Abrahamic religions

The term Abrahamic religions (and its variations) is a collective religious descriptor for elements shared by Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.Gaston, K. Healan. "The Judeo-Christian and Abrahamic Traditions in America." Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Religion. 2018. It features prominently in interfaith dialogue and political discourse but also has entered academic discourse.Bakhos, Carol. The Family of Abraham: Jewish, Christian, and Muslim Interpretations. Harvard University Press, 2014.Dodds, Adam. "The Abrahamic faiths? Continuity and discontinuity in Christian and Islamic doctrine." Evangelical Quarterly: An International Review of Bible and Theology 81.3 (2009): 230–253. However, the term has also been criticized for being uncritically adopted. The term appears first time in the second half of the 20th century.Stroumsa, Guy G. "From Abraham's Religion to the Abrahamic Religions." Historia religionum: an international Journal: 3, 2011 (2011): 11–22. p. 21

Although historically the term Abrahamic religions was limited to Judaism, Christianity, and Islam,{{cite web |last=Abulafia |first=Anna Sapir |author-link=Anna Abulafia |date=23 September 2019 |title=The Abrahamic religions |url=https://www.bl.uk/sacred-texts/articles/the-abrahamic-religions |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200712150432/https://www.bl.uk/sacred-texts/articles/the-abrahamic-religions |archive-date=12 July 2020 |access-date=9 March 2021 |publisher=British Library |location=London}} restricting the category to these three religions has come under criticism.*{{cite web |last=Micksch |first=Jürgen |title=Trialog International – Die jährliche Konferenz |publisher=Herbert Quandt Stiftung |year=2009 |url=http://www.herbert-quandt-stiftung.de/root/index.php?lang=de&page_id=885 |access-date=19 September 2009 |archive-url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160523192258/http://www.herbert-quandt-stiftung.de/root/index.php?lang=de&page_id=885 |archive-date=23 May 2016 |url-status=dead}}{{sfn|Collins|2004|pp=157, 160}} The late-19th-century Baháʼí Faith has been listed as Abrahamic by scholarly sources in various fields{{sfn |Lubar Institute |2016}}{{sfn |Beit-Hallahmi |1992 |pp=48–49}} since it is a monotheistic religion that recognizes Abraham.{{sfn |Smith |2008 |p=106}}{{sfn |Cole |2012 |pp=438–446}}

The figure of Abraham is suggested as a common ground for Judaism, Christianity, Islam and a hypothesized eschatological reconciliation of the three.Krista N. Dalton (2014) Abrahamic Religions: On Uses and Abuses of History by Aaron W. Hughes, Oxford University Press: New York, 2012, 191 pp. {{ISBN|978-0-19-993463-5}}, US$55.00 (hardback), Religion, 44:4, 684–686, DOI: 10.1080/0048721X.2013.862421Hughes, Aaron W. Abrahamic religions: On the uses and abuses of history. Oxford University Press, 2012. p. 17 Commonalities may include creation, revelation, and redemption, but such shared concepts vary significantly between and within the Abrahamic religions themselves. Proponents of the term argue that all three religions are united through the deity worshipped by Abraham.

The Catholic scholar of Islam, Louis Massignon, stated that the phrase "Abrahamic religion" means that all these religions come from one spiritual source.{{sfn |Massignon |1949 |pp=20–23}} The modern term comes from the plural form of a Quranic reference to dīn Ibrāhīm ("religion of Ibrahim"), the Arabic form of Abraham's name.{{sfn |Stroumsa |2017 |p=7}}

In Christianity, Paul the Apostle, in Romans 4:11–12, refers to Abraham as "father of all", including those "who have faith, circumcised or uncircumcised." From its founding, Islam likewise conceived of itself as the religion of Abraham.{{sfn |Levenson |2012 |pp=178–179}} The Bahá’í scriptures state that the religion's founder, Baháʼu'lláh, descended from Abraham through his wife Keturah's sons.{{sfn |Bremer |2015 |p=19–20}}{{sfn |Able |2011 |p=219}}{{sfn |Hatcher |Martin |1998 |pp=130–31}}

The appropriateness of grouping Judaism, Christianity, and Islam as "Abrahamic religions" and related terms has been challenged.{{cite journal |last=Boyd |first=Samuel L. |title=Judaism, Christianity, and Islam: The problem of 'Abrahamic religions' and the possibilities of comparison |journal=Religion Compass |date=October 2019 |volume=13 |issue=10 |doi=10.1111/rec3.12339 |s2cid=203090839 |url=https://compass.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/rec3.12339 |issn=1749-8171 |url-access=subscription }} Adam Dodds argues that the term "Abrahamic faiths", while helpful, can be misleading, as it conveys an unspecified historical and theological commonality that is problematic on closer examination. While there is a commonality among the religions, their shared ancestry is mainly peripheral to their respective foundational beliefs and thus conceals crucial differences.{{sfn |Dodds |2009 |pp=230–253}} Alan L. Berger, professor of Judaic Studies at Florida Atlantic University, wrote that "while Judaism birthed both Christianity and Islam, the three monotheistic faiths went their separate ways" and "each tradition views the patriarchal figure differently as seen in the theological claims they make about him."Berger, Alan L., ed. Trialogue and Terror: Judaism, Christianity, and Islam after 9/11. Wipf and Stock Publishers, 2012. Aaron W. Hughes, meanwhile, describes the term as "imprecise" and "largely a theological neologism."{{Sfn |Hughes |2012 |pp=3–4, 7–8, 17, 32}}

The common Christian doctrines of Jesus' Incarnation, the Trinity, and the resurrection of Jesus, for example, are accepted in neither Judaism nor Islam. There are fundamental beliefs in both Islam and Judaism that are likewise denied by most of Christianity (e.g., the restrictions on pork consumption found in Jewish and Islamic dietary law), and key beliefs of Islam, Christianity, and the Baháʼí Faith not shared by Judaism (e.g., the prophetic and Messianic position of Jesus).{{sfn|Greenstreet|2006|p=95}}

{{Main |Jewish history}}

File:Torah Hebraica.png

Jewish tradition claims that the Twelve Tribes of Israel are descended from Abraham through his son Isaac and grandson Jacob, whose sons formed the nation of the Israelites in Canaan; Islamic tradition claims that twelve Arab tribes known as the Ishmaelites are descended from Abraham through his son Ishmael in the Arabian Peninsula.{{harvp|Hatcher|Martin|1998|pp=130–31}}; {{harvp|Bremer|2015|p=19–20}}; {{harvp|Able|2011|p=219}}; {{harvp|Dever|2001|pp=97–102}}

In its early stages, the Israelite religion shares traits with the Canaanite religions of the Bronze Age; by the Iron Age, it had become distinct from other Canaanite religions as it shed polytheism for monolatry. They understood their relationship with their god, Yahweh, as a covenant and that the deity promised Abraham a permanent homeland.Cohen, Charles L. The Abrahamic religions: a very short introduction. Oxford University Press, USA, 2020. p. 9

While the Book of Genesis speaks of ʾĔlōhīm, comparable to the Enūma Eliš speaking of various gods of the Canaanite pantheon to create the earth, at the time of the Babylonian captivity, Jewish theologians attributed the six-day narrative all to Yahweh, reflecting an early conception of Yahweh as a universal deity.Burrell, David B., et al., eds. Creation and the God of Abraham. Cambridge University Press, 2010. p. 14–15 The monolatrist nature of Yahwism was further developed in the period following the Babylonian captivity, eventually emerging as a firm religious movement of monotheism.{{harvp|Edelman|1995|p=19}}; {{harvp|Gnuse|2016|p=5}}; {{harvp|Carraway|2013|p=66|ps=: "Second, it was probably not until the exile that monotheism proper was clearly formulated."}}; {{harvp|Finkelstein|Silberman|2002|p=234|ps=: "The idolatry of the people of Judah was not a departure from their earlier monotheism. It was, instead, the way the people of Judah had worshiped for hundreds of years."}}{{cite web |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00zw3fl |title=BBC Two – Bible's Buried Secrets, Did God Have a Wife? |publisher=BBC |date=21 December 2011 |access-date=4 July 2012 |archive-date=15 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120115173447/http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00zw3fl |url-status=live}} Quote from the BBC documentary (prof. Herbert Niehr): "Between the 10th century and the beginning of their exile in 586 there was polytheism as normal religion all throughout Israel; only afterwards things begin to change and very slowly they begin to change. I would say it [the sentence "Jews were monotheists" – n.n.] is only correct for the last centuries, maybe only from the period of the Maccabees, that means the second century BC, so in the time of Jesus of Nazareth it is true, but for the time before it, it is not true."{{cite web |first=Christine |last=Hayes |title=Moses and the Beginning of Yahwism: (Genesis 37- Exodus 4), Christine Hayes, Open Yale Courses (Transcription), 2006. |website=Center for Online Judaic Studies |date=3 July 2008 |url=http://cojs.org/moses_and_the_beginning_of_yahwism-_-genesis_37-_exodus_4-_christine_hayes-_open_yale_courses_-transcription-_2006/ |access-date=17 August 2022 |quote="Only later would a Yahweh-only party polemicize against and seek to suppress certain… what came to be seen as undesirable elements of Israelite-Judean religion, and these elements would be labeled Canaanite, as a part of a process of Israelite differentiation. But what appears in the Bible as a battle between Israelites, pure Yahwists, and Canaanites, pure polytheists, is indeed better understood as a civil war between Yahweh-only Israelites, and Israelites who are participating in the cult of their ancestors." |archive-date=17 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220817010524/http://cojs.org/moses_and_the_beginning_of_yahwism-_-genesis_37-_exodus_4-_christine_hayes-_open_yale_courses_-transcription-_2006/ |url-status=live}} With the Fall of Babylon, Judaism incorporated concepts such as messianism, belief in free will and judgement after death, conception of heaven and hell, angels and demons, among others, into their belief-system.{{Cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/15283-zoroastrianism|title=Zoroastrianism ("Resemblances Between Zoroastrianism and Judaism" and "Causes of Analogies Uncertain")|date=1906|author1=Kaufmann Kohler|author2=A. V. Williams Jackson|encyclopedia=The Jewish Encyclopaedia|access-date=3 February 2022}}{{cite book |last=Grabbe |first=Lester L. |author-link=Lester L. Grabbe |date=2006 |title=A History of the Jews and Judaism in the Second Temple Period (vol. 1): The Persian Period (539-331BCE) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1cPeBAAAQBAJ |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |pages=361–364 |isbn=9780567216175}}{{harvnb|Black|Rowley|1982|p=607b}}.

{{Main |History of Christianity}}

File:Bible.malmesbury.arp.jpg, on display in Malmesbury Abbey, Wiltshire, England. This Bible was transcribed in Belgium in 1407 for reading aloud in a monastery.]]

Christianity traces back their origin to the 1st century as a sect within Judaism initially led by Jesus. His followers viewed him as the Messiah, as in the Confession of Peter; after his crucifixion and death they came to view him as God incarnate,Pavlac, Brian A (2010). A Concise Survey of Western Civilization: Supremacies and Diversities. Chapter 6. who was resurrected and will return at the end of time to judge the living and the dead and create an eternal Kingdom of God.

In the 1st century AD, under the Apostles of Jesus of Nazareth;{{sfn |Bremer |2015 |p=19–20}} Christianity spread widely. Paul the Apostle interpreted the role of Abraham differently from the Jews of his time.Howard, James M. "Paul, Monotheism and the People of God: The Significance of Abraham Traditions for Early Judaism and Christianity." Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 49.1 (2006): 516. While for the Jews, Abraham was considered a loyal monotheist in a polytheistic environment, Paul celebrates Abraham as a man who found faith in God before adhering to religious law. In contrast to Judaism, adherence to religious law becomes associated with idolatry.Howard, James M. "Paul, Monotheism and the People of God: The Significance of Abraham Traditions for Early Judaism and Christianity." Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 49.1 (2006): 517.

While Christians fashioned their religion around Jesus of Nazareth, the siege of Jerusalem (70 CE), forced Jews to reconcile their belief-system with the destruction of the Second Temple and associated rituals.Cohen, Charles L. The Abrahamic religions: a very short introduction. Oxford University Press, USA, 2020. p. 41 At this time, both Judaism and Christianity had to systematize their scriptures and beliefs, resulting in competing theologies both claiming Abrahamic heritage.Cohen, Charles L. The Abrahamic religions: a very short introduction. Oxford University Press, USA, 2020. p. 41–57 Christians could hardly dismiss the Hebrew scriptures as Jesus himself refers to them according to Christian reports, and parallels between Jesus and the Biblical stories of creation and redemption starting with Abraham in the Book of Genesis.Burrell, David B., et al., eds. Creation and the God of Abraham. Cambridge University Press, 2010. p. 41 The distant God asserted by Jesus according to the Christians, created a form of dualism between Creator and creation and the doctrine of Creatio ex nihilo, which later heavily influenced Jewish and Islamic theology.Burrell, David B., et al., eds. Creation and the God of Abraham. Cambridge University Press, 2010. p. 25–39 By that, Christians established their own identity, distinct from both Greeks and Jews, as those who venerate the deity of Jesus.Cohen, Charles L. The Abrahamic religions: a very short introduction. Oxford University Press, USA, 2020. p. 40

After several periods of alternating persecution and relative peace vis-à-vis the Roman authorities under different administrations, Christianity became the state church of the Roman Empire in 380, but has been split into various churches from its beginning. An attempt was made by the Byzantine Empire to unify Christendom, but this formally failed with the East–West Schism of 1054. In the 16th century, the birth and growth of Protestantism during the Reformation further split Christianity into many denominations.

Christianity remains culturally diverse in its Western and Eastern branches, Christianity played a prominent role in the development of Western civilization.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U2pnv0Aoh2EC&pg=PA33|title=Western Civilization: A Brief History, Volume I: To 1789|author=Marvin Perry|date=1 January 2012|publisher=Cengage Learning|isbn=978-1-111-83720-4|pages=33–}}

{{Main |History of Islam}}

File:Central illumination of the Royal Terengganu Quran (Islamic Arts Museum Malaysia).jpg

Islam is based on the teachings of the Quran. Although it considers Muhammad to be the Seal of the prophets, Islam teaches that every prophet preached Islam, as the word Islam means submission, the main concept preached by all prophets. Although the Quran is the central religious text of Islam, which Muslims believe to be a revelation from God,{{cite encyclopedia |last=Nasr |first=Seyyed Hossein |author-link=Seyyed Hossein Nasr |title=Qurʼān |year=2007 |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online |access-date=4 November 2007 |url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-68890/Quran |archive-date=16 October 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071016200056/http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-68890/Quran |url-status=live}} other Islamic books considered to be revealed by God before the Quran, mentioned by name in the Quran are the Tawrat (Torah) revealed to the prophets and messengers amongst the Children of Israel (Bani Israil), the Zabur (Psalms) revealed to Dawud (David) and the Injil (the Gospel) revealed to Isa (Jesus). The Quran also mentions God having revealed the Scrolls of Abraham and the Scrolls of Moses.

The relationship between Islamic and Hebrew scriptures and New Testament differs significantly from the relationship between the New Testament and the Hebrew Bible.Cohen, Charles L. The Abrahamic religions: a very short introduction. Oxford University Press, USA, 2020. p. 62 Whereas the New Testament draws heavily on the Hebrew Bible and interprets its text in light of the foundations of the new religion, the Quran only alludes to various stories of Biblical writings, but remains independent of both, focusing on establishing a monotheistic message by utilizing the stories of the prophets in a religious decentralized environment.

In the 7th century AD, Islam was founded by Muhammad in the Arabian Peninsula; it spread widely through the early Muslim conquests, shortly after his death.{{sfn |Bremer |2015 |p=19–20}} Islam understands its form of "Abrahamic monotheism" as preceding both Judaism and Christianity, and in contrast with Arabian Henotheism.Athamina, Khalil. "Abraham in Islamic perspective reflections on the development of monotheism in pre-Islamic Arabia." (2004): 184–205.

The teachings of the Quran are believed by Muslims to be the direct and final revelation and words of God. Islam, like Christianity, is a universal religion (i.e. membership is open to anyone). Like Judaism, it has a strictly unitary conception of God, called tawhid or "strict monotheism".[http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/ataglance/glance.shtml Religions » Islam » Islam at a glance] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090521230250/http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/ataglance/glance.shtml |date=21 May 2009}}, BBC, 5 August 2009. The story of the creation of the world in the Quran is elaborated less extensively than in the Hebrew scripture, emphasizing the transcendence and universality of God, instead. According to the Quran, God says kun fa-yakūnu.Burrell, David B., et al., eds. Creation and the God of Abraham. Cambridge University Press, 2010. p. 41. The Quran describes God as the creator of "heavens and earth", to emphasize that it is a universal God and not a local Arabian deity here.

While many sources limit the list of Abrahamic religions to only include Judaism, Christianity and Islam, some sources include other religions as well.

Samaritanism diverged from Judaism in the 6th to 3rd centuries BCE; although sometimes considered a branch of Judaism, most consider it to be an independent Abrahamic religion.

Some sources consider Mandaeism to be an Abrahamic religion – however, that classification is controversial, given Mandaeism does not accept Abraham as a prophet, despite revering as prophets several other figures from the Jewish scriptures – on the contrary, they believe that Abraham was originally a priest of their religion, but became an apostate from it.

Druze is another religion which emerged from Islam in the 11th century, and hence is sometimes also considered an Abrahamic religion.

Yarsanism is a Kurdish religion which combines elements of Shi'a Islam with pre-Islamic Kurdish beliefs; it has been classified as Abrahamic due to its monotheism, incorporation of Islamic doctrines, and reverence for Islamic figures, especially Ali ibn Abi Talib, the fourth caliph and first imam of Shia Islam.

A number of sources include the Baháʼí Faith established in the 19th century,{{sfn|Lubar Institute|2016}}{{sfn|Beit-Hallahmi|1992|pp=48–49}} since it historically emerged in an Islamic milieu, and shares several beliefs with the Abrahamic faiths, including monotheism and recognising Jewish, Christian and Islamic figures as prophets.{{sfn|Smith|2008|p=106}}{{sfn|Cole|2012|pp=438–446}} Some also include Bábism, another 19th century movement which was a precursor to the Baháʼí Faith.

Rastafari, an Afrocentric religion which emerged from Christianity in 1930s Jamaica, is also sometimes classified as Abrahamic, in particular due to its monotheism and use of the Bible as scripture.{{cite book |last=Petray |first=Theresa |year=2020 |chapter=Rastafarianism |editor-last1=Possamai |editor-first1=Adam |editor-last2=Blasi |editor-first2=Anthony J. |title=The SAGE Encyclopedia of the Sociology of Religion |publisher=Sage Publications |location=Los Angeles |pages=659–661 |isbn=978-1473942202}}{{cite book |last=Weidner |first=Veronika |year=2021 |chapter=Revelation in Abrahamic Faiths |title=The Encyclopedia of Philosophy of Religion |location=Hoboken, NJ |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |editor1-last=Goetz |editor1-first=Stewart |editor2-first=Charles |editor2-last=Taliaferro |pages=1–6 |doi=10.1002/9781119009924.eopr0337 |isbn=9781119010951 |s2cid=237711314 }}

Chrislam, a group of related Nigerian religious movements which seek to syncretise Christianity and Islam, is sometimes also considered a minor Abrahamic religion.

{{Synthesis|section|date=February 2024}}

All Abrahamic religions accept the tradition that God revealed himself to the patriarch Abraham.{{sfn |Peters |2018 |p=}}{{page needed |date=August 2022}} All of them are monotheistic, and all of them conceive God to be a transcendent creator and the source of moral law.{{cite web |year=2002 |title=Religion: Three Religions – One God |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/globalconnections/mideast/themes/religion/index.html |work=Global Connections of the Middle East |publisher=WGBH Educational Foundation |access-date=20 September 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090917070320/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/globalconnections/mideast/themes/religion/index.html |archive-date=17 September 2009 |url-status=live }} Their religious texts feature many of the same figures, histories, and places, although they often present them with different roles, perspectives, and meanings.{{sfn |Kunst |Thomsen |2014 |pp=1–14}} Believers who agree on these similarities and the common Abrahamic origin tend to also be more positive towards other Abrahamic groups.{{sfn |Kunst |Thomsen |Sam |2014 |pp=337–348}}

In the three main Abrahamic religions (Judaism, Christianity and Islam), the individual, God, and the universe are highly separate from each other. The Abrahamic religions believe in a judging, paternal, fully external god to which the individual and nature are both subordinate. One seeks salvation or transcendence not by contemplating the natural world or via philosophical speculation, but by seeking reconciliation with God through acts of redemption and see divine revelation as outside of self, nature, and custom.

{{Main |God in Abrahamic religions}}

All Abrahamic religions claim to be monotheistic, worshiping an exclusive God, although believed by many comparative theologians to be one and the same known by different names.{{sfn |Peters |2018 |p=}}{{page needed |date=August 2022}} Each of these religions preaches that God creates, is one, rules, reveals, loves, judges, punishes, and forgives.{{sfn |Dodds |2009 |pp=230–253}} However, although Christianity does not profess to believe in three gods—but rather in three persons, or hypostases, united in one essence—the Trinitarian doctrine, a fundamental of faith for the vast majority of Christian denominations,{{cite web |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/christianity/beliefs/trinity_1.shtml |title=The Trinity |date=July 2011 |publisher=BBC |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180920170829/http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/christianity/beliefs/trinity_1.shtml |archive-date=20 September 2018 |url-status=live}}{{cite web |url=https://www.desiringgod.org/articles/what-is-the-doctrine-of-the-trinity |title=What Is the Doctrine of the Trinity? |last=Perman |first=Matt |date=January 2006 |website=desiring God |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181030035506/https://www.desiringgod.org/articles/what-is-the-doctrine-of-the-trinity |archive-date=30 October 2018 |url-status=live}} conflicts with Jewish and Muslim concepts of monotheism. Since the conception of a divine Trinity is not amenable to tawhid, the Islamic doctrine of monotheism, Islam regards Christianity as variously polytheistic.{{cite web |url=https://uwaterloo.ca/grebel/sites/ca.grebel/files/uploads/files/IslamicMonotheismandtheTrinity.pdf |title=Islamic Monotheism and the Trinity |last=Hoover |first=Jon |publisher=University of Waterloo |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130105155238/https://uwaterloo.ca/grebel/sites/ca.grebel/files/uploads/files/IslamicMonotheismandtheTrinity.pdf |archive-date=5 January 2013 |url-status=live}}

Christianity and Islam both revere Jesus (Arabic: Isa or Yasu among Muslims and Arab Christians respectively) but with vastly differing conceptions:

• Christians view Jesus as the saviour and regard him as God incarnate.
• Muslims see Isa as a Prophet of Islam{{sfn|Rubin|2001}}{{page needed|date=September 2022}} and Messiah. Isa (Jesus) is also believed by Muslims to return to Earth before the doomsday to defeat the Dajjal (the Anti-Christ) and restore peace for a period of time.{{citation needed|date=March 2024}}

However, the worship of Jesus, or the ascribing of partners to God (known as shirk in Islam and as shituf in Judaism), is typically viewed as the heresy of idolatry by Islam and Judaism.{{citation needed |date=January 2021}}

{{main |Religious significance of Jerusalem}}

{{further |Jerusalem in Judaism |Jerusalem in Christianity |Jerusalem in Islam}}

Jerusalem is considered Judaism's holiest city. Its origins can be dated to 1004 BCE,{{sfn |Tucker |Roberts |2008 |p=541}} when according to Biblical tradition David established it as the capital of the United Kingdom of Israel, and his son Solomon built the First Temple on Mount Moriah.{{sfn |pp=302–303 |Fine |2011}} Since the Hebrew Bible relates that Isaac's sacrifice took place there, Mount Moriah's importance for Jews predates even these prominent events. Jews thrice daily pray in its direction, including in their prayers pleas for the restoration and the rebuilding of the Holy Temple (the Third Temple) on mount Moriah, close the Passover service with the wistful statement "Next year in built Jerusalem," and recall the city in the blessing at the end of each meal. Jerusalem has served as the only capital for the five Jewish states that have existed in Israel since 1400 BCE (the United Kingdom of Israel, the Kingdom of Judah, Yehud Medinata, the Hasmonean Kingdom, and modern Israel). It has been majority Jewish since about 1852 and continues through today.{{sfn |Morgenstern |2006 |p=201 }}{{sfn |Lapidoth |Hirsch |1994 |p=384}}

Jerusalem was an early center of Christianity. There has been a continuous Christian presence there since.{{sfn |Wilken |1986 |p=678}} William R. Kenan, Jr., professor of the history of Christianity at the University of Virginia, Charlottesville, writes that from the middle of the 4th century to the Islamic conquest in the middle of the 7th century, the Roman province of Syria Palaestina was a Christian nation with Jerusalem its principal city.{{sfn |Wilken |1986 |p=678}} According to the New Testament, Jerusalem was the city Jesus was brought to as a child to be presented at the temple{{bibleverse |Luke |2:22}} and for the feast of the Passover.{{bibleverse |Luke |2:41}} He preached and healed in Jerusalem, unceremoniously drove the money changers in disarray from the temple there, held the Last Supper in an "upper room" (traditionally the Cenacle) there the night before he was crucified on the cross and was arrested in Gethsemane. The six parts to Jesus' trial—three stages in a religious court and three stages before a Roman court—were all held in Jerusalem. His crucifixion at Golgotha, his burial nearby (traditionally the Church of the Holy Sepulchre), and his resurrection and ascension and prophecy to return all are said to have occurred or will occur there.

Jerusalem became holy to Muslims, third after Mecca and Medina. The Al-Aqsa, which translates to "farthest mosque" in sura Al-Isra in the Quran and its surroundings are addressed in the Quran as "the holy land". Muslim tradition as recorded in the ahadith identifies al-Aqsa with a mosque in Jerusalem. The first Muslims did not pray toward Kaaba, but toward Jerusalem. The qibla was switched to Kaaba later on to fulfill the order of Allah of praying in the direction of Kaaba (Quran, Al-Baqarah 2:144–150). Another reason for its significance is its connection with the Miʿrāj,{{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/384897/Miraj, |title=Mi'raj – Islam |access-date=26 October 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629074204/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/384897/Miraj, |archive-date=29 June 2011 |url-status=live}} where, according to traditional Muslim belief, Muhammad ascended through the Seven heavens on a horse like winged beast named Buraq, guided by the Archangel Gabriel, beginning from the Foundation Stone on the Temple Mount, in modern times under the Dome of the Rock.{{cite web |last1=Perowne |first1=Stewart Henry |last2=Gordon |first2=Buzzy |last3=Prawer |first3=Joshua |last4=Dumper |first4=Michael |last5=Wasserstein |first5=Bernard |title=Jerusalem |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Jerusalem |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |access-date=14 September 2022 |date=13 August 2022 |archive-date=9 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200509065546/https://www.britannica.com/place/Jerusalem |url-status=live}}{{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/30995/Al-Aqsa-Mosque |title=Al-Aqsa Mosque – mosque, Jerusalem |access-date=26 October 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110118012709/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/30995/Al-Aqsa-Mosque |archive-date=18 January 2011 |url-status=live}}

{{Main |Covenant of the pieces |Abraham#Christianity |Abraham in Islam}}

Even though members of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam do not all claim Abraham as an ancestor, some members of these religions have tried to claim him as exclusively theirs.{{sfn |Lubar Institute |2016}}

For Jews, Abraham is the founding patriarch of the children of Israel. God promised Abraham: "I will make of you a great nation, and I will bless you."{{bibleverse |Gen. |12:2}} With Abraham, God entered into "an everlasting covenant throughout the ages to be God to you and to your offspring to come".{{bibleverse |Gen. |17:7}} It is this covenant that makes Abraham and his descendants children of the covenant. Similarly, converts, who join the covenant, are all identified as sons and daughters of Abraham.{{cite book |last= Kolatch|first= Alfred J.|author-link= Alfred J. Kolatch|date= 1985|title= The second Jewish book of why |url= https://archive.org/details/secondjewishbook00kola|location= Middle Village, N.Y|publisher= J. David Publishers|page= 127|isbn=0824603052}}

Abraham is primarily a revered ancestor or patriarch (referred to as Avraham Avinu (אברהם אבינו in Hebrew) "Abraham our father") to whom God made several promises: chiefly, that he would have numberless descendants, who would receive the land of Canaan (the "Promised Land"). According to Jewish tradition, Abraham was the first post-Flood prophet to reject idolatry through rational analysis, although Shem and Eber carried on the tradition from Noah.{{sfn |Schultz |1975 |pp=51–52}}{{sfn |Kaplan |1973 |p=161}}

Christians view Abraham as an important exemplar of faith, and a spiritual, as well as physical, ancestor of Jesus. For Christians, Abraham is a spiritual forebear as well as/rather than a direct ancestor depending on the individual's interpretation of Paul the Apostle,{{bibleverse |Rom. |4:9–12}} with the Abrahamic covenant "reinterpreted so as to be defined by faith in Christ rather than biological descent" or both by faith as well as a direct ancestor; in any case, the emphasis is placed on faith being the only requirement for the Abrahamic Covenant to applyBlasi, Turcotte, Duhaime, p. 592. (see also New Covenant and supersessionism). In Christian belief, Abraham is a role model of faith,{{bibleverse |Heb. |11:8–10}}{{primary source inline |date=August 2017}} and his obedience to God by offering Isaac is seen as a foreshadowing of God's offering of his son Jesus.{{bibleverse |Rom. |8:32}}{{sfn |MacArthur |1996 |}}

Christian commentators have a tendency to interpret God's promises to Abraham as applying to Christianity subsequent to, and sometimes rather than (as in supersessionism), being applied to Judaism, whose adherents rejected Jesus.{{POV statement |date=August 2022}} They argue this on the basis that just as Abraham as a Gentile (before he was circumcised) "believed God and it was credited to him as righteousness"{{bibleverse |Gen. |15:6}} (cf. Rom. 4:3, James 2:23), "those who have faith are children of Abraham"{{bibleverse |Gal. |3:7}} (see also John 8:39). This is most fully developed in Paul's theology where all who believe in God are spiritual descendants of Abraham.{{bibleverse |Rom. |4:20}}, {{bibleverse |Gal. |4:9}}{{efn |"So those who have faith are blessed along with Abraham, the man of faith."{{citation needed |date=August 2022}} "In other words, it is not the children by physical descent who are God's children, but it is the children of the promise who are regarded as Abraham's offspring."{{bibleverse | |Romans |9:8 |HE}}}} However, with regards to Rom. 4:20{{bibleverse|Romans|4:20|KJV}} King James Version (Oxford Standard, 1769) and Gal. 4:9,{{bibleverse|Galatians|4:9|KJV}} King James Version (Oxford Standard, 1769) in both cases he refers to these spiritual descendants as the "sons of God"{{bibleverse |Gal. |4:26}} rather than "children of Abraham".Bickerman, p. 188cf.

For Muslims, Abraham is a prophet, the "messenger of God" who stands in the line from Adam to Muhammad, to whom God gave revelations,{{cite quran |4 |163}}, who "raised the foundations of the House" (i.e., the Kaaba){{cite quran |2 |127}} with his first son, Isma'il, a symbol of which is every mosque.{{sfn |Leeming |2005 |p=[https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont0000leem/page/209 209]}} Ibrahim (Abraham) is the first in a genealogy for Muhammad. Islam considers Abraham to be "one of the first Muslims" (Surah 3)—the first monotheist in a world where monotheism was lost, and the community of those faithful to God,{{sfn |Fischer |Abedi |1990 |pp=[https://archive.org/details/debatingmuslimsc0000fisc/page/163 163]–166}} thus being referred to as ابونا ابراهيم or "Our Father Abraham", as well as Ibrahim al-Hanif or "Abraham the Monotheist". Also, the same as Judaism, Islam believes that Abraham rejected idolatry through logical reasoning. Abraham is also recalled in certain details of the annual Hajj pilgrimage.{{sfn |Hawting |2006 |pp=xviii, xix, xx, xxiii}}

{{Synthesis|section|date=February 2024}}

{{Main |God in Abrahamic religions |God in Judaism |God in Christianity |God in Islam |God in the Baháʼí Faith}}

{{Further |Yahweh |Tetragrammaton |El (deity) |Elohim |Names of God in Judaism |Names of God in Christianity |Names of God in Islam}}

The conception of God as universal remains a common feature of all Abrahamic religions.{{sfn |Christiano |Kivisto |Swatos |2015 |pp=254–255}} The Abrahamic God is conceived of as eternal, omnipotent, omniscient and as the creator of the universe.{{sfn |Christiano |Kivisto |Swatos |2015 |pp=254–255}} God is further held to have the properties of holiness, justice, omnibenevolence, and omnipresence.{{sfn |Christiano |Kivisto |Swatos |2015 |pp=254–255}} Proponents of Abrahamic faiths believe that God is also transcendent, but at the same time personal and involved, listening to prayer and reacting to the actions of his creatures.

File:JudaismSymbol.PNG (or Magen David) is a generally recognized symbol of modern Jewish identity and Judaism.]]

Jewish theology is unitarian. God is an absolute one, indivisible and incomparable being who is the ultimate cause of all existence. Jewish tradition teaches that the true aspect of God is incomprehensible and unknowable and that it is only God's revealed aspect that brought the universe into existence, and interacts with mankind and the world. In Judaism, the one God of Israel is the God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, who is the guide of the world, delivered Israel from slavery in Egypt, and gave them the 613 Mitzvot at Mount Sinai as described in the Torah.

The national god of the Israelites has a proper name, written Y-H-W-H ({{langx|he|יהוה|}}) in the Hebrew Bible. The etymology of the name is unknown.{{cite book |last=Hoffman |first=Joel |title=In the Beginning: A Short History of the Hebrew Language |publisher=NYU Press |year=2004 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5TShBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA236 |isbn=978-0-8147-3706-4 |page=236 |access-date=12 March 2023 |archive-date=5 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405051853/https://books.google.com/books?id=5TShBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA236 |url-status=live}} An explanation of the name is given to Moses when YHWH calls himself "I Am that I Am", ({{langx |he|אהיה אשר אהיה}} ’ehye ’ăšer ’ehye), seemingly connecting it to the verb hayah (הָיָה), meaning 'to be', but this is likely not a genuine etymology. Jewish tradition accords many names to God, including Elohim, Shaddai, and Sabaoth.

File:Christianity Symbol.png (or crux) is the best-known religious symbol of Christianity; this version is known as a Latin Cross.]]

In Christian theology, God is the eternal being who created and preserves the world. Christians believe God to be both transcendent and immanent (involved in the world).{{sfn |Leith |1993 |pp=55–56}}{{sfn |Erickson |2001 |pp=87–88}} Early Christian views of God were expressed in the Pauline Epistles and the early{{efn |Perhaps even pre-Pauline creeds.{{citation needed |date=August 2022}}}} creeds, which proclaimed one God and the divinity of Jesus.

Around the year 200, Tertullian formulated a version of the doctrine of the Trinity which clearly affirmed the divinity of Jesus and came close to the later definitive form produced by the Ecumenical Council of 381.{{sfn|Prestige|1963|p=29}}{{sfn|Kelly |2017 |p=119}} Trinitarians, who form the large majority of Christians, hold it as a core tenet of their faith.{{sfn |Mills |Bullard |2001 |p=935}}{{sfn|Kelly |2017 |p=23}} Nontrinitarian denominations define the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit in a number of different ways.{{sfn |McGrath |2012 |pp=117–120}}

The theology of the attributes and nature of God has been discussed since the earliest days of Christianity, with Irenaeus writing in the 2nd century: "His greatness lacks nothing, but contains all things."{{sfn |Osborn |2001 |pp=27–29}} In the 8th century, John of Damascus listed eighteen attributes which remain widely accepted.{{sfn |Dyrness |Kärkkäinen |Martinez |Chan |2008 |pp=352–353}} As time passed, theologians developed systematic lists of these attributes, some based on statements in the Bible (e.g., the Lord's Prayer, stating that the Father is in Heaven), others based on theological reasoning.{{sfn |Guthrie |1994 |pp=100, 111}}Hirschberger, Johannes. Historia de la Filosofía I, Barcelona: Herder 1977, p. 403

File:IslamSymbolAllahComp.PNG written in Arabic]]

In Islamic theology, God ({{langx |ar|{{large |الله}}}} Allāh) is the all-powerful and all-knowing creator, sustainer, ordainer and judge of everything in existence.{{cite journal |last1=Böwering |first1=Gerhard |title=God and his Attributes |website=Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān |publisher=Brill |doi=10.1163/1875-3922_q3_eqcom_00075}} In contrast to the Jewish and Christian traditions, which depict God usually as anthropomorph, the Islamic conception of God is less personal, but rather of a conscious force behind all aspects of the universe only known through signs of nature, metaphorical stories, and revelation by the prophets and angels.David Leeming The Oxford Companion to World Mythology Oxford University Press 2005 {{ISBN|978-0-195-15669-0}} page 209 Islam emphasizes that God is singular (tawhid){{sfn |Esposito |1999 |p=88}} unique ({{transliteration |ar |ALA |wāḥid}}) and inherently One ({{transliteration |ar |ALA |aḥad}}), all-merciful and omnipotent.{{cite EB1911 |wstitle=Allah |volume=01 |pages=686–687}} According to Islamic teachings, God exists without place{{cite EB1911 |wstitle=Islam |volume=14 |page=873}} and according to the Quran, "No vision can grasp him, but His grasp is over all vision: He is above all comprehension, yet is acquainted with all things."{{cite quran |6 |103 |style=ns}} God, as referenced in the Quran, is the only God.{{cite quran |29 |46 |style=ns}}{{sfn |Peters |2003 |p=4}} Islamic tradition also describes the 99 names of God. These 99 names describe attributes of God, including Most Merciful, The Just, The Peace and Blessing, and the Guardian.

A distinct feature between the concept of God in Islam compared to Christianity is that God has no progeny. This belief is summed up in chapter 112 of the Quran titled Al-Ikhlas, which states "Say, he is Allah (who is) one, Allah is the Eternal, the Absolute. He does not beget nor was he begotten. Nor is there to Him any equivalent."{{cite quran |112 |1 |4}}

Christianity teaches Original Sin, the doctrine that humanity is inherently sinful since the fall of Adam.Vawter, Bruce (1983). "Original Sin". In Richardson, Alan; Bowden, John (eds.). The Westminster Dictionary of Christian Theology. Westminster John Knox. ISBN 9780664227487. Accordingly, salvation from death, suffering, and evil, the consequence of mankind's sinful nature, can only be brought by Death and Resurrection of JesusMurray, Michael J.; Rea, Michael (2012), "Philosophy and Christian Theology", Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

Since humans obeyed the Devil by committing sin, according to Christian teachings of salvation, the Devil has authority over humans.Russell, Jeffrey Burton (1986). Lucifer: The Devil in the Middle Ages. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-9429-1. Only the crucifixion of Jesus could save humans from the grasps of the Devil. Accordingly, Christianity rejects that actions and repentance alone could achieve salvation. The notion that only through the sacrifice of Jesus, salvation could be achieved is emphasized in the Bible:

"I am the way, and the truth, and the life. No one comes to the Father except through me." (John 14:6).Абдрасилов, Турганбай, Жахангир Нурматов, and Кайнар Калдыбай. "AN ANALYSIS OF SALVATION FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF CHRISTIANITY AND ISLAM." Аль-Фараби 76.4 (2021).

"surely God is my salvation; I will trust and not be afraid"(Isaiah 12:2)

"If anyone is in Christ, he is a new cre-ation: the old has gone; the new has come."

Islam does neither acknowledge nor aspire salvation from evil in the world.Eichler, Paul Arno. "Die Dschinn, Teufel und Engel im Koran." (1928). p. 8-9 Instead, Islam teaches individual salvation from earthly and otherworldly sufferings through repentance (tawbah).

There is no concept of original sin in Islam. The Fall of Adam is interpreted as an allegory for mankind's behavior; they sin, become aware of their sin, then repent.Stieglecker, H. (1962). Die Glaubenslehren des Islam. Deutschland: F. Schöningh. p. 194 (German) Accordingly, Islam neither acknowledges nor aspires salvation from evil in the world. Salvation is achieved by purifying one's soul, to go to paradise after death. The importance of repentance is highlighted throughout Islamic scripture:

"Indeed, Allah loves those who are constantly repentant and loves those who purify themselves" (Surah 2:22)

Sometimes compared to the concept of original sin, the devils (shayāṭīn) are said to "touch" humans at the moment of birth and a devil is said to move through humans like blood in the veins, causing an urge to sin.Jabbour, Nabeel (2014), The Crescent through the Eyes of the Cross: Insights from an Arab Christian, London: Omnibus Press, ISBN 978-1-61521-512-6 Thus, humans are expected to have a sinful nature, but it could be overcome through repentance:

"Every son of Adam commits sin and the best for those who commit sin are those who repent." (Sunan Ibn Ma-jah)

{{See also |Religious male circumcision |Brit milah |Khitan (circumcision) |Circumcision controversy in early Christianity |History of circumcision}}

File:Brit mila.jpg .]]

Judaism and Samaritanism commands that males be circumcised when they are eight days old,{{sfn |Mark |2003 |pp=94–95}} as does the Sunnah in Islam. Despite its common practice in Muslim-majority nations, circumcision is considered to be sunnah (tradition) and not required for a life directed by Allah.{{cite encyclopedia |author1-last=Šakūrzāda |author1-first=Ebrāhīm |author2-last=Omidsalar |author2-first=Mahmoud |date=October 2011 |title=Circumcision |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/circumcision |url-status=live |volume=V/6 |pages=596–600 |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Iranica |publisher=Columbia University |location=New York |doi=10.1163/2330-4804_EIRO_COM_7731 |doi-access=free |issn=2330-4804 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200119024047/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/circumcision |archive-date=19 January 2020 |access-date=7 February 2020}} Although there is some debate within Islam over whether it is a religious requirement or mere recommendation, circumcision (called khitan) is practiced nearly universally by Muslim males.

Today, many Christian denominations are neutral about ritual male circumcision, not requiring it for religious observance, but neither forbidding it for cultural or other reasons.{{sfn|Pitts-Taylor |2008 |p=394}} Western Christianity replaced the custom of male circumcision with the ritual of baptism,{{cite web |last1=Kohler |first1=Kaufmann |last2=Krauss |first2=Samuel |title=Baptism |url=https://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/2456-baptism |website=Jewish Encyclopedia |access-date=31 August 2022 |quote="According to rabbinical teachings, which dominated even during the existence of the Temple (Pes. viii. 8), Baptism, next to circumcision and sacrifice, was an absolutely necessary condition to be fulfilled by a proselyte to Judaism (Yeb. 46b, 47b; Ker. 9a; 'Ab. Zarah 57a; Shab. 135a; Yer. Kid. iii. 14, 64d). Circumcision, however, was much more important, and, like baptism, was called a "seal" (Schlatter, "Die Kirche Jerusalems", 1898, p. 70). But as circumcision was discarded by Christianity, and the sacrifices had ceased, Baptism remained the sole condition for initiation into religious life. The next ceremony, adopted shortly after the others, was the imposition of hands, which, it is known, was the usage of the Jews at the ordination of a rabbi. Anointing with oil, which at first also accompanied the act of Baptism, and was analogous to the anointment of priests among the Jews, was not a necessary condition." |archive-date=31 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220831120817/https://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/2456-baptism |url-status=live }} a ceremony which varies according to the doctrine of the denomination, but it generally includes immersion, aspersion, or anointment with water. The Early Church (Acts 15, the Council of Jerusalem) decided that Gentile Christians are not required to undergo circumcision. The Council of Florence in the 15th century[http://www.cirp.org/library/cultural/councilflorence/ "Ecumenical Council of Florence (1438–1445)"] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060816052624/http://www.cirp.org/library/cultural/councilflorence/ |date=16 August 2006 }}. The Circumcision Reference Library. Retrieved 10 July 2007. prohibited it. Paragraph #2297 of the Catholic Catechism calls non-medical amputation or mutilation immoral.[http://www.christusrex.org/www1/CDHN/fifth.html#PERSONS Catechism of the Catholic Church: Article 5—The Fifth commandment] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070629225324/http://www.christusrex.org/www1/CDHN/fifth.html#PERSONS |date=29 June 2007 }}. Christus Rex et Redemptor Mundi. Retrieved 10 July 2007.Dietzen, John. [http://www.cirp.org/library/cultural/dietzen1/ "The Morality of Circumcision"] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060810070559/http://www.cirp.org/library/cultural/dietzen1/ |date=10 August 2006 }}, The Circumcision Reference Library. Retrieved 10 July 2007. By the 21st century, the Catholic Church had adopted a neutral position on the practice, as long as it is not practised as an initiation ritual. Catholic scholars make various arguments in support of the idea that this policy is not in contradiction with the previous edicts.{{cite web |url=http://www.catholicdoors.com/faq/qu340.htm |title=Frequently Asked Questions: The Catholic Church and Circumcision. |website=catholicdoors.com |access-date=4 January 2021 |archive-date=5 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405051854/https://www.catholicdoors.com/faq/qu340.htm |url-status=live }}{{cite web |url=http://www.catholic.com/quickquestions/should-catholics-circumcise-their-sons |title=Should Catholics circumcise their sons? – Catholic Answers |website=Catholic.com |access-date=21 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222110835/http://www.catholic.com/quickquestions/should-catholics-circumcise-their-sons |archive-date=22 December 2015 |url-status=dead}}{{cite web |last1=Arnold |first1=Michelle |url=https://www.catholic.com/qa/the-catechism-forbids-deliberate-mutilation-so-why-is-non-therapeutic-circumcision-allowed |title=The Catechism forbids deliberate mutilation, so why is non-therapeutic circumcision allowed? |access-date=21 December 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222110402/http://www.catholic.com/quickquestions/the-catechism-forbids-deliberate-mutilation-so-why-is-non-therapeutic-circumcision-al |archive-date=22 December 2015 }} The New Testament chapter Acts 15 records that Christianity did not require circumcision. Coptic Christians practice circumcision as a rite of passage.{{cite encyclopedia |year=2011 |title=Circumcision |encyclopedia=Columbia Encyclopedia |publisher=Columbia University Press |url=http://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/science/circumcision.html |access-date=28 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924051012/http://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/science/circumcision.html |archive-date=24 September 2015 |url-status=live }} The Eritrean Orthodox Church and the Ethiopian Orthodox Church calls for circumcision, with near-universal prevalence among Orthodox men in Ethiopia.{{sfn|Adams |Adams |2012 |pp=291–298}}

Image:Coptic Children wearing traditional circumcision costumes.jpg Children wearing traditional circumcision garments.]]

Many countries with majorities of Christian adherents in Europe and Latin America have low circumcision rates, while both religious and non-religious circumcision is widely practiced in many predominantly Christian countries and among Christian communities in the Anglosphere countries, Oceania, South Korea, the Philippines, the Middle East and Africa.{{harvp|Gruenbaum|2015|p=61|ps=: "Christian theology generally interprets male circumcision to be an Old Testament rule that is no longer an obligation ... though in many countries (especially the United States and Sub-Saharan Africa, but not so much in Europe) it is widely practiced among Christians."}}; {{harvp|Peteet|2017|pp=97–101|ps=: "male circumcision is still observed among Ethiopian and Coptic Christians, and circumcision rates are also high today in the Philippines and the US."}}; {{harvp|Ellwood|2008|p=95|ps=: "It is obligatory among Jews, Muslims, and Coptic Christians. Catholic, Orthodox, and Protestant Christians do not require circumcision. Starting in the last half of the 19th century, however, circumcision also became common among Christians in Europe and especially in North America."}}{{cite web |url=https://apnews.com/article/19456997e17c4a12a24abb9d11c01dba |title=Circumcision protest brought to Florence |publisher=Associated Press |date=30 March 2008 |quote="However, the practice is still common among Christians in the United States, Oceania, South Korea, the Philippines, the Middle East and Africa. Some Middle Eastern Christians actually view the procedure as a rite of passage." |access-date=1 September 2022 |archive-date=28 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220928020456/https://apnews.com/article/19456997e17c4a12a24abb9d11c01dba |url-status=live}} Countries such as the United States,Ray, Mary G. [https://archive.today/20140916071531/http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:8IQnea2UK-UJ:http://www.mothersagainstcirc.org/majority.htm&prmd=ivns&strip=1 "82% of the World's Men are Intact"], Mothers Against Circumcision, 1997. the Philippines, Australia (albeit primarily in the older generations),{{cite journal |last1=Richters |first1=J. |last2=Smith |first2=A. M. |last3=de Visser |first3=R. O. |last4=Grulich |first4=A. E. |last5=Rissel |first5=C. E. |title=Circumcision in Australia: prevalence and effects on sexual health |journal=Int J STD AIDS |volume=17 |issue=8 |pages=547–54 |date=August 2006 |pmid=16925903 |doi=10.1258/095646206778145730 |s2cid=24396989 }} Canada, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ethiopia, Equatorial Guinea, Ghana, Nigeria, Kenya, and many other African Christian countries have high circumcision rates.{{cite journal |title=The potential impact of male circumcision on HIV in sub-Saharan Africa |last=Williams |first=B. G. |journal=PLOS Med |year=2006 |volume=3 |issue=7 |pages=e262 |doi=10.1371/journal.pmed.0030262 |pmid=16822094 |pmc=1489185 |display-authors=etal |doi-access=free }}{{cite web |title=Questions and answers: NIAID-sponsored adult male circumcision trials in Kenya and Uganda |publisher=National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases |date=December 2006 |url=http://www3.niaid.nih.gov/news/QA/AMC12_QA.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100309060025/https://www3.niaid.nih.gov/news/QA/AMC12_QA.htm |archive-date=9 March 2010 }}{{cite web |url=http://www.necep.net/articles.php?id_soc=12&id_article=84 |title=Circumcision amongst the Dogon |access-date=3 September 2006 |year=2006 |publisher=The Non-European Components of European Patrimony (NECEP) Database |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060116174702/http://www.necep.net/articles.php?id_soc=12&id_article=84 |archive-date=16 January 2006 |url-status=usurped}} Circumcision is near universal in the Christian countries of Oceania. In some African and Eastern Christian denominations male circumcision is an integral or established practice, and require that their male members undergo circumcision.{{sfn|Pitts-Taylor |2008 |p=394 |loc="For most part, Christianity does not require circumcision of its followers. Yet, some Orthodox and African Christian groups do require circumcision. These circumcisions take place at any point between birth and puberty."}} Coptic Christianity and Ethiopian Orthodoxy and Eritrean Orthodoxy still observe male circumcision and practice circumcision as a rite of passage.{{cite journal |last1=Van Doorn-Harder |first1=Nelly |title=Christianity: Coptic Christianity |journal=Worldmark Encyclopedia of Religious Practices |date=2006 |volume=1 |url=http://www.omnilogos.com/2014/11/christianity-coptic-christianity.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222120244/http://www.omnilogos.com/2014/11/christianity-coptic-christianity.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=22 December 2015 }} Male circumcision is also widely practiced among Christians from Egypt, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Palestine, Israel, and North Africa. (See also aposthia.)

Male circumcision is among the rites of Islam and is part of the fitrah, or the innate disposition and natural character and instinct of the human creation.{{cite web |url=http://www.missionislam.com/health/circumcisionislam.html |title=Male Circumcision in Islam |first=Muslim Information Service of |last=Australia |access-date=16 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131129055454/http://www.missionislam.com/health/circumcisionislam.html |archive-date=29 November 2013 |url-status=dead}}

Although circumcision is widely practiced by the Druze, the procedure is practiced as a cultural tradition,{{sfn|Ubayd |2006 |p=150}} and has no religious significance in the Druze faith.{{sfn|Jacobs |1998 |p=147 }}{{sfn|Silver |2022 |p=97 }} Some Druze do not circumcise their male children, and refuse to observe this "common Muslim practice".{{sfn|Betts |2013 |p=56 }}

Circumcision is not a religious practice of the Bahá'í Faith, and leaves that decision up to the parents.{{sfn|Hassall |2022 |pp=591–602 }}

{{See also|Christianization|Islamization}}

Judaism accepts converts, but has had no explicit missionaries since the end of the Second Temple era. Judaism states that non-Jews can achieve righteousness by following Noahide Laws, a set of moral imperatives that, according to the Talmud, were given by God{{efn |According to Encyclopedia Talmudit (Hebrew edition, Israel, 5741/1981, Entry Ben Noah, page 349), most medieval authorities consider that all seven commandments were given to Adam, although Maimonides (Mishneh Torah, Hilkhot M'lakhim 9:1) considers the dietary law to have been given to Noah.}} as a binding set of laws for the "children of Noah"—that is, all of humanity.Encyclopedia Talmudit (Hebrew edition, Israel, 5741/1981, entry Ben Noah, introduction) states that after the giving of the Torah, the Jewish people were no longer in the category of the sons of Noah; however, Maimonides (Mishneh Torah, Hilkhot M'lakhim 9:1) indicates that the seven laws are also part of the Torah, and the Talmud (Bavli, Sanhedrin 59a, see also Tosafot ad. loc.) states that Jews are obligated in all things that Gentiles are obligated in, albeit with some differences in the details.{{efn |Compare {{bibleverse | |Genesis |9:4–6 |HE}}.}} It is believed that as much as ten percent of the Roman Empire followed Judaism either as fully ritually obligated Jews or the simpler rituals required of non-Jewish members of that faith.{{cite book |trans-title=The Times Atlas of World History |title=Spectrum–Times Atlas van de Wereldgeschiedenis |editor-first=Geoffrey |editor-last=Barraclough |editor-link=Geoffrey Barraclough |year=1981 |orig-year=1978 |publisher=Het Spectrum |pages=102–103 |language=nl}}

Moses Maimonides, one of the major Jewish teachers, commented: "Quoting from our sages, the righteous people from other nations have a place in the world to come if they have acquired what they should learn about the Creator." Because the commandments applicable to the Jews are much more detailed and onerous than Noahide laws, Jewish scholars have traditionally maintained that it is better to be a good non-Jew than a bad Jew, thus discouraging conversion. In the U.S., as of 2003 28% of married Jews were married to non-Jews.{{sfn|Kornbluth|2003|p=}}{{page needed|date=September 2022}} See also Conversion to Judaism.

File:Bloch-SermonOnTheMount.jpg by Carl Heinrich Bloch (1877)]]

Christianity encourages evangelism. Many Christian organizations, especially Protestant churches, send missionaries to non-Christian communities throughout the world. See also Great Commission. Forced conversions to Catholicism have been alleged at various points throughout history. The most prominently cited allegations are the conversions of the pagans after Constantine; of Muslims, Jews and Eastern Orthodox during the Crusades; of Jews and Muslims during the time of the Spanish Inquisition, where they were offered the choice of exile, conversion or death; and of the Aztecs by Hernán Cortés. Forced conversions to Protestantism may have occurred as well, notably during the Reformation, especially in England and Ireland (see recusancy and Popish plot).

Forced conversions are now condemned as sinful by major denominations such as the Roman Catholic Church, which officially states that forced conversions pollute the Christian religion and offend human dignity, so that past or present offences are regarded as a scandal (a cause of unbelief). According to Pope Paul VI, "It is one of the major tenets of Catholic doctrine that man's response to God in faith must be free: no one, therefore, is to be forced to embrace the Christian faith against his own will."Pope Paul VI. [https://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_decl_19651207_dignitatis-humanae_en.html "Declaration on Religious Freedom"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120211202206/https://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_decl_19651207_dignitatis-humanae_en.html |date=11 February 2012 }}, 7 December 1965. The Roman Catholic Church has declared that Catholics should fight anti-Semitism.{{cite news |last1=Pullella |first1=Philip |title=Vatican says Catholics should not try to convert Jews, should fight anti-semitism |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-pope-jews-idUSKBN0TT1BK20151210 |access-date=13 January 2016 |publisher=Reuters |date=10 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160112060659/http://www.reuters.com/article/us-pope-jews-idUSKBN0TT1BK20151210 |archive-date=12 January 2016 |url-status=live }}

Islam encourages proselytism in various forms. Dawah is an important Islamic concept which denotes the preaching of Islam. Da‘wah literally means "issuing a summons" or "making an invitation". A Muslim who practices da‘wah, either as a religious worker or in a volunteer community effort, is called a dā‘ī, plural du‘āt. A dā‘ī is thus a person who invites people to understand Islam through a dialogical process and may be categorized in some cases as the Islamic equivalent of a missionary, as one who invites people to the faith, to the prayer, or to Islamic life.

Da'wah activities can take many forms. Some pursue Islamic studies specifically to perform Da'wah. Mosques and other Islamic centers sometimes spread Da'wah actively, similar to evangelical churches. Others consider being open to the public and answering questions to be Da'wah. Recalling Muslims to the faith and expanding their knowledge can also be considered Da'wah.

In Islamic theology, the purpose of Da'wah is to invite people, both Muslims and non-Muslims, to understand the commandments of God as expressed in the Quran and the Sunnah of the Prophet, as well as to inform them about Muhammad. Da'wah produces converts to Islam, which in turn grows the size of the Muslim Ummah, or community of Muslims.

While there were instances of forced conversions to Islam, these were neither the norm nor part of a systematic strategy of expansion. Many Muslim rulers practiced religious pluralism,{{Cite book |last=Bulliet |first=Richard |title=Conversion to Islam in the Medieval Period: An Essay in Quantitative History |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=1979 |isbn=978-0674170353 |edition=1st |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts}} and the Quran explicitly prohibits compulsion in matters of faith.{{Cite web |title=Surah Al-Baqarah - 1-286 |url=https://quran.com/2?startingVerse=256 |access-date=2025-02-16 |website=Quran.com |language=en}} Most conversions to Islam occurred gradually, driven by social, cultural, and economic influences rather than coercion.{{Cite book |last=Arnold |first=Thomas Walker |title=The Preaching of Islam: A History of the Propagation of the Muslim Faith |publisher=C. Scribner's Sons |year=1913 |edition=Revised |location=New York}}

{{See also|Abrahamic world}}{{Pie chart

|thumb=right

|caption=Worldwide percentage of adherents by Abrahamic religion, {{as of |2015 |lc=y}}{{cite web |last1=Hackett |first1=Conrad |last2=Mcclendon |first2=David |publisher=Pew Research Center |year=2015 |title=Christians remain world's largest religious group, but they are declining in Europe |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/04/05/christians-remain-worlds-largest-religious-group-but-they-are-declining-in-europe/ |access-date=25 October 2020 |archive-date=1 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210301011315/https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/04/05/christians-remain-worlds-largest-religious-group-but-they-are-declining-in-europe/ |url-status=live}}

|label1=Christianity |color1=Purple

|value1=31.2

|label2=Islam |color2=Green

|value2=24.1

|label3=Judaism |color3=Blue

|value3=0.18

|label4=Baháʼí Faith |color4=Gold

|value4=0.07

|label5=Non-Abrahamic religions |color5=White

|value5=45.45

}}Christianity is the largest Abrahamic religion with about 2.5 billion adherents, called Christians, constituting about 31.1% of the world's population.{{cite web |date=2 April 2015 |title=Religious Composition by Country, 2010–2050 |url=https://www.pewforum.org/2015/04/02/religious-projection-table/ |access-date=2 September 2021 |publisher=Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project |language=en-US |archive-date=4 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150404142344/http://www.pewforum.org/2015/04/02/religious-projection-table/ |url-status=live }} Islam is the second largest Abrahamic religion, as well as the fastest-growing Abrahamic religion in recent decades.[http://www.pewforum.org/The-Future-of-the-Global-Muslim-Population.aspx "The Future of Global Muslim Population: Projections from 2010 to 2013"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110209094904/http://www.pewforum.org/The-Future-of-the-Global-Muslim-Population.aspx |date=9 February 2011 }} Accessed July 2013. It has about 1.9 billion adherents, called Muslims, constituting about 24.1% of the world's population. The third largest Abrahamic religion is Judaism with about 14.1 million adherents, called Jews. The Baháʼí Faith has over 8 million adherents, making it the fourth largest Abrahamic religion,{{sfn |Smith |2022b}}{{cite web |title=Baha'is by Country |website=World Religion Database |publisher=Institute on Culture, Religion, and World Affairs |date=2020 |url=https://worldreligiondatabase.org/ |access-date=21 December 2020 |archive-date=9 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201209190545/https://worldreligiondatabase.org/ |url-status=live }}{{subscription required}} and the fastest growing religion across the 20th century, usually at least twice the rate of population growth.{{sfn |Johnson |Grim |2013 |pp=59–62}} The Druze Faith has between one million and nearly two million adherents.{{sfn |Held |2008 |p=109 |loc="Worldwide, they number 1 million or so, with about 45 to 50 percent in Syria, 35 to 40 percent in Lebanon, and less than 10 percent in Israel. Recently there has been a growing Druze diaspora."}}{{sfn |Swayd |2015 |p=3 |loc="The Druze world population at present is perhaps nearing two million; ..."}}

{{Portal |Judaism |Christianity |Islam |Religion}}

• Abraham's family tree
• Abrahamic Family House, a complex in Abu Dhabi built in the spirit of Abrahamic unity
• Abrahamites
• Ancient Semitic religion
• Din-i Ilahi
• Center for Muslim-Jewish Engagement
• Christianity and Islam
• Christianity and Judaism
• Christianity and other religions
• Gnosticism
• Interfaith dialogue
• Islamic–Jewish relations
• Islam and other religions
• Jesus in Christianity
• Jesus in Islam
• Jewish views on religious pluralism
• Judaism's view of Jesus
• Judeo-Christian ethics
• List of burial places of Abrahamic figures
• List of people in both the Bible and the Quran
• Religious perspectives on Jesus
• Yazidism
• Milah Abraham
• Nigerian Chrislam
• People of the Book
• Sabians
• Table of prophets of Abrahamic religions
• Yarsanism
• Manichaeism

{{notelist}}

{{reflist}}

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• {{cite book |last1=Fine |first1=Steven |title=The Temple of Jerusalem: From Moses to the Messiah: In Honor of Professor Louis H. Feldman |date=17 January 2011 |publisher=BRILL |location=Leiden |isbn=978-90-04-21471-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ueN5DwAAQBAJ |access-date=18 March 2023 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164801/https://books.google.com/books?id=ueN5DwAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}
• {{cite book |last1=Finkelstein |first1=Israel |last2=Silberman |first2=Neil Asher |title=The Bible Unearthed. Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and The Origin of Its Sacred Texts. |edition=First Touchstone Edition 2002 |year=2002 |orig-date=2001 |publisher=Touchstone |location=New York |isbn=978-0-684-86913-1 |chapter=9. The Transformation of Judah (c. 930-705 BCE) |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lu6ywyJr0CMC&dq=The+idolatry+of+the+people+of+Judah+was+not+a+departure+from+their+earlier+monotheism.+It+was,+instead,+the+way+the+people+of+Judah+had+worshiped+for+hundreds+of+years.&pg=PA234 |access-date=1 September 2022 |archive-date=5 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405051854/https://books.google.com/books?id=lu6ywyJr0CMC&dq=The+idolatry+of+the+people+of+Judah+was+not+a+departure+from+their+earlier+monotheism.+It+was,+instead,+the+way+the+people+of+Judah+had+worshiped+for+hundreds+of+years.&pg=PA234 |url-status=live }}
• {{cite book |last=Firestone |first=Reuven |title=Children of Abraham: an introduction to Judaism for Muslims |year=2001 |publisher=Ktav Publishing House |url=https://archive.org/details/childrenofabraha00fire |url-access=registration |isbn=978-0-88125-720-5 |location=Hoboken, NJ}}
• {{cite book |last1=Fischer |first1=Michael M. J. |first2=Mehdi |last2=Abedi |title=Debating Muslims: cultural dialogues in postmodernity and tradition |publisher=University of Wisconsin Press |year=1990 |url=https://archive.org/details/debatingmuslimsc0000fisc |url-access=registration |isbn=978-0-299-12434-2}}
• {{cite book |last=Florentin |first=Moshe |year=2005 |title=Late Samaritan Hebrew: A Linguistic Analysis Of Its Different Types |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1dNk_b1uDzUC |location=Leiden |publisher=Brill Publishers |series=Studies in Semitic Languages and Linguistics |volume=43 |isbn=978-90-04-13841-4 |issn=0081-8461}}

• {{cite book |last=Greenstreet |first=Wendy |location=Oxford; Seattle, WA |title=Integrating spirituality in health and social care |publisher=Radcliffe |year=2006 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TTdcT9-fqLQC&pg=PA95 |isbn=978-1-85775-646-3 |access-date=25 August 2020 |archive-date=5 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405051856/https://books.google.com/books?id=TTdcT9-fqLQC&pg=PA95 |url-status=live}}
• {{cite book |last=Gnuse |first=Robert Karl |title=Trajectories of Justice: What the Bible Says about Slaves, Women, and Homosexuality |publisher=Lutterworth Press |year=2016 |isbn=978-0-7188-4456-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gdTYDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA5 |access-date=1 September 2022 |archive-date=5 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405052451/https://books.google.com/books?id=gdTYDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA5 |url-status=live}}
• {{cite book |last=Gruenbaum |first=Ellen |title=The Female Circumcision Controversy: An Anthropological Perspective |year=2015 |isbn=9780812292510 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press}}
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• {{cite book |last1=Hatcher |first1=W.S. |last2=Martin |first2=J.D. |year=1998 |title=The Baháʼí Faith: The Emerging Global Religion |publisher=Harper & Row |location=New York |isbn=0-06-065441-4 |url=https://bahai-library.com/hatcher_martin_global_religion |access-date=14 March 2022 |archive-date=31 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220331090255/https://bahai-library.com/hatcher_martin_global_religion |url-status=live}}
• {{Cite book |last=Hassall |first=Graham |date=2022 |chapter=Ch. 48: Oceania |pages=591–602 |title=The World of the Bahá'í Faith |publisher=Routledge |location=Oxfordshire, UK |isbn=978-1-138-36772-2 |editor-last=Stockman |editor-first=Robert H. |editor-link=Robert Stockman |doi=10.4324/9780429027772-55 |s2cid=244697166}}
• {{cite book |last=Hawting |first=Gerald R. |title=The development of Islamic ritual; Volume 26 of The formation of the classical Islamic world |publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. |year=2006 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oCvf76uT3wMC&pg=PR18 |isbn=978-0-86078-712-9 |access-date=15 October 2020 |archive-date=5 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405052421/https://books.google.com/books?id=oCvf76uT3wMC&pg=PR18 |url-status=live}}
• {{cite book |last=Held |first=Colbert C. |title=Middle East Patterns: Places, People, and Politics |year=2008 |isbn=9780429962004 |publisher=Routledge}}
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• {{cite book |editor1-last=Hendrix |editor1-first=Scott |editor2-last=Okeja |editor2-first=Uchenna |title=The World's Greatest Religious Leaders: How Religious Figures Helped Shape World History [2 volumes] |date=2018 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1440841385}}
• {{cite book |last=Hitti |first=Philip K. |title=The Origins of the Druze People and Religion: With Extracts from Their Sacred Writings |year=1928 |isbn=9781465546623 |publisher=Library of Alexandria}}
• {{cite book |last=Hughes |first=Aaron W. |author-link=Aaron W. Hughes |year=2012 |title=Abrahamic Religions: On the Uses and Abuses of History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0K3Ia1rQCZEC |location=New York |publisher=Oxford University Press |doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199934645.001.0001 |isbn=978-0-19-993464-5 |s2cid=157815976 |access-date=16 May 2021 |archive-date=5 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405051900/https://books.google.com/books?id=0K3Ia1rQCZEC |url-status=live}}
• {{cite book |last1=Huntington |first1=Samuel |translator-last=Müller |translator-first=Francis |title=Kampf der Kulturen |date=2007 |publisher=GRIN Verlag |isbn=978-3-638-66418-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GtYRpF_n9Q4C |language=de |access-date=18 March 2023 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164804/https://books.google.com/books?id=GtYRpF_n9Q4C |url-status=live}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Hussain |first1=Amir |editor1-last=Safi |editor1-first=Omid |title=Muslims, Pluralism, and Interfaith Dialogue |journal=Progressive Muslims: On Justice, Gender and Pluralism |date=1 April 2003 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Thq9DwAAQBAJ |publisher=Simon and Schuster |isbn=9781780740454 |access-date=18 March 2023 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164803/https://books.google.com/books?id=Thq9DwAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}

• {{cite book |last=Ibn al-Ṣalāḥ |translator-first=Eerik |translator-last=Dickinson |title=An Introduction to the Science of Hadith: Kitab Ma'rifat Anwa' 'ilm Al-hadith |publisher=Garnet & Ithaca Press |year=2006 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Yq-aprUAyuUC&pg=PA5 |isbn=978-1-85964-158-3 |access-date=15 October 2020 |archive-date=5 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405052417/https://books.google.com/books?id=Yq-aprUAyuUC&pg=PA5 |url-status=live}}
• {{cite book |last=Izzeddin |first=Nejla M. Abu |title=The Druzes: a new study of their history, faith, and society |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BprjrZzee5EC&pg=PA108 |year=1993 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-09705-6 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140707072331/http://books.google.com/books?id=BprjrZzee5EC&pg=PA108 |archive-date=7 July 2014 |url-status=live}}

• {{cite book |last=Jacobs |first=Daniel |title=Israel and the Palestinian Territories: The Rough Guide |year=1998 |isbn=9781858282480 |publisher=Rough Guides}}
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• {{cite book |last1=Lapidoth |first1=Ruth |first2=Moshe |last2=Hirsch |title=The Jerusalem question and its resolution: selected documents |publisher=Martinus Nijhoff Publishers |year=1994 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e93JIwTBjHgC&pg=PA384 |isbn=978-0-7923-2893-3 |access-date=15 October 2020 |archive-date=5 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405052415/https://books.google.com/books?id=e93JIwTBjHgC&pg=PA384 |url-status=live}}
• {{cite journal |last=Lawson |first=Todd |editor-last=Cusack |editor-first=Carole M. |editor2-last=Hartney |editor2-first=Christopher |title=Baha'i (sic) Religious History |journal=Journal of Religious History |volume=36 |issue=4 |date=13 December 2012 |pages=463–470 |url=http://bahai-library.com/lawson_bahai_religious_history |issn=1467-9809 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-9809.2012.01224.x |access-date=5 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927190116/http://bahai-library.com/lawson_bahai_religious_history |archive-date=27 September 2013 |url-status=live |via=Baháʼí Library Online}}
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• {{cite book |last1=Leith |first1=John H. |title=Basic Christian Doctrine |date=1 January 1993 |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press |isbn=978-0-664-25192-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e913KYTEaDsC |access-date=18 March 2023 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164801/https://books.google.com/books?id=e913KYTEaDsC |url-status=live}}
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• {{cite web |author=Lubar Institute |year=2016 |title=Why 'Abrahamic'? |publisher=Lubar Institute for Religious Studies at University of Wisconsin - Madison |url=https://lubar.wisc.edu/welcome/Why%20Abrahamic.html |access-date=5 April 2022 |archive-date=4 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004220853/http://lisar.lss.wisc.edu/welcome/Why%20Abrahamic.html |url-status=live}}

• {{cite book |last=MacArthur |first=John |author-link=John F. MacArthur |chapter=The Hymn of Security |title=The MacArthur New Testament Commentary: Romans |publisher=Moody Press |year=1996 |location=Chicago |isbn=978-0-8254-1522-7}}
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• {{cite book |last1=Rosenfeld |first1=Judy Shepard |title=Ticket to Israel: An Informative Guide |date=1952 |publisher=Rinehart |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nbMbAAAAMAAJ&q=Ticket%20to%20Israel:%20An%20Informative%20Guide |access-date=18 March 2023 |archive-date=4 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404105109/https://books.google.com/books?id=nbMbAAAAMAAJ&q=Ticket%20to%20Israel:%20An%20Informative%20Guide |url-status=live}}
• {{cite book |last=Rosenthal |first=Donna |title=The Israelis: Ordinary People in an Extraordinary Land |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b-w6GfokajcC&pg=PA296 |year=2003 |publisher=Simon and Schuster |isbn=978-0-684-86972-8 |access-date=7 December 2017 |archive-date=5 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405052435/https://books.google.com/books?id=b-w6GfokajcC&pg=PA296 |url-status=live}}
• {{cite encyclopedia |last=Rubin |first=Uri |chapter=Prophets and Prophethood |editor-last1=McAuliffe |editor-first1=Jane Dammen |title=Encyclopaedia of the Qurʼān: A-D |date=2001 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-11465-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Zq1ZAAAAYAAJ |access-date=18 March 2023 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164803/https://books.google.com/books?id=Zq1ZAAAAYAAJ |url-status=live}}
• {{Cite book |last1=Rudolph |first1=Kurt |author1-link=Kurt Rudolph |date=1977 |chapter=Mandaeism |editor1-last=Moore |editor1-first=Albert C. |title=Iconography of Religions: An Introduction |publisher=Chris Robertson |isbn=9780800604882 |volume=21 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/iconographyofrel0000moor |chapter-url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=chWcZcYcyeQC}}}}

• {{cite book |first=Samy |last=Swayd |title=Historical Dictionary of the Druzes |date=10 March 2015 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-1-4422-4617-1 |edition=2}}
• {{cite book |editor1-last=Scherman |editor1-first=Nosson |title=Tanakh=Tanach: Torah, Neviʼim, Ketuvim: the Torah, Prophets, Writings: the twenty-four books of the Bible, newly translated and annotated |date=2001 |publisher=Mesorah Publications |location=Brooklyn, N.Y. |isbn=9781578191123 |edition=1st student size, Stone}}
• {{cite book |last1=Schultz |first1=Joseph P. |editor-last1=Fishbane |editor-first1=Michael A. |editor-last2=Mendes-Flohr |editor-first2=Paul R. |title=Texts and Responses: Studies Presented to Nahum N. Glatzer on the Occasion of His Seventieth Birthday by His Students |date=1975 |publisher=Brill Archive |location=Leiden |isbn=978-90-04-03980-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gsYUAAAAIAAJ |access-date=18 March 2023 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164803/https://books.google.com/books?id=gsYUAAAAIAAJ |url-status=live}}
• {{cite book |last=Silver |first=M. M. |title=The History of Galilee, 1538–1949: Mysticism, Modernization, and War |year=2022 |isbn=9781793649430 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Slosar |first1=J. P. |first2=D. |last2=O'Brien |year=2003 |title=The Ethics of Neonatal Male Circumcision: A Catholic Perspective |journal=American Journal of Bioethics |volume=3 |issue=2 |pages=62–64 |pmid=12859824 |doi=10.1162/152651603766436306 |s2cid=38064474}}
• {{cite book |last=Smith |first=Peter |year=2008 |title=An Introduction to the Baha'i (sic) Faith |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-86251-6}}
• {{Cite book |last=Smith |first=Peter |author-link=Peter Smith (historian) |date=2022 |chapter=Ch. 50: Southeast Asia |url=https://www.routledge.com/The-World-of-the-Bahai-Faith/Stockman/p/book/9781138367722 |title=The World of the Bahá'í Faith |publisher=Routledge |location=Oxfordshire, UK |isbn=978-1-138-36772-2 |editor-last=Stockman |editor-first=Robert H. |editor-link=Robert Stockman |ref={{sfnRef |Smith |2022b}} |access-date=18 August 2022 |archive-date=13 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230213122623/https://www.routledge.com/The-World-of-the-Bahai-Faith/Stockman/p/book/9781138367722 |url-status=live}}
• {{cite book |last1=Stroumsa |first1=Guy G. |title=The making of the Abrahamic religions in late antiquity |date=2017 |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-191-05913-1}}
• {{cite book |last1=Swidler |first1=Leonard |last2=Duran |first2=Khalid |last3=Firestone |first3=Reuven |title=Trialogue: Jews, Christians, and Muslims in Dialogue |date=2007 |publisher=Twenty-Third Publications |isbn=9781585955879 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RvB5WUrMK8gC |access-date=18 March 2023 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164803/https://books.google.com/books?id=RvB5WUrMK8gC |url-status=live}}

• {{cite book |last=Tsedaka |first=Benyamim |year=2013 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-wn8ABo-Fz0C&q=samaritans+gerizim&pg=PR7 |title=The Israelite Samaritan Version of the Torah |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |isbn=9780802865199 |access-date=14 March 2022 |archive-date=5 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405051914/https://books.google.com/books?id=-wn8ABo-Fz0C&q=samaritans+gerizim&pg=PR7 |url-status=live}}
• {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Tucker |first1=Spencer C. |last2=Roberts |first2=Priscilla |title=The Encyclopedia of the Arab-Israeli Conflict: A Political, Social, and Military History A Political, Social, and Military History |publisher=ABC-CLIO |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YAd8efHdVzIC |isbn=9781851098422 |date=12 May 2008 |access-date=14 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160530225737/https://books.google.com/books?id=YAd8efHdVzIC |archive-date=30 May 2016 |url-status=live}}

• {{Cite book |last=Ubayd |first=Anis |title=The Druze and Their Faith in Tawhid |publisher=Syracuse University Press |year=2006 |isbn=9780815630975 |pages=150}}

• {{cite book |last1=Van Bladel |first1=Kevin |year=2017 |title=From Sasanian Mandaeans to Ṣābians of the Marshes |location=Leiden |publisher=Brill |doi=10.1163/9789004339460 |isbn=978-90-04-33943-9 |url=https://brill.com/view/title/34389}}

• {{cite journal |last1=Wilken |first1=Robert L. |title=From Time Immemorial? Dwellers in the Holy Land |journal=Christian Century |date=30 July – 6 August 1986 |url=https://www.religion-online.org/article/from-time-immemorial-dwellers-in-the-holy-land/ |access-date=8 September 2022 |archive-date=8 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220908133734/https://www.religion-online.org/article/from-time-immemorial-dwellers-in-the-holy-land/ |url-status=live}}
• {{cite web |last=Wormald |first=Benjamin |date=2 April 2015 |title=Religious Composition by Country, 2010–2050 |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2015/04/02/religious-projection-table/ |publisher=Pew Research Center |access-date=4 April 2022 |archive-date=5 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220405110137/https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2015/04/02/religious-projection-table/ |url-status=live}}
• {{cite book |title=The New Encyclopaedia Britannica |year=1992 |isbn=9780852295533 |publisher=Encyclopaedia Britannica |quote="Druze religious beliefs developed out of Isma'ill teachings. Various Jewish, Christian, Gnostic, Neoplatonic, and Iranian elements, however, are combined under a doctrine of strict monotheism." |ref={{harvid |New Encyclopaedia Britannica |1992}}}}

{{Refend}}

{{Library resources box}}

• {{cite encyclopedia |title=Religion: Year In Review 2010 |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |date=2010 |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/religion-Year-In-Review-2010/Worldwide-Adherents-of-All-Religions |ref={{sfnRef |Britannica |2010}} }}
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• {{cite book |last=Bakhos |first=Carol |year=2014 |title=The Family of Abraham: Jewish, Christian, and Muslim Interpretations |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-05083-9}}
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• Guggenheimer, Heinrich W., Seder Olam: The rabbinic view of Biblical chronology, (trans., & ed.), Jason Aronson, Northvale NJ, 1998
• {{cite book |last=Johansson |first=Warren |author-link=Warren Johansson |year=1990 |contribution=Abrahamic Religions |url=http://www.williamapercy.com/wiki/images/Abrahamic.pdf |editor-last=Dynes |editor-first=Wayne R. |title=Encyclopedia of Homosexuality |location=New York |publisher=Garland |isbn=978-0-8240-6544-7 |access-date=26 July 2006 |archive-date=28 May 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080528085741/http://www.williamapercy.com/wiki/images/Abrahamic.pdf |url-status=dead }}
• {{cite book |last=Kritzeck |first=James |author-link=James Kritzeck |title=Sons of Abraham: Jews, Christians, and Moslems |publisher=Helicon |year=1965 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h7MOAAAAIAAJ}}
• {{cite encyclopedia |last=Longton |first=Joseph |title=Fils d'Abraham: Panorama des communautés juives, chrétiennes et musulmanes |trans-title=Sons of Abraham: Overview of Jewish, Christian and Muslim Communities |language=fr |editor-last=Longton |editor-first=Joseph |encyclopedia=Fils d'Abraham |publisher=S.A. Brepols I. G. P. and CIB Maredsous |date=1987–2009 |isbn=978-2-503-82344-7 |url=http://www.cibmaredsous.be/cibf4.htm}}
• {{cite book |title=Life After Death: A study of the afterlife in world religions |last=Masumian |first=Farnaz |publisher=Oneworld Publications |location=Oxford |year=1995 |isbn=978-1-85168-074-0}}
• {{cite book |last=de Perceval |first=Armand-Pierre Caussin |title=Calcutta review – Essai sur l'histoire des Arabes avant l'islamisme, pendant l'époque de Mahomet, et jusqu'à la réduction de toutes les tribus sous la loi musulmane |trans-title=Calcutta review – Essay on the history of the Arabs before Islamism, during the time of Muhammad, and up to the reduction of all the tribes under Muslim rule |publisher=Didot |location=Paris |year=1847 |language=fr |oclc=431247004 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bQg2AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA1}}
• {{cite book |last=Reid |first=Barbara E. |title=Choosing the Better Part?: Women in the Gospel of Luke |publisher=Liturgical Press |year=1996}}
• {{cite book |editor1-last=Silverstein |editor1-first=Adam J. |editor2-last=Stroumsa |editor2-first=Guy G. |year=2015 |title=The Oxford Handbook of the Abrahamic Religions |location=New York |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-969776-2}}
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• {{cite book |first=Jonathan Z. |last=Smith |author-link=Jonathan Z. Smith |year=1998 |chapter=Religion, Religions, Religious |editor-first=Mark C. |editor-last=Taylor |editor-link=Mark C. Taylor (philosopher) |title=Critical Terms for Religious Studies |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-79156-2 |pages=269–284}}
• {{cite book |last1=Lupieri |first1=Edmundo |author1-link=Edmondo Lupieri |title=The Mandaeans: The Last Gnostics |publisher=Eerdmans |year=2001 |location=Grand Rapids, Michigan & Cambridge, UK |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zJ73YfrZ2T4C&q=Abraham |isbn=978-0802833501 |pages=65–66, 116, 164}}

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