that English {{IPA|/s/}} can be pronounced apically, which is evidently not the same as the apical sibilant of Iberian Spanish and Basque. Also, Adams{{sfnp|Adams|1975|p=283}} asserts that many dialects of Modern Greek have a laminal sibilant with a sound quality similar to the "apico-alveolar" sibilant of northern Iberia.

Some authors have instead suggested that the difference lies in tongue shape. Adams{{sfnp|Adams|1975|p=283}} describes the northern Iberian sibilant as "retracted". Ladefoged and Maddieson{{sfnp|Ladefoged|Maddieson|1996|p=?}} appear to characterize the more common hissing variant as {{lcons|grooved}}, and some phoneticians (such as J. Catford) have characterized it as sulcal (which is more or less a synonym of "grooved"), but in both cases, there is some doubt about whether all and only the "hissing" sounds actually have a "grooved" or "sulcal" tongue shape.

{{anchor|Voiceless dental sibilant}}

Features of the voiceless alveolar sibilant:

{{sibilant}}

• There are at least three specific variants of {{IPA|[s]}}:
• Dentalized laminal alveolar (commonly called "dental"), which means it is articulated with the tongue blade very close to the upper front teeth, with the tongue tip resting behind lower front teeth. The hissing effect in this variety of {{IPA|[s]}} is very strong.{{harvp|Puppel|Nawrocka-Fisiak|Krassowska|1977|p=149}}, cited in {{harvp|Ladefoged|Maddieson|1996|p=154}}
• Non-retracted alveolar, which means it is articulated with either the tip or the blade of the tongue at the alveolar ridge, termed respectively apical and laminal. According to {{harvp|Ladefoged|Maddieson|1996}} about half of English speakers use a non-retracted apical articulation.
• Retracted alveolar, which means it is articulated with either the tip or the blade of the tongue slightly behind the alveolar ridge, termed respectively apical and laminal. Acoustically, it is close to laminal {{IPAblink|ʂ}} or (to a lesser extent) {{IPAblink|ʃ}}.

{{voiceless}}

{{oral}}

{{central articulation}}

{{pulmonic}}

{{anchor|Voiceless alveolar sibilant|Voiceless alveolar retracted sibilant|Voiceless apico-alveolar sibilant|Voiceless alveolar retracted fricative|Voiceless apico-alveolar fricative}}

The voiceless alveolar retracted sibilant (commonly termed the voiceless apico-alveolar sibilant) is a fricative that is articulated with the tongue in a hollow shape, usually with the tip of the tongue (apex) against the alveolar ridge. It is a sibilant sound and is found most notably in a number of languages in a linguistic area covering northern and central Iberia. It is most well known from its occurrence in the Spanish of this area. In the Middle Ages, it occurred in a wider area, covering Romance languages spoken throughout France, Portugal, and Spain, as well as Old High German and Middle High German.

In Romance languages, it occurs as the normal voiceless alveolar sibilant in Astur-Leonese, Castilian Spanish, Catalan, Galician, northern European Portuguese, and some Occitan dialects. It also occurs in Basque and Mirandese, where it is opposed to a different voiceless alveolar sibilant, the more common {{IPA|[s]}}; the same distinction occurs in a few dialects of northeastern Portuguese. Outside this area, it also occurs in a few dialects of Latin American Spanish (e.g. Antioqueño and Pastuso, in Colombia).

Amongst Germanic languages, it occurs in Dutch (and closely related Low German), Icelandic, many dialects in Scandinavia, and working-class Glaswegian English.

It also occurs in Modern Greek (with a {{lcons|laminal}} articulation), as well as the Baltic languages.

There is no single IPA symbol used for this sound. The symbol {{angbr IPA|s̺}} is often used, with a diacritic indicating an {{lcons|apical}} pronunciation. However, that is potentially problematic in that not all alveolar retracted sibilants are apical (see below), and not all apical alveolar sibilants are retracted. The ad hoc non-IPA symbols {{angbr IPA|ṣ}} and {{angbr IPA|S}} are often used in the linguistic literature even when IPA symbols are used for other sounds,{{Citation needed|date=June 2011}} but {{angbr IPA|ṣ}} is a common transcription of the retroflex sibilant {{IPA|[ʂ]}}.

In medieval times, it occurred in a wider area, including the Romance languages spoken in most or all of France and Iberia (Old Spanish, Galician-Portuguese, Catalan, French, etc.), as well as in the Old and Middle High German of central and southern Germany,{{sfnp|Adams|1975|p=?}} and most likely Northern Germany as well. In all of these languages, the retracted "apico-alveolar" sibilant was opposed to a non-retracted sibilant much like modern English {{IPA|[s]}}, and in many of them, both voiceless and voiced versions of both sounds occurred.{{sfnp|Vijūnas|2010}} A solid type of evidence consists of different spellings used for two different sibilants: in general, the retracted "apico-alveolar" variants were written {{angbr|s}} or {{angbr|ss}}, while the non-retracted variants were written {{angbr|z}}, {{angbr|c}} or {{angbr|ç}}. In the Romance languages, the retracted sibilants derived from Latin {{IPA|/s/}}, {{IPA|/ss/}} or {{IPA|/ns/}}, while the non-retracted sibilants derived from earlier affricates {{IPA|[t͡s]}} and {{IPA|[d͡z]}}, which in turn derived from palatalized {{IPA|/k/}} or {{IPA|/t/}}. The situation was similar in High German, where the retracted sibilants derived largely from Proto-Germanic {{IPA|/s/}}, while the non-retracted sibilants derived from instances of Proto-Germanic {{IPA|/t/}} that were shifted by the High German sound shift. Minimal pairs were common in all languages. Examples in Middle High German, for example, were {{lang|gmh|wizzen}} "to know" (Old English {{lang|ang|witan}}, cf. "to wit") vs. {{lang|gmh|wissen}} "known" (Old English {{lang|ang|wissen}}), and {{lang|gmh|wīz}} "white" (Old English {{lang|ang|wīt}}) vs. {{lang|gmh|wīs(e)}} "way" (Old English {{lang|ang|wīs}}, cf. "-wise").

Often, to speakers of languages or dialects that do not have the sound, it is said to have a "whistling" quality, and to sound similar to palato-alveolar {{IPA link|ʃ||[}}. For this reason, when borrowed into such languages or represented with non-Latin characters, it is often replaced with {{IPA|[ʃ]}}. This occurred, for example, in English borrowings from Old French (e.g. push from pousser, cash from caisse); in Polish borrowings from medieval German (e.g. {{lang|pl|kosztować}} from kosten, {{lang|pl|żur}} from sūr (contemporary {{lang|de|sauer}})); and in representations of Mozarabic (an extinct medieval Romance language once spoken in southern Spain) in Arabic characters. The similarity between retracted {{IPA|[s̺]}} and {{IPA|[ʃ]}} has resulted in many exchanges in Spanish between the sounds, during the medieval period when Spanish had both phonemes. Examples are {{lang|es|jabón}} (formerly xabón) "soap" from Latin {{lang|la|sapō}}/{{lang|la|sapōnem}}, {{lang|es|jibia}} "cuttlefish" (formerly xibia) from Latin {{lang|la|sēpia}}, and {{lang|es|tijeras}} "scissors" (earlier {{lang|osp|tixeras}} < medieval tiseras) from Latin {{lang|la|cīsōrias}} (with initial t- due to influence from {{lang|la|tōnsor}} "shaver").

One of the clearest descriptions of this sound is from Obaid:{{sfnp|Obaid|1973|p=?}} "There is a Castilian s, which is a voiceless, concave, apicoalveolar fricative: The tip of the tongue turned upward forms a narrow opening against the alveoli of the upper incisors. It resembles a faint {{IPA|/ʃ/}} and is found throughout much of the northern half of Spain".

Many dialects of Modern Greek have a very similar-sounding sibilant that is pronounced with a {{lcons|laminal}} articulation.{{sfnp|Adams|1975|p=?}}

This distinction has since vanished from most of the languages that once had it in medieval times.

• In most dialects of Spanish, the four alveolar sibilants have merged into the non-retracted {{IPA|[s]}} ({{lang|es|seseo}}). However, in the Spanish of central and northern Spain, the non-retracted {{IPA|[s]}} was fronted to {{IPA|[θ]}} after merging with non-retracted {{IPA|[z]}}, while the retracted {{IPA|[s̺]}} remains ({{lang|es|distinción}}). Distinción is also preserved in Spanish orthography on both sides of the Atlantic.
• In French and most dialects of Portuguese, the four alveolar sibilants have merged into non-retracted {{IPA|[s]}} and {{IPA|[z]}}, while in European Portuguese, most other Old World Portuguese variants and some recently European-influenced dialects of Brazil all instances of coda {{IPA|[s̺]}}, voiced {{IPA|[z̺]}} before voiced consonants, were backed to {{IPA|[ʃ]}}, while in most of Brazilian Portuguese this phenomenon is much rarer, being essentially absent in the dialects that had a greater indigenous and/or non-Portuguese European influence.
• In the remaining dialects of Portuguese, found in northern Portugal, they merged into the retracted {{IPA|[s̺]}} {{IPA|[z̺]}}, or, as in Mirandese (which is, however, not a Portuguese dialect, but belongs to Asturian-Leonese), conserved the medieval distinction.
• In German, {{IPA|[s̺]}} was early on voiced to {{IPA|[z̺]}} in prevocalic position. This sound was then fronted to {{IPA|[z]}}, but did not merge with any other sound (except that it was later re-devoiced in some southern dialects). In pre-consonantal and final position, {{IPA|[s̺]}} merged with either {{IPA|[s]}} or {{IPA|[ʃ]}}. The rules for these mergers differ between dialects. In Standard German, {{IPA|[ʃ]}} is used stem-initially and sporadically after ‹r›. Especially in Alemannic, every pre-consonantal {{IPA|[s̺]}} became {{IPA|[ʃ]}}.

Those languages in which the sound occurs typically did not have a phonological process from which either {{IPA|[s]}} or {{IPA|[ʃ]}} appeared, two similar sounds with which ⟨s̺⟩ was eventually confused. In general, older European languages only had a single pronunciation of s.

In Romance languages, {{IPA|[s]}} was reached from -ti-, -ci-, -ce- ({{IPA|[ti]}}, {{IPA|[ki]}}, {{IPA|[ke]}}) clusters that eventually became {{IPA|[ts]}}, {{IPA|[tsi]}}, {{IPA|[tse]}} and later {{IPA|[s]}}, {{IPA|[si]}}, {{IPA|[se]}} (as in Latin fortia "force", civitas "city", centum "hundred"), while {{IPA|[ʃ]}} was reached:

• From a {{IPA|[sk]}} or {{IPA|[ks]}} cluster in southern Romance, as in Latin miscere > Portuguese mexer "to move", Latin fluxus > Spanish flojo "lax", Latin crescere > Italian crescere "grow", with a different pronunciation.
• from a deaffricated {{IPA|[tʃ]}} in Northern France and southern-central Portugal, as in French chat "cat", Portuguese achar "find".

In High German, {{IPA|[s]}} was reached through a {{IPA|[t]}} > {{IPA|[ts]}} > {{IPA|[s]}} process, as in German Wasser compared to English water. In English, the same process of Romance {{IPA|[ts]}} > {{IPA|[s]}} occurred in Norman-imported words, accounting for modern homophones sell and cell. {{IPA|[ʃ]}} was also reached from a -sk- cluster reduction as in Romance, e.g. Old English spelling asc for modern ash, German schiff and English ship compared to Danish skib.

Standard Modern Greek, which has apical {{IPA|[s̺]}}, lacked both processes.

The Germanic-speaking regions that did not have either phenomenon have normally preserved the apical {{IPA|[s̺]}}, that is, Icelandic, Dutch and many Scandinavian lects. It is also found in a minority of Low German dialects.

The main Romance language to preserve the sound, Castilian Spanish, is exceptional in that it had both events that produced {{IPA|[s]}} and {{IPA|[ʃ]}}, and preserved the apical S at the expense of both, that were shifted farther away. Galician, Catalan and Ladino changed only {{IPA|[s]}}.

Because of the widespread medieval distribution, it has been speculated that retracted {{IPA|[s̺]}} was the normal pronunciation in spoken Latin. Certain borrowings suggest that it was not far off from the sh-sound {{IPA|[ʃ]}}, e.g. Aramaic Jeshua > Greek Ἰησοῦς (Iēsoûs) > Latin Jesus, Hebrew Shabbat > Latin sabbatum; but this could also be explained by the lack of a better sound in Latin to represent Semitic š. It equally well could have been an areal feature inherited from the prehistoric languages of Western Europe, as evidenced by its occurrence in modern Basque.

For the same reasons, it can be speculated that retracted {{IPA|[s̺]}} was the pronunciation of Proto-Germanic s. Its presence in many branches of Indo-European and its presence particularly in the more conservative languages inside each branch (e.g. Icelandic, Spanish), as well as being found in disparate areas, such as the Baltic languages and Greece, suggests it could have ultimately been the main allophone of Proto-Indo-European s,{{sfnp|Vijūnas|2010}} known for ranging from {{IPA|[s]}} to as far as {{IPA|[ɕ]}}.

{{IPA|[ʃ]}}, but not {{IPA|[s]}}, was developed in Italian. However, where Spanish and Catalan have apical {{IPA|[s̺]}}, Italian uses the same laminal {{IPA|[s]}} that occurs in standard forms of English: evidence, it could be argued, that S was not pronounced apically in Latin. But Neapolitan has a medieval S becoming either {{IPA|[s]}} or {{IPA|[ʃ]}} depending on context, much as in European Portuguese, which could attest to the previous existence of {{IPA|[s̺]}} in the Italian Peninsula. The Italian pronunciation as laminal S could also be explained by the presence of {{IPA|[ʃ]}} but not {{IPA|[s]}}, thus moving the pronunciation of {{IPA|[s̺]}} to the front of the mouth in an attempt to better differentiate between the two sounds.

A voiceless laminal dental or dentialveolar sibilant contrasts with a voiceless apical alveolar or post-alveolar sibilant in Basque and several languages of California, including Luiseño of the Uto-Aztecan family and Kumeyaay of the Yuman family.

{{Infobox IPA

|ipa number=130 414

|decimal1=952

|decimal2=817

|ipa symbol=θ̠

|ipa symbol2=θ͇

|ipa symbol3=ɹ̝̊

|ipa symbol4=t̞

}}

{{Infobox IPA

|above=Voiceless alveolar approximant

|ipa symbol=ɹ̥

|ipa number=151 402A

|xsampa=r\_0

|soundfile=

}}

{{Infobox IPA

|above=Voiceless alveolar tapped fricative

|ipa symbol=ɾ̞̊

|ipa symbol2=ɹ̥̆˔

|ipa number=124 402A 430

|unicode=U+027E U+031E U+030A

}}

The voiceless alveolar non-sibilant fricative (also known as a "slit" fricative) is a consonantal sound. As the International Phonetic Alphabet does not have separate symbols for the alveolar consonants (the same symbol is used for all coronal places of articulation that are not palatalized), this sound is usually transcribed {{angbr IPA|θ̠}}, occasionally {{angbr IPA|θ͇}} (retracted or alveolarized {{IPA|[θ]}}, respectively), {{angbr IPA|ɹ̝̊}} (constricted voiceless {{IPA|[ɹ]}}), or {{angbr IPA|t̞}} (lowered {{IPA|[t]}}).

Some scholars also posit the voiceless alveolar approximant distinct from the fricative. The approximant may be represented in the IPA as {{angbr IPA|ɹ̥}}.

Few languages also have the voiceless alveolar tapped fricative, which is simply a very brief apical alveolar non-sibilant fricative, with the tongue making the gesture for a tapped stop but not making full contact. This can be indicated in the IPA with the lowering diacritic to show full occlusion did not occur.{{sfnp|Laver|1994|p=263}}

Tapped fricatives are occasionally reported in the literature, though these claims are not generally independently confirmed and so remain dubious.

Flapped fricatives are theoretically possible but are not attested.{{sfnp|Laver|1994|p=263}}

{{fricative}} However, it does not have the grooved tongue and directed airflow, or the high frequencies, of a sibilant.

{{alveolar}}

{{voiceless}}

{{oral}}

{{central articulation}}

{{pulmonic}}

{{Infobox IPA

|ipa symbol=ʪ

|ipa symbol2=θ̠ˡ

|ipa symbol3=ɬ͡θ̠

|ipa symbol4=ɬ͡s

|imagefile=IPA Unicode 0x02AA.svg

}}

{{Infobox IPA

|above=Voiceless dental lateral–median fricative

|ipa symbol=ʪ̪

|ipa symbol2=θˡ

|ipa symbol3=ɬ̪͡θ

|ipa symbol4=ɬ̪͡s̪

}}

The voiceless alveolar non-sibilant fricative (also known as a "lisp" fricative) is a consonantal sound. Consonants is pronounced with simultaneous lateral and central airflow.

{{fricative}} However, it does not have the grooved tongue and directed airflow, or the high frequencies, of a sibilant.

{{alveolar}}

{{voiceless}}

{{oral}}

{{central articulation}}

{{lateral}}

{{pulmonic}}

• Voiceless corono-dentoalveolar sibilant
• Tongue shape
• Apical consonant
• Laminal consonant
• Index of phonetics articles

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