:Adal Sultanate

Adal is believed to be an abbreviation of Havilah.{{cite journal | last1=Gifford| first1=William| title=Forster on Arabia| journal=The Quarterly Review| date=1844| volume=74| page=338| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CE1OAQAAMAAJ&q=adal+havilah&pg=PA338}} Eidal or Aw Abdal, was the Emir of Harar in the eleventh century which the lowlands outside the city of Harar is named.{{cite book |last1=Mohammed |first1=Duri |title=The Mugads of Harar |date=4 December 1955 |publisher=University College of Addis Abeba Ethnological Bulletin |page=1 |url=https://everythingharar.com/images/pdf/publication/Mugads%20Of%20Harar-Mohammed.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210710195739/https://everythingharar.com/images/pdf/publication/Mugads%20Of%20Harar-Mohammed.pdf |access-date=10 July 2021|archive-date=2021-07-10 }}{{cite book| last1=Wehib| first1=Ahmed| title=History of Harar and the Hararis| date=October 2015| publisher=Harari People Regional State Culture, Heritage And Tourism Bureau| page=105| url=http://www.everythingharar.com/files/History_of_Harar_and_Harari-HNL.pdf| access-date=26 July 2017| archive-date=21 March 2020| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200321065415/http://www.everythingharar.com/files/History_of_Harar_and_Harari-HNL.pdf| url-status=live}} In the thirteenth century, the Arab writer al-Dimashqi refers to the city of Zeila,{{cite book|last=Lewis|first=I. M.|title=A Pastoral Democracy: A Study of Pastoralism and Politics Among the Northern Somali of the Horn of Africa|year=1999|publisher=James Currey Publishers|isbn=0852552807|pages=17|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eK6SBJIckIsC&pg=PA17|access-date=2015-10-14|archive-date=2023-01-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230123104930/https://books.google.com/books?id=eK6SBJIckIsC&pg=PA17|url-status=live}} by its Somali name "Awdal" ({{langx|so|"Awdal"}}).{{harvnb|Tamrat|1977|p=139}}. The modern Awdal region of Somaliland, which was part of the Adal Sultanate, bears the kingdom's name.

Locally the empire was known to the Muslims as Barr Sa'ad ad-din meaning "The country of Sa'ad ad-din" in reference to the Sultan Sa'ad ad-Din II, who was killed in Zeila while fighting the Ethiopian Emperor Dawit I.The "Futuh al-Habasa" : the writing of history, war and society in the "Bar Sa'ad ad-din" (Ethiopia, 16th century)Burton, First Footsteps in East Africa, 1856; edited with additional material by Gordon Waterfield (New York: Praeger, 1966), p. 75.{{Cite book|last=Pankhurst |first=Richard |year=1982 |title=History Of Ethiopian Towns |page=57 |publisher=Steiner |isbn=9783515032049 }}

{{main|Adal (historical region)}}

{{anchor|Kingdom of Adal}}Adal (also Awdal, Adl, or Adel){{cite book |last1=Mukhtar |first1=Mohamed Haji |title=Historical dictionary of Somalia |date=2003 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |location=Lanham, Md. |isbn=0810843447 |pages=44 |edition=New |chapter=Awdal |series=African Historical Dictionary Series|volume=87}} was situated east of the province of Ifat and was a general term for a region of lowlands inhabited by Muslims. It was used ambiguously in the medieval era to indicate the Muslim inhabited low land portion east of the Ethiopian Empire. Including north of the Awash River towards Lake Abbe as well as the territory between Shewa and Zeila on the coast of Somaliland.{{cite book |last1=Josef |first1=Josef |title=Medieval Islamic Civilization |date=12 January 2018 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=9781351668224 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QepGDwAAQBAJ&dq=but+some+returned+and+ruled+further+east+of+yifat&pg=PT133 |access-date=2 April 2023 |archive-date=2 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230402042337/https://books.google.com/books?id=QepGDwAAQBAJ&dq=but+some+returned+and+ruled+further+east+of+yifat&pg=PT133 |url-status=live }}{{sfn|Pankhurst|1997|p=52}}{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WU92d6sB8JAC&q=%22and+the+lowlands+between+shoa+province+and+the+port+of+zeila+in+present-day+somaliland%22&pg=PA20|title=Historical Dictionary of Ethiopia|last1=Shinn|first1=David H.|last2=Ofcansky|first2=Thomas P.|date=2013-04-11|publisher=Scarecrow Press|isbn=9780810874572|language=en|access-date=2020-10-15|archive-date=2024-05-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240522133241/https://books.google.com/books?id=WU92d6sB8JAC&q=%22and+the+lowlands+between+shoa+province+and+the+port+of+zeila+in+present-day+somaliland%22&pg=PA20#v=snippet&q=%22and%20the%20lowlands%20between%20shoa%20province%20and%20the%20port%20of%20zeila%20in%20present-day%20somaliland%22&f=false|url-status=live}} According to Ewald Wagner, Adal region was historically the area stretching from Zeila to Harar.{{cite book |last1=Wagner |first1=Ewald |title=Legende und Geschichte: der Fath Madinat Hara von Yahya Nasrallah |publisher=Verlag}}{{cite book |last1=Trimingham |first1=J.Spencer |title=Islam in Ethiopia |date=13 September 2013 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=9781136970290 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Kd3bAAAAQBAJ&dq=adal+bordered+on+shoa&pg=PT162 |access-date=2 April 2023 |archive-date=2 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230402042335/https://books.google.com/books?id=Kd3bAAAAQBAJ&dq=adal+bordered+on+shoa&pg=PT162 |url-status=live }}

In 1288, the region of Adal was conquered by the Ifat Sultanate. Despite being incorporated into the Ifat Sultanate, Adal managed to maintain a source of independence under Walashma rule, alongside the provinces of Gidaya, Dawaro, Sawans, Bali, and Fatagar.{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dR5yCmUejWEC&dq=hargaya+ethiopia&pg=PA184|title=Muslim society's in Africa|isbn=9780253007971|last1=Loimeier|first1=Roman|date=5 June 2013|publisher=Indiana University Press|access-date=22 March 2023|archive-date=15 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230315220617/https://books.google.com/books?id=dR5yCmUejWEC&dq=hargaya+ethiopia&pg=PA184|url-status=live}} In 1332, Adal was invaded by the Ethiopian Emperor Amda Seyon I. His soldiers were said to have ravaged the province.{{Cite book|last=Pankhurst |first=Richard |year=1982 |title=History Of Ethiopian Towns |page=63 |publisher=Steiner |isbn=9783515032049 }}{{cite book |last=Houtsma |first=M. Th |title=E.J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913–1936 |year=1987 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=9004082654 |pages=125–126 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zJU3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA125 |access-date=2015-10-14 |archive-date=2023-01-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230123104929/https://books.google.com/books?id=zJU3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA125 |url-status=live }}{{cite journal | last =mbali | title =Somaliland | journal =Basic Reference | volume =28 | pages =217–229 | publisher =mbali | location =London, UK | year =2010 | url =http://www.mbali.info/doc328.htm | doi =10.1017/S0020743800063145 | s2cid =154765577 | access-date =2012-04-27 | url-status =dead | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20120423062326/http://www.mbali.info/doc328.htm | archive-date =2012-04-23 }}

In the fourteenth century Haqq ad-Din II transferred Ifat's capital to the Harar plateau thus he is regarded by some to be the true founder of the Adal Sultanate.{{cite book |title=The Cambridge History of Africa |year=1975 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=150 |isbn=9780521209816 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GWjxR61xAe0C&dq=haqedin%27s+transfer+of+his+political+centre+from+Ifat+to+the+Harar+area&pg=PA150 |access-date=2023-03-22 |archive-date=2023-03-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230322220639/https://books.google.com/books?id=GWjxR61xAe0C&dq=haqedin%27s+transfer+of+his+political+centre+from+Ifat+to+the+Harar+area&pg=PA150 |url-status=live }} In the late 14th century, the Ethiopian Emperor Dawit I collected a large army, branded the Muslims of the surrounding area "enemies of the Lord", and invaded Adal.{{cite book |last1=Fage |first1=J.D. |title=The Cambridge History of Africa: From c. 500 B.C. to A.D. 1050 |year=1975 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=154 |isbn=9780521209816 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GWjxR61xAe0C&dq=dawit+led+a+series+of+energetic+campaigns+into+the+very+heart+of+the+harar+plateau&pg=PA154 |access-date=2023-03-22 |archive-date=2023-03-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230316181744/https://books.google.com/books?id=GWjxR61xAe0C&dq=dawit%20led%20a%20series%20of%20energetic%20campaigns%20into%20the%20very%20heart%20of%20the%20harar%20plateau&pg=PA154 |url-status=live }} After much war, Adal's troops were defeated in 1403 or 1410Al-Maqrizi gives the former date, while the Walashma chronicle gives the latter. (under Emperor Dawit I or Emperor Yeshaq I, respectively), during which the Walashma ruler, Sa'ad ad-Din II, was captured and executed in Zeila, which was sacked. His children and the remainder of the Walashma dynasty would flee to Yemen where they would live in exile until 1415.Pankhurst. Ethiopian Borderlands, pp.57Budge, A History of Ethiopia: Nubia and Abyssinia, 1928 (Oosterhout, the Netherlands: Anthropological Publications, 1970), p. 302. According to Harari tradition numerous Argobba had fled Ifat and settled around Harar in the Aw Abdal lowlands during their conflict with Abyssinia in the fifteenth century, a gate was thus named after them called the gate of Argobba.{{cite book |last1=ABUBAKER |first1=ABDULMALIK |title=THE RELEVANCY OF HARARI VALUES IN SELF REGULATION AND AS A MECHANISM OF BEHAVIORAL CONTROL: HISTORICAL ASPECTS |publisher=The University of Alabama |page=44 |url=https://everythingharar.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/RelevanceofhararivaluesAbdumalik.pdf |access-date=2023-06-06 |archive-date=2024-05-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240522133027/https://everythingharar.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/RelevanceofhararivaluesAbdumalik.pdf |url-status=live }}

In 1415, Sabr ad-Din III, the eldest son of Sa'ad ad-Din II, would return to Adal from his exile in Arabia to restore his father's throne.{{cite book |last1=Mordechai |first1=Abir |title=Ethiopia And The Red Sea |publisher=Hebrew University of Jerusalem |pages=26–27 |url=https://zelalemkibret.files.wordpress.com/2012/05/ethiopia-and-the-red-sea-mordichi-abir.pdf |access-date=2023-03-22 |archive-date=2021-05-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210517214033/https://zelalemkibret.files.wordpress.com/2012/05/ethiopia-and-the-red-sea-mordichi-abir.pdf |url-status=live }} He would proclaim himself "king of Adal" after his return from Yemen to the Harar plateau and established his new capital at Dakkar.{{cite journal |last1=Wagner |first1=Ewald |title=The Genealogy of the later Walashma' Sultans of Adal and Harar |journal=Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft |year=1991 |volume=141 |issue=2 |pages=376–386 |publisher=Harrassowitz Verlag |jstor=43378336 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43378336 |access-date=2021-03-12 |archive-date=2021-05-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210506032705/https://www.jstor.org/stable/43378336 |url-status=live }} Sabr ad-Din III and his brothers would defeat an army of 20,000 men led by an unnamed commander hoping to restore the "lost Amhara rule". The victorious king then returned to his capital, but gave the order to his many followers to continue and extend the war against the Christians.{{cite book |last1=Bausi |first1=Alessandro |title=Tewodros |year=2010 |publisher=Encyclopedia Aethiopica |page=930 |isbn=9783447062466 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t8VHAQAAIAAJ&q=T%C3%A9wodros+adal |access-date=2023-03-18 |archive-date=2023-03-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230322221253/https://books.google.com/books?id=t8VHAQAAIAAJ&q=T%C3%A9wodros+adal |url-status=live }}{{cite journal |last1=Chekroun |first1=Amelie |title=Le sultan walasmaʿ Saʿd al-Dīn et ses fils |journal=Médiévales |date=2020 |volume=79 |issue=2 |pages=117–136 |publisher=Cairn Info |doi=10.4000/medievales.11082 |url=https://www.cairn.info/revue-medievales-2020-2-page-117.htm |access-date=2022-07-22 |archive-date=2022-08-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220804080312/https://www.cairn.info/revue-medievales-2020-2-page-117.htm |url-status=live }}{{cite journal |last1=Gusarova |first1=Ekaterina |title=Royal Names in Medieval Ethiopia and their Symbolism |journal=Scrinium |year=2021 |volume=17 |pages=349–355 |publisher=BRILL |doi=10.1163/18177565-BJA10026 |s2cid=240884465 |url=https://brill.com/view/journals/scri/17/1/article-p349_20.xml |doi-access=free |access-date=2022-07-22 |archive-date=2022-07-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220705004813/https://brill.com/view/journals/scri/17/1/article-p349_20.xml |url-status=live }} The Emperor of Ethiopia Tewodros I was soon killed by the Adal Sultanate upon the return of Sa'ad ad-Din's heirs to the Horn of Africa. Sabr ad-Din III died a natural death and was succeeded by his brother Mansur ad-Din who invaded the capital and royal seat of the Solomonic Empire and drove Emperor Dawit I to Yedaya where according to al-Maqrizi, Sultan Mansur destroyed a Solomonic army and killed the Emperor. He then advanced to the mountains of Mokha, where he encountered a 30,000 strong Solomonic army. The Adalite soldiers surrounded their enemies and for two months besieged the trapped Solomonic soldiers until a truce was declared in Mansur's favour. During this period, Adal emerged as a centre of Muslim resistance against the expanding Christian Abyssinian kingdom. Adal would thereafter govern all of the territory formerly ruled by the Ifat Sultanate,{{cite book|last1=Briggs|first1=Phillip|title=Somaliland|year=2012|publisher=Bradt Travel Guides|isbn=9781841623719|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M6NI2FejIuwC&q=sabr+addin+founded+adal&pg=PA152|access-date=25 April 2016|archive-date=22 May 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240522133126/https://books.google.com/books?id=M6NI2FejIuwC&q=sabr+addin+founded+adal&pg=PA152#v=onepage&q=sabr%20addin%20founded%20adal&f=false|url-status=live}}{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5qlXatHRJtMC&q=Ifat+sultanate+ruled+present+day+north+western+somalia&pg=PA358|title=Nation Shapes: The Story Behind the World's Borders: The Story behind the World's Borders|last=Shelley|first=Fred M.|date=2013-04-23|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=9781610691062|language=en|access-date=2020-10-15|archive-date=2024-05-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240522133149/https://books.google.com/books?id=5qlXatHRJtMC&q=Ifat+sultanate+ruled+present+day+north+western+somalia&pg=PA358|url-status=live}} as well as the land further east all the way to Cape Guardafui, according to Leo Africanus.{{cite book | last1=Africanus| first1=Leo| title=The History and Description of Africa| date=1526| publisher=Hakluyt Society| pages=51–54| url=https://archive.org/stream/historyanddescr03porygoog#page/n180/mode/2up}}

File:YagbeaSionBattlingAdaSultan.JPG and his men. From Le Livre des Merveilles, 15th century.]]

Later on in the campaign, the Adalites were struck by a catastrophe when Sultan Mansur and his brother Muhammad were captured in battle by the Solomonids. Mansur was immediately succeeded by the youngest brother of the family Jamal ad-Din II. Sultan Jamal reorganized the army into a formidable force and defeated the Solomonic armies at Bale, Yedeya and Jazja. Emperor Yeshaq I responded by gathering a large army and invaded the cities of Yedeya and Jazja, but was repulsed by the soldiers of Jamal. Following this success, Jamal organized another successful attack against the Solomonic forces and inflicted heavy casualties in what was reportedly the largest Adalite army ever fielded. As a result, Yeshaq and his men fled to the Blue Nile region over the next five months, while Jamal ad Din's forces pursued them and looted much gold on the way, although no engagement ensued.{{sfn|Pankhurst|1997|p=58}}

After returning home, Jamal sent his brother Ahmad with the Christian battle-expert Harb Jaush to successfully attack the province of Dawaro. Despite his losses, Emperor Yeshaq was still able to continue field armies against Jamal. Sultan Jamal continued to advance further into the Abyssinian heartland. However, Jamal on hearing of Yeshaq's plan to send several large armies to attack three different areas of Adal (including the capital), returned to Adal, where he fought the Solomonic forces at Harjai and, according to al-Maqrizi, this is where the Emperor Yeshaq died in battle. The young Sultan Jamal ad-Din II at the end of his reign had outperformed his brothers and forefathers in the war arena and became the most successful ruler of Adal to date. Within a few years, however, Jamal was assassinated by either disloyal friends or cousins around 1432 or 1433, and was succeeded by his brother Badlay ibn Sa'ad ad-Din. Sultan Badlay continued the campaigns of his younger brother and began several successful expeditions against the Christian empire. He reconquered Bali and began preparations of a major Adalite offensive into the Ethiopian Highlands. He successfully collected funding from surrounding Muslim kingdoms as far away as the Sultanate of Mogadishu.Richard Gray, The Cambridge history of Africa, Volume 4. p. 155. However, this ambitious campaign ended in disaster when Emperor Zara Yaqob defeated Sultan Badlay at the Battle of Gomit and pursued the retreating Adalites all the way to the Awash River.{{cite book |last1=Cerulli |first1=Enrico |title=Islam: Yesterday and Today translated by Emran Waber |publisher=Istituto Per L'Oriente |page=140 |url=https://drive.google.com/file/d/1g-LkxaXWZopjLCFEuWm8wnly2lh4WvFp/view |access-date=2021-09-07 |archive-date=2021-08-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210822194826/https://drive.google.com/file/d/1g-LkxaXWZopjLCFEuWm8wnly2lh4WvFp/view |url-status=live }}

Following the defeat and death of Badlay ibn Sa'ad ad-Din at the Battle of Gomit, the next Sultan of Adal, Muhammad ibn Badlay, submitted to Emperor Baeda Maryam I and started paying annual tribute to the Ethiopian Empire with which he secure peace.{{cite web|url=https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/29226/1/10731321.pdf|title=The Oromo of Ethiopia 1500-1800|page=25|access-date=2021-09-07|archive-date=2020-02-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200213003344/https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/29226/1/10731321.pdf|url-status=live}} Adal's Emirs, who administered the provinces, interpreted the agreement as a betrayal of their independence and a retreat from the polity's long-standing policy of resistance to Abyssinian incursions. Emir Laday Usman of Harar subsequently marched to Dakkar and seized power in 1471. However, Usman did not dismiss the Sultan from office, but instead gave him a ceremonial position while retaining the real power for himself. Adal now came under the leadership of a powerful Emir who governed from the palace of a nominal Sultan.{{cite journal | last =Trimingham | first =John | title =Islam in Ethiopia | journal =Basic Reference | volume =28 | pages =167 | publisher =Oxford University Press | location =Oxford | year =2007 | url =https://books.google.com/books?id=B4NHAQAAIAAJ&q=adal+sultanate+dakar+in+1471 | access-date =2012-04-27 | archive-date =2024-05-22 | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20240522134620/https://books.google.com/books?id=B4NHAQAAIAAJ&q=adal+sultanate+dakar+in+1471 | url-status =live }} Usman would route emperor Baeda Maryam's troops in battle.{{cite book |last1=S.C. |first1=Munro-Hay |title=Ethiopia, the unknown land : a cultural and historical guide |date=2002 |publisher=I.B. Tauris |page=25 |isbn=978-1-86064-744-4 |url=https://archive.org/details/ethiopiaunknownl0000munr/page/24/mode/2up?q=asman}} Historian Mohammed Hassen states Adal Sultans had lost control of the state to Harar's aristocracy.{{cite book |last1=Hassan |first1=Mohammed |title=The Oromo of Ethiopia, 1500-1850 |publisher=University of London |pages=24–25 |url=https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/29226/1/10731321.pdf |access-date=2021-09-07 |archive-date=2020-02-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200213003344/https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/29226/1/10731321.pdf |url-status=live }}{{cite journal | last =zum | title =Event Documentation | journal =Basic Reference | volume =28 | pages =217–229 | publisher =AGCEEP | location =USA | year =2007 | url =http://agceep.net/eventdoc/AGCEEP_Specific_Ethiopia.eue.htm | doi =10.1017/S0020743800063145 | s2cid =154765577 | access-date =2012-04-27 | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20110913142126/http://www.agceep.net/eventdoc/AGCEEP_Specific_Ethiopia.eue.htm | archive-date =2011-09-13 | url-status =dead }}

File:A_soldier_of_Gragn.png armed with a musket and a cannon]]

Emperor Na'od and Sultan Muhammad ibn Azhar ad-Din tried to remain at peace, but their efforts were nullified by the raids which Emir Mahfuz constantly made into Christian territory. Na'od who was determined to eliminate this threat, organized a large army and led it against the Emir, although the Emperor was victorious he was eventually killed in battle against the Adalites. Emperor Dawit II (Lebna Dengel) would soon succeed the throne, Mahfuz having recovered from his defeat renewed raids against the frontier provinces. He was stimulated by emissaries from Arabia who proclaimed the jihad (holy war), presented him with a green standard and brought in arms and trained men from Yemen. In 1516, Emir Mahfuz would then launch an invasion of Fatagar, Lebna Dengel was prepared and organized a successful ambush, the Adalites were defeated and Mahfuz was killed in battle. Lebna Dengel then moved into Adal where he sacked the city of Dakkar. Around the same time a Portuguese fleet surprised Zeila whilst its garrison was away with Mahfuz, the Portuguese then burnt down the port city.{{cite book |last1=Huntingford |first1=G.W.B |title=The historical geography of Ethiopia from the first century AD to 1704 |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=105}}{{cite book |last1=Trimmingham |first1=John Spencer |title=Islam in Ethiopia |date=1952 |page=83 |publisher=Frank Cass & Company |isbn=9780714617312 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XbVmNAAACAAJ |access-date=2023-05-12 |archive-date=2023-04-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405063221/https://books.google.com/books?id=XbVmNAAACAAJ |url-status=live }}

After the victory of Lebna Dengel, the internal weaknesses of the Adal Sultanate soon revealed themselves. The older generation of the Muslims headed by the Walashma, indifferent to religion and ready to come to terms with Abyssinia, were staunchly opposed by the Harari and Harla religious aristocracy led by fanatic warlike emirs.{{cite book |last1=Hassan |first1=Mohammed |title=Oromo of Ethiopia |publisher=University of London |pages=24–25 |url=https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/29226/1/10731321.pdf |access-date=2021-09-07 |archive-date=2020-02-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200213003344/https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/29226/1/10731321.pdf |url-status=live }} The Sultan Muhammad was assassinated in 1518 and Adal was torn apart by intestinal struggles in which five sultans succeeded each other in two years. But at last, a matured and powerful leader called Garad Abun Adashe assumed power and brought order out of chaos. However, Sultan Abu Bakr ibn Muhammad, who had transferred the capital from Dakkar to Harar in 1520, profiting off the prestige that the hereditary monarchy still held, recruited bands of Somali nomads, ambushed Abun Adashe at Zeila and killed him in 1525. Many people went to join the force of a young rebel named Ahmad ibn Ibrahim, who claimed revenge for Garad Abogn. Ahmad did not immediately attempt conclusions with Sultan Abu Bakr, but retired to Hubat to build up his strength. Ahmad ibn Ibrahim would eventually kill Sultan Abu Bakr in battle, and replaced him with Abu Bakr's younger brother Umar Din as his puppet. Once in complete control, he then could then turn to the task he felt himself was divinely appoint to undertake, the conquest of Abyssinia. Fervor for the jihad had not yet overcome the forces inherent in nomadic life, Ahmad had to undertake several campaigns to restore order in the Somali territory which would constitute his manpower reserve. He then organized a heterogenous mass of tribes into a powerful army, inflamed by the fanatical zeal of jihad.{{harvnb|Tamrat|1977|pp=168–170}}.Jeremy Black, Cambridge Illustrated Atlas, Warfare: Renaissance to Revolution, 1492–1792, (Cambridge University Press: 1996), p. 9.{{cite book |last1=Trimmingham |first1=John Spencer |title=Islam in Ethiopia |date=1952 |page=84 |publisher=Frank Cass & Company |isbn=9780714617312 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XbVmNAAACAAJ |access-date=2023-05-12 |archive-date=2023-04-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405063221/https://books.google.com/books?id=XbVmNAAACAAJ |url-status=live }}

{{main|Ethiopian–Adal war}}

File:FallAhmedGragn.jpg and Ahmad Gragn's deaths.]]

According to sixteenth century Adal writer Arab Faqīh, in 1529 Imam Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi finally decided to embark on a conquest of Abyssinia, he soon met the Abyssinians at the Battle of Shimbra Kure where he would win a decisive victory. But his nomads where unreliable and difficult to control, to Ahmad's frustration some of his Somali warriors would disperse back to their homelands after acquiring much plunder. At the same time, he faced opposition from his Harari troops who dreaded the potential consequences of the Muslim base relocating to Abyssinia. He then returned to Harar to reconstruct his forces and eliminate the tribal allegiances in his army, two years later he was able to organize a definite and permeant occupation of Abyssinia. From then the story of the conquest is a succession of victories, burnings and massacres. In 1531 Dawaro and Shewa were occupied, Bete Amhara and Lasta in 1533. In 1535 Ahmad, in control of the east and center of Abyssinia invaded Tigray where he encountered fierce resistance and suffered some reserves, but his advance was not stopped, his armies reached the coasts of Medri Bahri and Kassala where they made contact with the Muslim Beja tribes of the north that had formerly paid tribute to the Ethiopian Empire. Emperor Dawit II (Lebna Dengel) became a hunted fugitive, and harried from Tigray to Begemder to Gojjam, constantly pursued by the Adalites.{{cite book |last1=Trimmingham |first1=John Spencer |title=Islam in Ethiopia |date=1952 |page=87 |publisher=Frank Cass & Company |isbn=9780714617312 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XbVmNAAACAAJ |access-date=2023-05-12 |archive-date=2023-04-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405063221/https://books.google.com/books?id=XbVmNAAACAAJ |url-status=live }}{{cite book |last1=Cerulli |first1=Enrico |title=Islam Yesterday and Today translated by Emran Waber |pages=376–381 |url=https://drive.google.com/file/d/1g-LkxaXWZopjLCFEuWm8wnly2lh4WvFp/view |access-date=2021-09-07 |archive-date=2021-08-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210822194826/https://drive.google.com/file/d/1g-LkxaXWZopjLCFEuWm8wnly2lh4WvFp/view |url-status=live }} In this period Adal Sultanate occupied a territory stretching from Zeila to Massawa as well as the Abyssinian inlands.{{cite book |last1=Marcus |first1=Harold |title=A History of Ethiopia |date=22 February 2002 |publisher=University of California Press |page=32 |isbn=9780520925427 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hCpttQcKW7YC&dq=zeila+to+mitsiwa+on+the+coast&pg=PA32 |access-date=7 July 2023 |archive-date=22 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240522134729/https://books.google.com/books?id=hCpttQcKW7YC&dq=zeila+to+mitsiwa+on+the+coast&pg=PA32#v=onepage&q=zeila%20to%20mitsiwa%20on%20the%20coast&f=false |url-status=live }}

The Adalites were passionately interested in converting newly occupied territories. The impression given in the Muslim chronicles is that almost all of the Christian Abyssinians had embraced Islam out of expediency. Among them was the governor of Ifat who wrote to the Imam:

{{blockquote|I was once a Muslim, the son of a Muslim, but the polytheists captured me and made me a Christian. Yet at heart I remain steadfast in the religion and now I seek the protection of Allah, His prophet, and yourself. If you accept my repentance and do not punish for what I have done I will return to Allah whilst these armies that are under my command I will deceive them so that they will come to you and embrace Islam.{{cite book |last1=Trimmingham |first1=John Spencer |title=Islam in Ethiopia |date=1952 |page=88 |publisher=Frank Cass & Company |isbn=9780714617312 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XbVmNAAACAAJ |access-date=2023-05-12 |archive-date=2023-04-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405063221/https://books.google.com/books?id=XbVmNAAACAAJ |url-status=live }}}}

However, in the integral regions of the Ethiopian Empire, such as Bete Amhara, Tigray and Shewa, the local population bitterly resisted the Adalite occupation. Some preferred death over denying their faith, among them were two Amhara chiefs who were brought before the Imam in Debre Berhan.{{cite book |last1=Pankhurst |first1=Richard |title=The Ethiopians: A History |date=October 23, 1998 |publisher=Wiley |page=88 |isbn=9780631224938 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8mNnXC_oVmQC |access-date=July 7, 2023 |archive-date=August 21, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230821200927/https://books.google.com/books?id=8mNnXC_oVmQC |url-status=live }} Arab Faqīh describes the encounter:

{{blockquote|They captured two Christian chiefs and sent them to the Imam's encampment and presented them before him. He said "What is the matter with you that you haven't become Muslims when the whole country was Islamized?" They replied "We don't want to become Muslims." The Imam said "Our judgment on you is that your heads be cut off." The two Christians replied "Very well!" The Imam was surprised at their reply and ordered them to be executed.}}

In 1541 a small Portuguese contingent landed in Massawa and soon all of Tigray declared for the monarchy, the Imam was defeated in several major engagements by the Portuguese and was forced to flee to Raya Kobo with his heavily demoralized followers. He sent a request to the Ottoman Empire for reinforcements of Turkish, Albanian and Arab musketeers to stabilize his troops. He then took the offensive attacking the Portuguese camp at Wolfa where he killed their commander, Cristóvão da Gama, and 200 of their rank and file. The Imam then dismissed most of his foreign contingent and returned to his headquarters at Lake Tana. The surviving Portuguese were able to meet up with Gelawdewos and his army at the Simien Mountains. The Emperor did not hesitate to take the offensive and won a major victory at the Battle of Wayna Daga when the fate of Abyssinia was decided by the death of the Imam and the flight of his army. The invasion force collapsed like a house of cards and all the Abyssinians who had been cowed by the invaders returned to their former allegiance, the reconquest of Christian territories proceeded without encountering any effective opposition.{{cite book |last1=Trimmingham |first1=John Spencer |title=Islam in Ethiopia |date=1952 |page=89 |publisher=Frank Cass & Company |isbn=9780714617312 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XbVmNAAACAAJ |access-date=2023-05-12 |archive-date=2023-04-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405063221/https://books.google.com/books?id=XbVmNAAACAAJ |url-status=live }}

{{main|Oromo migrations}}

File:Harar city wall 1956.JPG built by Nur ibn Mujahid]]

In 1550 Nur ibn Mujahid became the Emir of Harar and the de facto ruler of Adal, he then began to strengthen the defenses of Harar, building a wall that still encircles the city to this day.Trimingham, J. Spencer. 1952. [https://zelalemkibret.files.wordpress.com/2012/05/islam-in-ethiopia-j-spencer-trimingham.pdf Islam in Ethiopia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108153655/https://zelalemkibret.files.wordpress.com/2012/05/islam-in-ethiopia-j-spencer-trimingham.pdf |date=2022-01-08 }}. London: Oxford University Press. p. 91. In 1559, urged on by his wife, Nur once again took the offensive and invaded the Ethiopian Empire, killing Ethiopian Emperor Gelawdewos in the Battle of Fatagar.{{cite book|last1=Button|first1=Richard|title=First Footsteps in East Africa|year=1894|publisher=Tyston and Edwards|page=12|isbn=9780705415002|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Mu0MAAAAIAAJ&q=nur+harar+rule&pg=PA12|access-date=21 January 2016|archive-date=22 May 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240522134647/https://books.google.com/books?id=Mu0MAAAAIAAJ&q=nur+harar+rule&pg=PA12#v=snippet&q=nur%20harar%20rule&f=false|url-status=live}} At the same time another Ethiopian army led by Dejazmatch Hamalmal attacked Harar. Sultan Barakat ibn Umar Din attempted to defend the city but was defeated and killed, thus ending the Walashma dynasty. Not long after this, Barentu Oromos who had been migrating north invaded the Adal Sultanate. This struggle, which was mentioned by the monk Bahrey, led to the devastation of many regions and Nur's army was defeated at the Battle of Hazalo.{{sfn|Pankhurst|1997|p=374}} The defensive walls managed to protect Harar from the invaders, preserving it as a kind of Muslim island in an Oromo sea. However, the city then experienced a severe famine as grain and salt prices rose to unpreceded levels. According to a contemporary source, the hunger became so bad that people began to resort to eating their own children and spouses. Nur himself died in 1567 of the pestilence which spread during the famine.Trimingham, J. Spencer. 1952. [https://zelalemkibret.files.wordpress.com/2012/05/islam-in-ethiopia-j-spencer-trimingham.pdf Islam in Ethiopia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108153655/https://zelalemkibret.files.wordpress.com/2012/05/islam-in-ethiopia-j-spencer-trimingham.pdf |date=2022-01-08 }}. London: Oxford University Press. p. 94.{{sfn|Pankhurst|1997|p=247}}

Nur was succeeded by Uthman the Abyssinian, who relaxed his predecessor's pro-Islamic policy and signed an infamous and humiliating peace treaty with the Oromos. The treaty stated that the Oromos can freely enter to the Muslim markets and purchase goods at less than the current market price.{{cite book |title=History of Harar |page=106 |url=https://www.everythingharar.com/files/History_of_Harar_and_Harari-HNL.pdf |access-date=2021-08-19 |archive-date=2020-10-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201003055338/https://www.everythingharar.com/files/History_of_Harar_and_Harari-HNL.pdf |url-status=live }} This angered many Muslims and led to a rebellion, in which he was overthrown and replaced by Talha Abbas in 1569. Tahla would rule for only three years before being overthrown by some of his very fanatic subjects who were intent on another jihad or holy war against the Christians. He was replaced by Uthman's grandson Muhammad ibn Nasir who soon carried out an expedition against the Ethiopian Empire, however this campaign would end in total disaster. As soon as the army left Harar the Oromo ravaged the countryside, up to the walls of the city. Muhammad ibn Nasir was also defeated and killed at the Battle of Webi River, thus permanently ending Adal aggression towards Ethiopia.J.S. Trimingham, Islam in Ethiopia, pp. 96 Muhammad's successor, Mansur ibn Muhammad, fought a fierce war against the Oromos, but was unable to defeat them. Mansur would also successfully reconquer Aussa and Zeila. The tension was all the greater after the death of Nur Ibn Mujahid, the disappearance of the last of the Walashma monarch also opened a tough competition for power between emirs and descendants of Ahmed Ibn Ibrahim. Ultimately, they won in April 1576, Muhammad Gasa took the title of Imam, thus combining the political power of the Sultan and the religious responsibility of guiding the community, he then relocated the capital to the oasis of Aussa in 1577, establishing the Imamate of Aussa.{{Cite book |last=Cuoq |first=Joseph |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hUsgUDdzYDkC&dq=umar+walasma&pg=PA125 |title=L'Islam en Éthiopie des origines au XVIe siècle |date=1981 |publisher=Nouvelles Editions Latines |isbn=978-2-7233-0111-4 |pages=266 |language=fr |access-date=2024-01-28 |archive-date=2024-05-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240522134623/https://books.google.com/books?id=hUsgUDdzYDkC&dq=umar+walasma&pg=PA125#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}

The Imamate of Aussa declined gradually in the next century and was destroyed by the neighboring Afar nomads who made Aussa their capital.{{cite book|last1=Abir|first1=Mordechai|title=Ethiopia and the Red Sea|date=17 June 2016|publisher=Routledge|page=139|isbn=9781317045465|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BQ5qDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA235|access-date=19 January 2016|archive-date=22 May 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240522134623/https://books.google.com/books?id=BQ5qDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA235#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}{{cite book |last1=Fani |first1=Sara |title=HornAfr 6thField Mission Report |date=2017 |publisher=University of Copenhagen |page=8 |url=http://www.islhornafr.eu/ReportAwsa2017.pdf |access-date=2021-09-07 |archive-date=2020-01-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200114065409/http://www.islhornafr.eu/ReportAwsa2017.pdf |url-status=live }} In the seventeenth century the induction of Harla people and Doba populations into Afar identity would lead to the emergence of Aussa Sultanate.{{cite book |last1=Bausi |first1=Alessandro |title=Ethiopia History, Culture and Challenges |date=2017 |publisher=Michigan State University Press |page=83 |isbn=978-3-643-90892-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h-g7DwAAQBAJ&dq=were+reclaimed+by+migrant+populations+from+the+highlands+(Haralla,+Dobaa)+who+were+integrated+into+Afar+ethnicity&pg=PA83 |access-date=2023-04-04 |archive-date=2023-04-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409093701/https://www.google.ca/books/edition/Ethiopia/h-g7DwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=were+reclaimed+by+migrant+populations+from+the+highlands+%28Haralla,+Dobaa%29+who+were+integrated+into+Afar+ethnicity&pg=PA83&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live }} Enrico Cerulli asserts that rulers of Zaila and Harar had effectively made themselves independent with the latter establishing the Emirate of Harar. For two centuries, Adal Sultanate had claimed the role of spreading Islam in Ethiopia, but it now had to transition into a uncivilized state ruled by the Bedouin Dankalis, whom the Semitic or semiticized Adal aristocracy regarded merely as a group designated to plunder caravans.{{cite book |last1=Cerulli |first1=Enrico |title=Islam: Yesterday and Today translated by Emran Waber |publisher=Istituto Per L'Oriente |page=218 |url=https://drive.google.com/file/d/1g-LkxaXWZopjLCFEuWm8wnly2lh4WvFp/view |access-date=2021-09-07 |archive-date=2021-08-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210822194826/https://drive.google.com/file/d/1g-LkxaXWZopjLCFEuWm8wnly2lh4WvFp/view |url-status=live }}

Scholar Christopher Ehret noted that the majority of the inhabitants of the Adal Sultanate's primary territories were integrated into the Oromos, with the exception of small groups of Harari and Argobba speakers of Semitic languages.{{cite book |last1=Ehret |first1=Christopher |title=The Civilizations of Africa : A History to 1800 |publisher=University of Virginia Press |page=437 |url=https://archive.org/details/civilizationsofa0000ehre_g7o7_2ed/page/436/mode/2up?q=harar}}

File:Map of horn kingdoms and sultanates.png]]

Ulrich Braukämper mentions that Adal was distinguished by its ethnic variety which included Somalis, Afars, Argobba, and Hararis.{{cite book |last1=Braukämper |first1=Ulrich |title=Islamic history and culture in Southern Ethiopia: collected essays |date=2004 |publisher=Lit |location=Münster |isbn=9783825856717 |pages=37–38 |edition=2. Aufl}} Ethiopian historian Taddesse Tamrat states that Adal's central authority in the fourteenth century consisted of the Argobba, Harari and Silt'e people.{{cite book |last1=Tamrat |first1=Taddesse |title=Review: Place Names in Ethiopian History |date=November 1991 |publisher=Journal of Ethiopian Studies |page=120 |jstor=41965996 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41965996 |access-date=2021-08-19 |archive-date=2021-07-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210713135254/https://www.jstor.org/stable/41965996 |url-status=live }} Professor Donald N. Levine, an important figure in Ethiopian Studies, described the Adal Sultanate as consisting of many ethnic groups, but primarily Somalis and Afars.{{cite journal |last1=Levine |first1=Donald N. |title=A Revised Analytical Approach to the Evolution of Ethiopian Civilization |journal=International Journal of Ethiopian Studies |date=2012 |volume=6 |issue=1/2 |page=49 |jstor=41756934 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41756934 |issn=1543-4133 |access-date=2023-07-31 |archive-date=2024-05-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240522134702/https://www.jstor.org/stable/41756934 |url-status=live }}{{Cite book |title=Social theory and regional studies in the global age |date=2015 |publisher=SUNY Press |isbn=978-1-4384-5161-9 |editor-last=Arjomand |editor-first=Said Amir |location=Albany |pages=243 |chapter=Evolutionary Grades within Complex Societies: The Case of Ethiopia}} Somali scholar Abdurahman Abdullahi Baadiyow notes that Somalis were integral to the founding of the sultanate, and played a significant role in the subsequent wars with Abyssinia.{{cite book |title=Making sense of Somali history |date=2018 |publisher=Adonis & Ashley Publishers Ltd |location=London, United Kingdom |isbn=978-1909112797 |pages=36, 64}} The Somali tribes, already influential in Adal's politics, rose to greater prominence with the emergence of Garad Abun.{{Cite book |last=Abir |first=Mordechai |title=Ethiopia and the Red Sea: the rise and decline of the Solomonic dynasty and Muslim-European rivalry in the region |date=1980 |publisher=F. Cass ; Biblio Distribution Centre |others=Thomas Leiper Kane Collection (Library of Congress. Hebraic Section) |isbn=978-0-7146-3164-6 |location=London : Totowa, N.J |pages=86}} According to Patrick Gikes and Mohammed Hassen, Adal in the sixteenth century was primarily inhabited by the sedentary Harla people and the pastoral Somali people.{{Cite journal |last1=Gikes |first1=Patrick |date=2002 |title=Wars in the Horn of Africa and the dismantling of the Somali State |url=https://cea.revues.org/1280 |journal=African Studies |publisher=University Institute of Lisbon |volume=2 |pages=89–102 |access-date=2019-04-11 |archive-date=2017-11-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171113184419/http://cea.revues.org/1280 |url-status=live }} According to Gorman, the population of the Adal Sultanate was composed largely of northern Somalis.Gorman, Robert F. Political Conflict on the Horn of Africa. Praeger, 1981, p.24 The Cambridge History of Africa states that the Somalis were a major section of the population.{{Citation |title=The Cambridge history of Africa. 3: From c.1050 to c.1600 / ed. by Roland Oliver |date=1977 |volume=3 |page=154 |editor-last=Oliver |editor-first=Roland Anthony |place=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge Univ. Press |isbn=978-1-139-05457-7}} The sultanate was said to have included pastoral tribes, among them Somalis.{{Cite book |last=Cassanelli |first=Lee V. |title=The Shaping of Somali Society: Reconstructing the History of a Pastoral People, 1600-1900 |date=2016 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |isbn=978-1-5128-0666-3 |series=The Ethnohistory Series |location=Philadelphia, Pa |pages=16}}{{Cite book |last=Laitin |first=David D. |title=Somalia: nation in search of a state |last2=Samatar |first2=Said S. |date=1987 |publisher=Westview Press ; Gower |isbn=978-0-86531-555-6 |series=Profiles |location=Boulder, Colo. : London, England |pages=16}}{{Cite book |last=Bach |first=Jean-Nicolas |title=Routledge Handbook of the Horn of Africa |date=2022 |publisher=Taylor & Francis Group |isbn=978-1-032-14962-2 |edition=1st |series=Routledge International Handbooks Series |location=Oxford |pages=22, 79, 90}}{{Cite book |title=Encounters old and new in world history: essays inspired by Jerry H. Bentley |date=2017 |publisher=University of Hawaiʻi Press |isbn=978-0-8248-6612-9 |editor-last=Karras |editor-first=Alan L. |series=Perspectives on the global past |location=Honolulu |pages=74 |editor-last2=Mitchell |editor-first2=Laura Jane |editor-last3=Bentley |editor-first3=Jerry H.}}{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/ei2-complete/Encyclopaedia_of_Islam_vol_1_A-B/page/175/mode/2up |title=Encyclopaedia of Islam, 2nd edition |pages=176}} Marriage alliances between Argobba, Harari and Somali people were also common within the Adal Sultanate.{{cite journal |last1=Ferry |first1=Robert |title=Quelques hypothèses sur les origines des conquêtes musulmanes en Abyssinie au XVIe siècle |year=1961 |journal=Cahiers d'Études africaines |volume=2 |issue=5 |pages=28–30 |doi=10.3406/cea.1961.2961 |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/cea_0008-0055_1961_num_2_5_2961 |access-date=2021-08-20 |archive-date=2021-08-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210820030140/https://www.persee.fr/doc/cea_0008-0055_1961_num_2_5_2961 |url-status=live }}

According to Professor Lapiso Delebo, the contemporary Harari people are heirs to the ancient Semitic speaking peoples of the Adal region.{{cite book |last1=Dilebo |first1=Lapiso |title=An introduction to Ethiopian history from the Megalithism Age to the Republic, circa 13000 B.C. to 2000 A.D. |quote="Like their direct descendants, the Adares of today, the people of ancient Shewa, Yifat, Adal, Harar and Awssa were semitic in their ethnic and linguistic origins. They were neither Somalis nor Afar. But the Somali and Afar nomads were the local subjects of the Adal." |date=2003 |publisher=Commercial Printing Enterprise |page=41 |oclc=318904173 |url=https://emu.tind.io/record/42082?ln=en |access-date=2023-04-02 |archive-date=2022-07-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220728083236/https://emu.tind.io/record/42082?ln=en |url-status=live }} Adal Sultanate is identified as a Harari state by anthropologist Abebe Kifleyesus.{{cite book |last1=Kifleyesus |first1=Abebe |title=Tradition and Transformation The Argobba of Ethiopia |year=2006 |publisher=Harrassowitz Verlag |page=62 |isbn=9783447053419 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=plclkFB9KZwC&dq=defense+of+both+the+christian+kingdoms+and+the+muslim+harari+sultanate&pg=PA62}} Historians state the language spoken by the people of Adal as well as its rulers the Imams and Sultans would closely resemble contemporary Harari language.{{cite journal |last1=Ferry |first1=Robert |title=Quelques hypothèses sur les origines des conquêtes musulmanes en Abyssinie au XVIe siècle |year=1961 |journal=Cahiers d'Études africaines |volume=2 |issue=5 |pages=28–29 |doi=10.3406/cea.1961.2961 |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/cea_0008-0055_1961_num_2_5_2961 |access-date=2021-08-20 |archive-date=2021-08-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210820030140/https://www.persee.fr/doc/cea_0008-0055_1961_num_2_5_2961 |url-status=live }}{{cite journal |last1=Harbeson |first1=John |title=Territorial and Development Politics in the Horn of Africa: The Afar of the Awash Valley |journal=African Affairs |year=1978 |volume=77 |issue=309 |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=486 |doi=10.1093/oxfordjournals.afraf.a097023 |jstor=721961 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/721961 |access-date=2023-04-11 |archive-date=2021-09-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210910192343/https://www.jstor.org/stable/721961 |url-status=live }}{{cite book |last1=Lindahl |first1=Bernhard |title=Local history of Ethiopia |publisher=Nordic Africa Institute |page=37 |url=https://nai.uu.se/download/18.39fca04516faedec8b248c17/1580827183104/ORTAST05.pdf |access-date=2023-04-11 |archive-date=2020-03-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200327081659/https://nai.uu.se/download/18.39fca04516faedec8b248c17/1580827183104/ORTAST05.pdf |url-status=live }} Ethiopian historian Bahru Zewde and others state the Walasma led Sultanates of Ifat and Adal primarily included the Ethiopian Semitic speaking Argobba and Harari people, it later expanded to comprise Afar and Somali peoples.{{cite book |last1=Zewde |first1=Bahru |title=A Short History of Ethiopia and the Horn |year=1998 |publisher=Addis Ababa University |page=64 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N8pRAQAAMAAJ&q=a+short+history+of+ethiopia+and+the+horn+new+Walasma+sultanate |access-date=2023-03-18 |archive-date=2023-04-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405042055/https://books.google.com/books?id=N8pRAQAAMAAJ&q=a%20short%20history%20of%20ethiopia%20and%20the%20horn%20new%20Walasma%20sultanate |url-status=live }}{{cite book |last1=Ylönen |first1=Aleksi |title=The Horn Engaging the Gulf Economic Diplomacy and Statecraft in Regional Relations |date=28 December 2023 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |page=113 |isbn=978-0-7556-3519-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wyngEAAAQBAJ&dq=largely+argobba+harari+and+harla&pg=PA113 |access-date=7 May 2024 |archive-date=22 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240522135551/https://books.google.com/books?id=wyngEAAAQBAJ&dq=largely+argobba+harari+and+harla&pg=PA113#v=onepage&q=largely%20argobba%20harari%20and%20harla&f=false |url-status=live }}{{cite book |last1=Begashaw |first1=Kassaye |title=Proceedings of the 16th International Conference of Ethiopian Studies |publisher=Norwegian University of Science and Technology |page=14 |url=https://zethio.files.wordpress.com/2014/04/ethiopian-studies-volume-1.pdf |access-date=2024-04-09 |archive-date=2023-10-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231029001853/https://zethio.files.wordpress.com/2014/04/ethiopian-studies-volume-1.pdf |url-status=live }}{{cite book |last1=Niane |first1=Djibril |title=General History of Africa |date=January 1984 |publisher=Heinemann Educational Books |page=427 |isbn=9789231017100 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iAcf63sQGhIC&dq=harari+and+argobba+speaking+walasma&pg=PA427}}{{cite book |title=The Cambridge History of Africa |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=147–150 |url=https://www.sahistory.org.za/sites/default/files/archive-files3/roland_oliver_the_cambridge_history_of_africa_vbook4you.pdf |access-date=2023-04-02 |archive-date=2023-01-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230130073307/https://sahistory.org.za/sites/default/files/archive-files3/roland_oliver_the_cambridge_history_of_africa_vbook4you.pdf |url-status=live }} Between the late 1400s to mid 1500s there was a large scale migration of Hadhrami people into Adal.{{cite journal |last1=Martin |first1=B.G |title=Arab Migrations to East Africa in Medieval Times |journal=The International Journal of African Historical Studies |year=1974 |volume=7 |issue=3 |publisher=Boston University African Studies Center |page=376 |doi=10.2307/217250 |jstor=217250 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/217250 |access-date=2021-09-06 |archive-date=2021-09-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210906234259/https://www.jstor.org/stable/217250 |url-status=live }}

Among the earliest mentions of the Somali by name has come through a victory poem written by Emperor Yeshaq I of Abyssinia against the king of Adal, as the Simur are said to have submitted and paid tribute. As Taddesse Tamrat writes: "Dr Enrico Cerulli has shown that Simur was an Old Harari name for the Somali, who are still known by them as Tumur. Hence, it is most probable that the mention of the Somali and the Simur in relation to Yishaq refers to the king's military campaigns against Adal, where the Somali seem to have constituted a major section of the population."{{harvnb|Tamrat|1977|p=154}}.

According to Leo Africanus (1526) and George Sale (1760), the Adelites were of a tawny brown or olive complexion on the northern littoral, and grew swarthier towards the southern interior. They generally had long, lank hair. Most wore a cotton sarong but no headpiece or sandals, with many glass and amber trinkets around their necks, wrists, arms and ankles. The king and other aristocrats often donned instead a body-length garment topped with a headdress. All were Muslims.{{cite book|last1=Sale|first1=George|title=An Universal History, from the Earliest Account of Time, Volume 15|date=1760|publisher=T. Osborne, A. Millar, and J. Osborn|pages=361 & 367–368|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nWVjAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA361|access-date=1 July 2017}} In the southern hinterland, the Adelites lived beside pagan "Negroes", with whom they bartered various commodities.{{cite book|last1=Africanus|first1=Leo|title=The History and Description of Africa|date=1526|publisher=Hakluyt Society|pages=51 & 53|url=https://archive.org/stream/historyanddescr03porygoog#page/n180/mode/2up|access-date=1 July 2017|quote=The land of Aian is accounted by the Arabians to be that region which lyeth betweene the narrow entrance to the Red sea, and the river Quilimanci; being upon the sea-coast for the most part inhabited by the said Arabians; but the inland-partes thereof are peopled with a black nation which are Idolators. It comprehendeth two kingdomes; Adel and Adea. Adel is a very large kingdome, and extendeth from the mouth of the Arabian gulfe to the cape of Guardafu called of olde by Ptolemey Aromata promontorium.[...] Adea, the second kingdome of the land of Aian, situate upon the easterne Ocean, is confined northward by the kingdome of Adel, & westward by the Abassin empire.[...] The inhabitants being Moores by religion, and paying tribute to the emperour of Abassin, are (as they of Adel before-named) originally descended of the Arabians}}{{cite book|last1=Sale|first1=George|title=An Universal History, from the Earliest Account of Time, Volume 15|date=1760|publisher=T. Osborne, A. Millar, and J. Osborn|page=361|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nWVjAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA361|access-date=1 July 2017|quote=The inhabitants along this last coast are mostly white, with long lank hair; but grow more tawny, or even quite black, as you proceed towards the south. Here are plenty of negroes who live and intermarry with the Bedowin Arabs, and carry on a great commerce with them, which consists in gold, slaves, horses, ivory, etc.|archive-date=3 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170103004310/https://books.google.com/books?id=nWVjAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA361|url-status=live}}

Various languages from the Afro-Asiatic family were spoken in the vast Adal Sultanate. Arabic served as a lingua franca, and was used by the ruling Walashma dynasty.{{cite book|last=Giyorgis|first=Asma|title=Aṣma Giyorgis and his work: history of the Gāllā and the kingdom of Šawā|year=1999|publisher=Medical verlag|isbn=978-3-515-03716-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mGcwAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Their+language+is+Arabic,+and+it+is+similar+to%22|page=257|access-date=2023-03-23|archive-date=2023-04-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404115836/https://books.google.com/books?id=mGcwAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Their+language+is+Arabic,+and+it+is+similar+to%22|url-status=live}} According to the 19th-century Ethiopian historian Asma Giyorgis suggests that the Walashma dynasty themselves spoke Arabic.{{cite book|last=Giyorgis|first=Asma|title=Aṣma Giyorgis and his work: history of the Gāllā and the kingdom of Šawā|year=1999|publisher=Medical verlag|isbn=9783515037167|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mGcwAQAAIAAJ&q=walasma+language|page=257|access-date=2021-08-20|archive-date=2024-05-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240522140659/https://books.google.com/books?id=mGcwAQAAIAAJ&q=walasma+language|url-status=live}} According to Robert Ferry, Adal's aristocracy in the Walasma era which consisted of imams, emirs and sultans spoke a language resembling modern Harari language. British historian John Fage states Walasma leaders moving their capital from Ifat region to Adal set in motion the evolution of Harari and Argobba language within Harar and its environs.{{cite book |last1=Fage |first1=John |title=Cambridge History of Africa |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=150 |url=https://www.sahistory.org.za/sites/default/files/archive-files3/roland_oliver_the_cambridge_history_of_africa_vbook4you.pdf |access-date=2023-04-02 |archive-date=2023-01-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230130073307/https://sahistory.org.za/sites/default/files/archive-files3/roland_oliver_the_cambridge_history_of_africa_vbook4you.pdf |url-status=live }} According to Jeffrey M. Shaw, the main inhabitants of the Adal Sultanate spoke East Cushitic languages.{{cite book |last1=Shaw |first1=Jeffrey M. |title=The Ethiopian-Adal War, 1529-1543: the conquest of Abyssinia |date=2021 |publisher=Helion & Company |location=Warwick |isbn=9781914059681 |page=53}} In Zeila, the port city of Adal Sultanate, the Somali language was mainly spoken.{{cite book |last1=Fage |first1=John |title=Cambridge History of Africa |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=139 |url=https://www.sahistory.org.za/sites/default/files/archive-files3/roland_oliver_the_cambridge_history_of_africa_vbook4you.pdf |access-date=2023-04-02 |archive-date=2023-01-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230130073307/https://sahistory.org.za/sites/default/files/archive-files3/roland_oliver_the_cambridge_history_of_africa_vbook4you.pdf |url-status=live }}

File:Awash river.png was the main river of the Adal and Ifat sultanates and provided abundant agricultural produce and fresh water.]]

File:Ibn Majid Berbera, Ceel Sheikh, Siyara.png's notes on Berbera which was a large port of the sultanate]]

One of the empire's most wealthy provinces was Ifat it was well watered, by the large river Awash. Additionally, besides the surviving Awash River, at least five other rivers in the area between Harar and Shawa plateau existed.Understanding the Drivers of Drought in Somalia by MSH Said Page 27 The general area was well cultivated, densely populated with numerous villages adjoining each other. Agricultural produce included three main cereals, wheat, sorghum and teff, as well as beans, aubergines, melons, cucumbers, marrows, cauliflowers and mustard. Many different types of fruit were grown, among them bananas, lemons, limes, pomegranates, apricots, peaces, citrons mulberries and grapes. Other plants included sycamore tree, sugar cane, from which kandi, or sugar was extracted and inedible wild figs.

The province also grew the stimulant plant Khat. Which was exported to Yemen. Adal was abundant in large numbers of cattle, sheep, and some goats. There was also chickens. Both buffaloes and wild fowl were sometimes hunted. The province had a great reputation for producing butter and honey.{{sfn|Pankhurst|1997|p=46}}

Whereas provinces such as Bale, surrounding regions of Webi Shabelle was known for it cotton cultivation and an age old weaving industry, while the El Kere region produced salt which was an important trading item.Islamic History and Culture in Southern Ethiopia: Collected Essays by Ulrich Braukämper Page 79

Zeila was a wealthy city and abundantly supplied with provisions. It possessed grain, meat, oil, honey and wax. Furthermore, the citizens had many horses and reared cattle of all kinds, as a result they had plenty of butter, milk and flesh, as well as a great store of millet, barley and fruits; all of which was exported to Aden. The port city was so well supplied with victuals that it exported it's surplus to Aden, Jeddah, Mecca and "All Arabia" which then was dependent on the supplies/produce from the city which they favoured above all. Zeila was described as a "Port of much provisions for Aden, and all parts of Arabia and many countries and Kingdoms".

The Principal exports, according the Portuguese writer Corsali, were gold, ivory and slaves. A "great number" of the latter was captured from the Ethiopian Empire, then were exported through the port of Zeila to Persia, Arabia, Egypt and India.

As a result of this flourishing trade, the citizens of Zeila accordingly lived "extremely well" and the city was well built guarded by many soldiers on both foot and horses.{{sfn|Pankhurst|1997|p=127}}

The kingdoms agricultural and other produce was not only abundant but also very cheap according to Maqrizi thirty pounds of meat sold for only half a dirhem, while for only four dirhems you could purchase a bunch of about 100 Damascus grapes.{{sfn|Pankhurst|1997|p=49}}

Trade on the upland river valleys themselves connected with the coast to the interior markets. Created a lucrative caravan trade route between Ethiopian interior, the Hararghe highlands, Eastern Lowlands and the coastal cities such as Zeila and Berbera.Great Events from History: The Renaissance & early modern era, 1454-1600, Volum 1 By Christina J. Moose Page 94 The trade from the interior was also important for the reason that included gold from the Ethiopian territories in the west, including Damot and an unidentified district called Siham. The rare metal sold for 80 to 120 dirhems per ounce.{{sfn|Pankhurst|1997|p=47}} The whole empire and the wider region was interdependent on each other and formed a single economy and at the same time a cultural unit interconnected with several important trade routes upon which the economy and the welfare of the whole area depended.{{sfn|Pankhurst|1997|p=11}}

The nobility of Adal also apparently had a fair taste for luxury, the commercial relations that existed between the Adal Sultanate and the rulers of the Arab peninsula allowed Muslims to obtain luxury items that Christian Ethiopians, whose relations with the outside world were still blocked, could not acquire, a Christian document describing Sultan Badlay relates:

"And the robes [of the sultan] and those of his leaders were adorned with silver and shone on all sides. And the dagger which he [the sultan] carried at his side was richly adorned with gold and precious stones; and his amulet was adorned with drops of gold; and the inscriptions on the amulet were of gold paint. And his parasol came from the land of Syria and it was such beautiful work that those who looked at it marveled, and winged serpents were painted on it."{{Cite book |last=Fasi |first=M. El |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sdjfwGxt0e0C&dq=sabr+ad-din+Adal&pg=PA622 |title=L'Afrique du VIIe au XIe siècle |date=1990 |publisher=UNESCO |isbn=978-92-3-201709-3 |pages=623 |language=fr |access-date=2024-01-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240331152557/https://books.google.com/books?id=sdjfwGxt0e0C&dq=sabr+ad-din+Adal&pg=PA622 |archive-date=2024-03-31 |url-status=live}}

The Military of Adal was divided into several sections such as the infantry consisting of swordsmen, archers and lancers that were commanded by various generals and lieutenants. These forces were complemented by a cavalry force and eventually, later in the empire's history, by matchlock-technology and cannons during the Conquest of Abyssinia. The various divisions were symbolised with a distinct flag.

Under Imam Ahmed's leadership, the military was reorganized into three flexible units, giving Adal a strategic advantage. This superior organization contrasted sharply with the rigid and poorly commanded Abyssinian forces.{{cite book |last1=Reid |first1=Richard J. |title=Warfare in African history |date=2012 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge; New York |isbn=978-0521195102 |page=54}} The first group was the Malassay, the elite unit of military warriors in the Adal army which according to several historians consisted of mainly the Harari ethnicity.{{cite book |title=Ethiopianist Notes Volumes 1-2 |date=1977 |publisher=African Studies Center, Michigan State University |page=37 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dLJWAAAAYAAJ&q=Har%C3%A4ri+M%C3%A4l%C3%A4say}}{{cite book |last1=Aregay |first1=Merid |title=Southern Ethiopia and the Christian kingdom 1508 - 1708, with special reference to the Galla migrations and their consequences |publisher=University of London |page=135 |url=https://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.308149}} The title Malassay or Malachai (Portuguese spelling) often became synonymous with Muslims in Ethiopia to outsiders, but contrary to popular beliefs it did not denote a tribe or clan. Reading the Futūḥ al-Ḥabaša, the Malasāy appear as the basic unit of the army of the imām. Unlike the other groups that make up this army, the Malasāy were a social group and not a tribe or a clan. Unlike the Balaw, Somali or Ḥarla, a man Malasāy is not born. He obtained this title after demonstrating his military capabilities. ‘Arab Faqīh gives a relatively precise definition of what he means by "malasāy:

{{blockquote|And the Malasāy troop, who are people of raids and ğihād, worthy men of confidence, who could be trusted during the fighting, of the army chiefs who not only do not flee from the battlefield but who protect the retreat of his family.

The imām was with them.The "Futuh al-Habasa" : the writing of history, war and society in the "Bar Sa'ad ad-din" (Ethiopia, 16th century) by Amélie Chekroun page 183-188}}

The second wing consisted entirely of Somalis, commanded by the Imam's brother-in-law Matan. The third wing comprised troops from the Afar, Harla, Harari, and Argobba people, with each led by their hereditary leader. During each battle, the wings were separated with one on the right and left, while the Malassay were positioned in the middle. At crucial moments, the Malassay supported both wings and prevented troops from abandoning the field.{{cite book |last1=Hassen |first1=Mohammed |title=The Oromo of Ethiopia, 1500-1850: with special emphasis on the Gibe region |date=1983 |page=34}}

The Adal soldiers donned elaborate helmets and steel armour made up of chain-mail with overlapping tiers.Conquest of Abyssinia by Shibab ad-Din pg 43 The horsemen of Adal wore protective helmets that covered the entire face except for the eyes, and breastplates on their body, while they harnessed their horses in a similar fashion. In siege warfare, ladders were employed to scale buildings and other high positions such as hills and mountains.Ethiopia: The Land, Its People, History and Culture - Page 42

M. Hassan states:

{{blockquote|Arab Faqih makes it very clear that the sedentary agriculturalists population of Harar provided both the leadership in the jihadic war and that they were the majority of the fighters at least during the early days of the jihad. All the four Wazirs appointed by Imam Ahmad were members of the landed Adare (Harari) and Harla hereditary nobility. Of the fifty or so Amirs appointed by Imam Ahmad between 1527 and 1537, the overwhelming majority were members of the hereditary landed Adare or Harla aristocracy.{{cite journal|last1=Hassen|first1=Mohammed|title=Review work Futuh al habasa|journal=International Journal of Ethiopian Studies|page=179|jstor=27828848}}}}

M. Lewis writes:

{{blockquote|Somali forces contributed much to the Imām’s victories. Shihāb ad-Dīn, the Muslim chronicler of the period, writing between 1540 and 1560, mentions them frequently (Futūḥ al-Ḥabasha, ed. And trs. R. Besset Paris, 1897). The most prominent Somali groups in the campaigns were the Geri, Marrehān, and Harti – all Dārod clans. Shihāb ad-Dīn is very vague as to their distribution and grazing areas, but describes the Harti as at the time in possession of the ancient eastern port of Mait. Of the Isāq only the Habar Magādle clan seem to have been involved and their distribution is not recorded. Finally, several Dir clans also took part.{{cite journal|last1=Lewis|first1=I.M.|title=The Somali Conquest of Horn of Africa|journal=Journal of African History|date=1960|volume=1|issue=2|page=223|doi=10.1017/S0021853700001808|s2cid=162301641}}}}

Ethnic Somalis are stated to be the majority of the army according to the Oxford History of Islam:{{blockquote|The sultanate of Adal, which emerged as the major Muslim principality from 1420 to 1560, seems to have recruited its military force mainly from among the Somalis.John L. Esposito, editor, The Oxford History of Islam, (Oxford University Press: 2000), p. 501}}

According to Merid Wolde Aregay:

{{blockquote|At Shembra-Kuré the issue was determined most nearly by the superiority of Ahmad's cavalry. This consisted of personal followers, carefully chosen from amongst the young men of Harar, who were well trained and experienced. Ahmad had armed his horsemen with good sabres from the markets of Zayla and Arabia. The cavalry included a number of Arabs who had responded to Ahmäd's call for help in what he considered was a holy war against the unbelievers of Ethiopia. Many of these Arabs were especially skilled in the use of the sabre and they probably had shared this skill with the Harari horseman.{{cite journal |last1=Aregay |first1=Merid |title=A Reappraisal of the Impact of Firearms in the History of Warfare in Ethiopia (C. 1500-1800) |year=1980 |journal=Journal of Ethiopian Studies |volume=14 |page=109 |jstor=41965889 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41965889 |access-date=2021-08-20 |archive-date=2021-05-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210508192209/https://www.jstor.org/stable/41965889 |url-status=live }}}}

File:20-022 20 - Tiya Stele Field.jpg at Tiya ]]

The Adal Sultanate left behind many structures and artefacts from its heyday. Numerous such historical edifices and items are found in the northwestern Awdal province of Somaliland, as well as other parts of the Horn region where the polity held sway.{{cite book|last1=University of Ghana, Institute of African Studies|title=Research review, Volumes 3–4|date=1966|publisher=The Institute|page=67|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nPUsAQAAIAAJ|access-date=6 October 2014|archive-date=26 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200726154318/https://books.google.com/books?id=nPUsAQAAIAAJ|url-status=live}} According to archaeologist Jorge Rodriguez, substances located in western northern Somalia indicate outposts were mainly established during the Adal Sultanate, and don't predate the ruins found in ancient Islamic regions of Ifat or Harar plateau, this he states reaffirms the notion that modern eastern Ethiopia is where the principal Muslim kingdoms materialized.{{cite journal |last1=Rodriguez |first1=Jorge |title=Urban mosques in the Horn of Africa during the medieval period |journal=Revue des Mondes Musulmans et de la Méditerranée |year=2023 |issue=153 |pages=37–64 |quote="In general, the materials found in medieval sites throughout western Somaliland show a consistent chronology which would date their construction to the Sultanate of Barr Saʿd al-Dīn (c. 1415-1573). The settlements located in the Ifāt and Harar regions have older chronologies (Fauvelle-Aymar & Hirsch, 2011: 36; Insoll, 2021: 498; Pradines 2017: 16), something that fits well with their position in a region with a much older Muslim tradition from which there emerged the main Muslim polities in the Horn of Africa." |publisher=Aix-Marseille Université |doi=10.4000/remmm.19266 |url=https://journals.openedition.org/remmm/19266 |doi-access=free |hdl=10261/349840 |hdl-access=free |access-date=2023-08-25 |archive-date=2023-08-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230825041334/https://journals.openedition.org/remmm/19266 |url-status=live }}

Archaeological excavations in the late 19th century and early 20th century at over fourteen sites in the vicinity of Borama in modern-day northwestern Somaliland unearthed, among other artefacts, silver coins identified as having been derived from Qaitbay (1468–89), the eighteenth Burji Mamluk Sultan of Egypt.Royal Geographical Society (Great Britain), The Geographical Journal, Volume 87, (Royal Geographical Society: 1936), p.301. Most of these finds are associated with the medieval Adal Sultanate.Bernard Samuel Myers, ed., Encyclopedia of World Art, Volume 13, (McGraw-Hill: 1959), p.xcii. They were sent to the British Museum for preservation shortly after their discovery.

File:Zayla.jpg]]

In 1950, the British Somaliland protectorate government commissioned an archaeological survey in twelve desert towns in present-day Republic of Somaliland, near the border with Ethiopia. According to the expedition team, the sites yielded the most salient evidence of late medieval period affluence. They contained ruins of what were evidently once large cities belonging to the Adal Sultanate. Towns such as Awbare, Awbube, Amud, Abasa and Gogesa, featured between 200 and 300 stone houses. The walls of certain sites still reportedly stood 18 meters high. Excavations in the area yielded 26 silver coins, unlike the copper pieces that were more common in polities below the Horn region. The earliest of these recovered coins had been minted by Sultan Barquq (1382–99), also of the Egyptian Burji dynasty, and the latest were again Sultan Qaitbay issues. All of the pieces had been struck in either Cairo or Damascus. A few gold coins were also discovered during the expedition, making the area the only place in the wider region to yield such pieces. Besides coinage, high quality porcelain was recovered from the Adal sites. The fine celadon ware was found either lying on the surface, or buried at a depth of seven and a half inches, or ensconced within dense middens four to five feet high. Among the artefacts were grey granular sherds with a cracked blue-green or sea-green glaze, and white crystalline fragments with an uncracked green-white glaze. Some Ming dynasty ware was also discovered, including many early Ming blue-and-white bowl sherds. They were adorned with tendril scrolls on a bluish ground and ornamented with black spotting, while other bowls had floral patterns outlined by grey or black-blue designs. Additionally, a few Ming red-and-white sherds were found, as well as white porcelain fragments with bluish highlights. The Adal sites appeared to reach an Indian Ocean terminus at the Sa'ad ad-Din Islands, named for Sultan Sa'ad ad-Din II of the Ifat Sultanate.{{cite book|editor1=Zbigniew A. Konczacki|editor2=Janina M. Konczacki|title=An Economic History of Tropical Africa: The Pre-colonial Period|date=1977|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=0714629197|pages=[https://archive.org/details/economichistoryo0001unse/page/233 233–234]|url=https://archive.org/details/economichistoryo0001unse/page/233|access-date=2 November 2014}}

Additionally, local tradition identifies the archaeological site of Tiya in central Ethiopia as Yegragn Dingay ("Gran's stone") in reference to Imam Al-Ghazi. According to Joussaume (1995), who led archaeological work there, the site is relatively recent. It has been dated to between the 11th and 13th centuries CE. Tiya contains a number of megalithic pillars, including anthropomorphic and non-anthropomorphic/non-phallic stelae. Flat in form, these structures are characterized by distinctive, elaborate decorations, among which are swords, a standing human figure with arms akimbo, and plant-like symbols.{{cite book|last1=Fukui|first1=Katsuyoshi|title=Ethiopia in broader perspective: papers of the XIIIth International Conference of Ethiopian Studies Kyoto 12–17 December 1997|date=1997|publisher=Shokado Book Sellers|isbn=4879749761|page=370|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7KpyAAAAMAAJ|access-date=23 December 2014|archive-date=12 December 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151212043439/https://books.google.com/books?id=7KpyAAAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}

{{Chart top|width=100%|collapsed=no|Walashma dynasty}}

{{Tree chart/start|align=center|style=font-size:100%}}

{{Tree chart|border=1| |}}

{{Tree chart|border=1| | | | | | | | |001 |

001=Sa'ad al-Din II
Ahmad
Sultan of Ifat
{{r.|1386/7|1402/3}}}}

{{Tree chart|border=1| |,|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|+|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|.| |}}

{{Tree chart|border=1|001 | |002 | |003 | |004 | |005 |

001=Sabr al-Din III
Sa'ad al-Din
{{r.|1415|1422/3}}|

002=Mansur
Sa'ad al-Din
{{r.|1422/3|1424}}|

003=Jamal al-Din II
Sa'ad al-Din
{{r.|1424|1433}}|

004=Badlay
Sa'ad ad-Din
{{r.|1433|1445}}|

005=Abu Bakr
Sa'ad al-Din}}

{{Tree chart|border=1| | | | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | |!| |}}

{{Tree chart|border=1| | | | | | | | | | | | |001 | |002 |

001=Muhammad
Badlay
{{r.|1445|1472}}|

002=Azhar
Abu Bakr}}

{{Tree chart|border=1| | | | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | |!| |}}

{{Tree chart|border=1| | | | | | | | | | | | |001 | |002 |

001=Shams al-Din
Muhammad
{{r.|1472|1488}}|

002=Muhammad
Azhar
{{r.|1488|1518}}}}

{{Tree chart|border=1| | | | | | | | | | | | | |,|-|-|-|(| |}}

{{Tree chart|border=1| | | | | | | | | | | | |001 | |002 |

001=Abu Bakr
Muhammad
{{r.|1525|1526}}|

002=Umar al-Din
Muhammad
{{r.|1526|1553}}}}

{{Tree chart|border=1| | | | | | | | | | | | | |,|-|-|-|(| |}}

{{Tree chart|border=1| | | | | | | | | | | | |001 | |002 |

001=Ali
Umar al-Din
{{r.|1553|1555}}|

002=Barakat
Umar al-Din
{{r.|1555|1559}}}}

{{Tree chart|border=1| |}}

{{Tree chart/end}}

{{Chart bottom}}

{{Chart top|width=100%|collapsed=no|Harari Emirs}}

{{Tree chart/start|align=center|style=font-size:100%}}

{{Tree chart|border=1| |}}

{{Tree chart|border=1| | | | | | | | |F|~|~|~|~|~|~|7| |}}

{{Tree chart|border=1| | | | | | | |001 | | | | | |:| | |002 |

001=Ibrahim|

002=Abun Adashe
{{r.|1518|1525}}}}

{{Tree chart|border=1| | | | | |,|-|-|^|-|-|.| | | |:| | | |!| |}}

{{Tree chart|border=1|001 |y|002 | | | | |!| | | |:| | |003 |

001=Mujahid
ibn Ali|

002=daughter|

003=Abbas Abun|}}

{{Tree chart|border=1| | | |!| | | | | | | |!| | | |:| | | |!| |}}

{{Tree chart|border=1| | | |!| | |001 | | |!| | | |:| | |002 |

001=Mahfuz|

002=Talha Abbas
{{r.|1569|1571}}}}

{{Tree chart|border=1| | | |!| | | |!| | | |!| | | |:| |}}

{{Tree chart|border=1| | |001 |~|002 |~|003 | | |:| |

001=Nur ibn
Mujahid
{{r.|1550|1567}}|

002=Bati del
Wambara|

003=Ahmad ibn
Ibrahim
al-Ghazi}}

{{Tree chart|border=1| | | |Q| | | | | | | | | | | |:| |}}

{{Tree chart|border=1| | |001 | | | | | | | | | | |:| |

001=(Former Slave)|boxstyle_001=border-width:0px}}

{{Tree chart|border=1| | |001 | | | | | | | | | | |:| |

001=Uthman
al-Habshi
{{r.|1567|1569}}}}

{{Tree chart|border=1| | | |!| | | | | | | | | | | |:| |}}

{{Tree chart|border=1| | |001 | | | | | | | | | | |:| |

001=Nasir ibn
Uthman
{{r.|1571|1573}}}}

{{Tree chart|border=1| | | |!| | | | | | | | | | | |:| |}}

{{Tree chart|border=1| | |001 | | | | | | | | | |002 |

001=Muhammad
ibn Nasir
{{r.|1573|1575}}|

002=Ibrahim}}

{{Tree chart|border=1| | | |!| | | | | | | | | | | |!| |}}

{{Tree chart|border=1| | |001 | | | | | | | | | |002 |

001=Mansur ibn
Muhammad
{{r.|1575|1577}}|

002=Muhammad
Gasa
{{r.|1577|1577}}}}

{{Tree chart|border=1| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |!| |}}

{{Tree chart|border=1| | | | | | | | | | | | | | |001 |

001=Imamate
of Aussa}}

{{Tree chart|border=1| |}}

{{Tree chart/end}}

{{Chart bottom}}

• Garad, administrative Adal title
• Hegano, administrative Adal title
• Malak, administrative Adal title
• Kabir, religious Adal title
• List of Sunni Muslim dynasties
• Gadabuursi Ughazate

{{reflist}}

;Works cited

• {{cite book|last1=Elrich|first1=Haggai|date=2001|title=The Cross and the River: Ethiopia, Egypt, and the Nile|location=Boulder, CO|publisher =Lynne Rienner|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mhCN2qo43jkC&pg=PA36|isbn=978-1-55587-970-9}}
• {{Cite book |last=Pankhurst |first=Richard |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zpYBD3bzW1wC |title=The Ethiopian Borderlands: Essays in Regional History from Ancient Times to the End of the 18th Century |year=1997 |publisher=The Red Sea Press |isbn=9780932415196 |language=en}}
• {{cite book|last1=Tamrat|first1=Taddesse|author1-link=Taddesse Tamrat|date=1977|chapter= Ethiopia, the Red Sea and the Horn|editor1-last=Oliver|editor1-first=Roland|editor1-link=Roland Oliver|title=The Cambridge History of Africa. Volume 3: from c. 1050 to c. 1600|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|pages=98–182|isbn=978-0-521-20981-6}}
• {{cite book|last1=Whiteway|first1=Richard Stephen|date=1902|title=The Portuguese Expedition to Abyssinia in 1541–1543 as Narrated by Castanhoso|location=London|publisher=Hakluyt Society|url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_P39JAAAAYAAJ}}

{{Empires}}

{{Medieval Horn of Africa}}

{{Djibouti topics|state=collapsed}}

{{Eritrea topics|state=collapsed}}

{{Ethiopia topics|state=collapsed}}

{{Somaliland topics|state=collapsed}}

{{Somalia topics|state=collapsed}}

Category:Former sultanates in the medieval Horn of Africa

Category:15th century in Africa

Category:16th century in Africa

Category:History of Eritrea

Category:15th century in Ethiopia

Category:16th century in Ethiopia

Category:900 establishments

Category:15th-century establishments in Africa

Category:History of Harar

Category:States and territories disestablished in the 1570s