Brexit#Referendum result

{{main|Timeline of Brexit}}

Following a UK-wide referendum on 23 June 2016, in which 51.89 per cent voted in favour of leaving the EU and 48.11 per cent voted to remain a member state, David Cameron resigned as Prime Minister. On 29 March 2017, the new British government led by Theresa May chose to formally notify the EU of the country's intention to withdraw from the EU in two years, despite there being no agreement among UK politicians on objectives for post-brexit relations with the EU. The withdrawal, originally scheduled for 29 March 2019, was subsequently delayed by the deadlock in the British parliament after the June 2017 general election, which resulted in a hung parliament in which the Conservatives lost their majority but remained the largest party. This deadlock eventually led to three extensions of the UK's Article 50 process.

The deadlock was resolved after a subsequent general election was held in December 2019. In that election, Conservatives who campaigned in support of a "hard-brexit" withdrawal agreement led by Boris Johnson won an overall majority of 80 seats. After the December 2019 election, the British parliament finally ratified the withdrawal agreement with the European Union (Withdrawal Agreement) Act 2020. The UK left the EU at the end of 31 January 2020 CET (11 p.m. GMT).{{cite news |date=1 February 2020 |title=Brexit day: end of an era as United Kingdom leaves EU – as it happened |work=The Guardian |first=Andrew |last=Sparrow

|url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/live/2020/jan/31/brexit-day-britain-prepares-leave-eu-live-news-updates}} This began a transition period that ended on 31 December 2020 CET (11 p.m. GMT), during which the UK and EU negotiated their future relationship.{{cite news|last=Bennett|first=Asa|title=How will the Brexit transition period work?|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/politics/0/brexit-2020-transition-period/|newspaper=The Telegraph|date=27 January 2020|access-date=28 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200128044559/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/politics/0/brexit-2020-transition-period/|archive-date=28 January 2020|url-status=live}} During the transition, the UK remained subject to EU law and remained part of the European Union Customs Union and the European single market. However, it was no longer part of the EU's political bodies or institutions.{{cite news|author=Tom Edgington|title=Brexit: What is the transition period?|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-50838994|date=31 January 2020|access-date=1 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200131215049/https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-50838994|archive-date=31 January 2020|url-status=live}}{{cite news|publisher=European Commission|date=24 January 2020|title=Questions and Answers on the United Kingdom's withdrawal from the European Union on 31 January 2020|url=https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/qanda_20_104|access-date=1 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200201003034/https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/qanda_20_104|archive-date=1 February 2020|url-status=live}}

The withdrawal had been advocated by mostly right-wing and conservative hard Eurosceptics and opposed by pro-Europeanists mostly from the rest of the political spectrum. In 1973, the UK joined the European Communities (EC) – principally the European Economic Community (EEC) – and its continued membership was endorsed in the 1975 membership referendum. In the 1970s and 1980s, withdrawal from the EC was advocated mainly by the political left, e.g. in the Labour Party's 1983 election manifesto. The 1992 Maastricht Treaty, which founded the EU, was ratified by the British parliament in 1993 but was not put to a referendum. The Eurosceptic wing of the Conservative Party led a rebellion over the ratification of the treaty and, with the UK Independence Party (UKIP) and the cross-party People's Pledge campaign, then led a collective campaign, particularly after the Treaty of Lisbon was also ratified by the European Union (Amendment) Act 2008 without being put to a referendum following a previous promise to hold a referendum on ratifying the abandoned European Constitution, which was never held. After promising to hold a second membership referendum if his government was elected, Conservative prime minister David Cameron held this referendum in 2016. Cameron, who had campaigned to remain, resigned after the result and was succeeded by Theresa May.

On 29 March 2017, the British government formally began the withdrawal process by invoking Article 50 of the Treaty on European Union with permission from Parliament. May called a snap general election in June 2017, which resulted in a Conservative minority government supported by the Democratic Unionist Party (DUP). UK–EU withdrawal negotiations began later that month. The UK negotiated to leave the EU customs union and single market. This resulted in the November 2018 withdrawal agreement, but the British parliament voted against ratifying it three times. The Labour Party wanted any agreement to maintain a customs union, while many Conservatives opposed the agreement's financial settlement, as well as the "Irish backstop" designed to prevent border controls between Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland. The Liberal Democrats, Scottish National Party (SNP), and others sought to reverse Brexit through a proposed second referendum.

On 14 March 2019, the British parliament voted for May to ask the EU to delay Brexit until June, and then later October.{{cite web|url=https://www.parliament.uk/business/news/2019/march/house-of-commons-to-vote-on-article-50-extension/|title=House of Commons votes to seek Article 50 extension|date=14 March 2019|access-date=11 May 2020|archive-date=7 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200307030308/https://www.parliament.uk/business/news/2019/march/house-of-commons-to-vote-on-article-50-extension/|url-status=live}} Having failed to get her agreement approved, May resigned as Prime Minister in July and was succeeded by Boris Johnson. He sought to replace parts of the agreement and vowed to leave the EU by the new deadline. On 17 October 2019, the British government and the EU agreed on a revised withdrawal agreement, with new arrangements for Northern Ireland.{{cite web|url=https://ec.europa.eu/commission/sites/beta-political/files/revised_withdrawal_agreement_including_protocol_on_ireland_and_nothern_ireland.pdf|title=Revised Withdrawal Agreement|date=17 October 2019|publisher=European Commission|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191017103006/https://ec.europa.eu/commission/sites/beta-political/files/revised_withdrawal_agreement_including_protocol_on_ireland_and_nothern_ireland.pdf|archive-date=17 October 2019|access-date=17 October 2019}}{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-50079385|title=New Brexit deal agreed, says Boris Johnson|date=17 October 2019|work=BBC News|access-date=17 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191213193556/https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-50079385|archive-date=13 December 2019|url-status=live}} Parliament approved the agreement for further scrutiny, but rejected passing it into law before the 31 October deadline, and forced the government (through the "Benn Act") to ask for a third Brexit delay. An early general election was then held on 12 December. The Conservatives won a large majority in that election, with Johnson declaring that the UK would leave the EU in early 2020.{{cite web|first1=Mark|last1=Landler|first2=Stephen|last2=Castle|url=https://www.msn.com/en-us/news/world/conservatives-headed-for-commanding-majority-in-uk-vote-brexit-will-happen/ar-AAK4vR4?ocid=spartanntp|title=Conservatives Win Commanding Majority in U.K. Vote: 'Brexit Will Happen'|newspaper=The New York Times|location=New York City|via=MSN|date=12 December 2019|access-date=12 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191213060550/https://www.msn.com/en-us/news/world/conservatives-headed-for-commanding-majority-in-uk-vote-brexit-will-happen/ar-AAK4vR4%3Focid%3Dspartanntp|archive-date=13 December 2019|url-status=live}} The withdrawal agreement was ratified by the UK on 23 January and by the EU on 30 January; it came into force on 31 January 2020.{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2020/jan/24/sombre-eu-leaders-sign-brexit-withdrawal-agreement|title=Boris Johnson signs Brexit withdrawal agreement|last1=Boffey|first1=Daniel|last2=Proctor|first2=Kate|date=24 January 2020|newspaper=The Guardian|access-date=24 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200124122448/https://amp.theguardian.com/politics/2020/jan/24/sombre-eu-leaders-sign-brexit-withdrawal-agreement|archive-date=24 January 2020|url-status=live}}{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/live/2020/jan/29/pmqs-boris-johnson-corbyn-warned-he-faces-first-commons-revolt-since-election-over-huawei-live-news|last=Sparrow|first=Andrew|title=Brexit: MEPs approve withdrawal agreement after emotional debate and claims UK will return – live news|work=The Guardian|date=30 January 2020|access-date=30 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200129232319/https://www.theguardian.com/politics/live/2020/jan/29/pmqs-boris-johnson-corbyn-warned-he-faces-first-commons-revolt-since-election-over-huawei-live-news|archive-date=29 January 2020|url-status=live}}{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-51333314|title=Brexit: UK leaves the European Union|work=BBC News|date=1 February 2020|access-date=11 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200314050137/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-51333314|archive-date=14 March 2020|url-status=live}}

{{main|Glossary of Brexit terms}}

Following the referendum of 23 June 2016, many new pieces of Brexit-related jargon entered popular use.{{Cite web|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/10/17/brexit-jargon-from-backstop-to-no-deal-the-key-terms-explained/ |title=Brexit jargon: From backstop to no-deal, the key terms explained |date=17 October 2019 |website=Al Jazeera |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201108231048/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/10/17/brexit-jargon-from-backstop-to-no-deal-the-key-terms-explained/ |archive-date=8 November 2020 |url-status=live |access-date=29 March 2019}}{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-43470987 |title=Brexit: 12 key words you need to know |date=11 December 2020 |website=BBC News |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210702223508/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-43470987 |archive-date=2 July 2021 |url-status=live |access-date=29 March 2019}} The word Brexit is a portmanteau of the phrase "British exit".{{Cite web|url=https://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/sam-lewishargreave/is-brexit-the-worst-polit_b_10615036.html|title=Is 'Brexit' the Worst Political Portmanteau in History?|last=Lewis-Hargreave|first=Sam|date=21 January 2019|website=HuffPost UK|location=London|access-date=10 March 2023|archive-date=10 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230310155901/https://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/sam-lewishargreave/is-brexit-the-worst-polit_b_10615036.html|url-status=live}} According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the term was coined in a blog post on the website Euractiv by Peter Wilding, director of European policy at BSkyB, on 15 May 2012.{{Cite web|url=https://www.euractiv.com/section/uk-europe/news/oxford-english-dictionary-the-man-who-coined-brexit/|title=Oxford English Dictionary: The man who coined 'Brexit' first appeared on Euractiv blog|last=Tempest|first=Matthew|date=10 January 2017|website=Euractiv|location=Brussels|access-date=10 March 2023|archive-date=7 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191007143025/https://www.euractiv.com/section/uk-europe/news/oxford-english-dictionary-the-man-who-coined-brexit/|url-status=live}} Wilding coined Brexit to refer to the end of the UK's membership of the EU; by 2016, usage of the word had increased by 3,400% in one year.{{Cite web|url=https://mashable.com/article/brexit-word-of-the-year|title='Brexit' tops the list of Collins Dictionary's 2016 words of the year|last=Davis|first=Lindsay|date=3 November 2016|publisher=Mashable|location=New York City|access-date=10 March 2023|archive-date=25 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230225154143/https://mashable.com/article/brexit-word-of-the-year|url-status=live}} On 2 November 2016, the Collins English Dictionary selected Brexit as the word of the year for 2016.{{Cite news|last1=Flood|first1=Alison|date=2 November 2016|title=Brexit named word of the year, ahead of Trumpism and hygge|url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2016/nov/03/brexit-named-word-of-the-year-ahead-of-trumpism-and-hygge|newspaper=The Guardian|location=London|access-date=22 February 2023|archive-date=27 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230227113232/https://www.theguardian.com/books/2016/nov/03/brexit-named-word-of-the-year-ahead-of-trumpism-and-hygge|url-status=live}}

{{Main|Accession of the United Kingdom to the European Communities|United Kingdom membership of the European Union}}

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| caption2 = When the UK first joined the European Communities (along with Denmark and Ireland) on 1 January 1973 it was one of just nine member states that made up the bloc at the time. {{legend|#039|EC Members}}

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The "Inner Six" European countries signed the Treaty of Paris in 1951, establishing the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC). The 1955 Messina Conference deemed that the ECSC was a success, and resolved to extend the concept further, thereby leading to the 1957 Treaties of Rome establishing the European Economic Community (EEC) and the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom). In 1967, these became known as the European Communities (EC). The UK attempted to join in 1963 and 1967, but these applications were vetoed by the President of France, Charles de Gaulle, who feared the UK would be a Trojan Horse for US influence.{{cite news|title=1967: De Gaulle says "non" to Britain – again|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/november/27/newsid_4187000/4187714.stm|work=BBC News|date=27 November 1976|access-date=9 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190202044425/http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/november/27/newsid_4187000/4187714.stm|archive-date=2 February 2019|url-status=live}}{{Cite web|url=https://www.france24.com/en/20191013-did-charles-de-gaulle-foresee-brexit|title=Did Charles de Gaulle foresee Brexit?|date=13 October 2019|website=France 24|access-date=9 March 2023|archive-date=9 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230309014330/https://www.france24.com/en/20191013-did-charles-de-gaulle-foresee-brexit|url-status=live}}

Some time after de Gaulle resigned in 1969, the UK successfully applied for European Communities (EC) membership. Membership of the then EEC was thoroughly discussed at the long debate in the House of Commons in October 1971. It led to the decisive vote in favour of membership by 356 to 244. As historian Piers Ludlow observed, the 1971 parliamentary debate was of high quality and considered all issues. The British were not "misled and persuaded to accept membership in a narrow commercial entity without being aware that the EEC was a political project liable to develop in the future".{{Cite journal |last=Ludlow |first=N. Piers |date=January 2015 |title=Safeguarding British Identity or Betraying It? The Role of British 'Tradition' in the Parliamentary Great Debate on EC Membership, October 1971: Safeguarding British identity or betraying it? |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jcms.12202 |journal=JCMS: Journal of Common Market Studies |language=en |volume=53 |issue=1 |pages=18–34 |doi=10.1111/jcms.12202 |s2cid=145092199 |access-date=20 August 2022 |archive-date=20 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220820132750/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jcms.12202 |url-status=live |issn=0021-9886}} The Conservative prime minister Edward Heath signed the Treaty of Accession in 1972.{{cite web|title=Into Europe |publisher=Parliament of the United Kingdom |url=http://www.parliament.uk/about/living-heritage/transformingsociety/tradeindustry/importexport/overview/europe/ |access-date=25 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190328231317/https://www.parliament.uk/about/living-heritage/transformingsociety/tradeindustry/importexport/overview/europe/|archive-date=28 March 2019|url-status=live}} Parliament passed the European Communities Act later that year{{cite web|title=English text of EU Accession Treaty 1972, Cmnd. 7463 |url=http://treaties.fco.gov.uk/docs/fullnames/pdf/1979/TS0018%20(1979)%20CMND-7463%201972%2022%20JAN,%20BRUSSELS%3B%20TREATY%20CONCERNING%20ACCESSION%20OF%20DENMARK%20IRELAND%20NORWAY%20UK%20&%20NI%20TO%20EEC%20&%20EAEC_1.pdf |access-date=24 February 2017|archive-date=21 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161221025512/http://treaties.fco.gov.uk/docs/fullnames/pdf/1979/TS0018%20%281979%29%20CMND-7463%201972%2022%20JAN%2C%20BRUSSELS%3B%20TREATY%20CONCERNING%20ACCESSION%20OF%20DENMARK%20IRELAND%20NORWAY%20UK%20%26%20NI%20TO%20EEC%20%26%20EAEC_1.pdf |url-status=dead}} and the UK joined Denmark and the Republic of Ireland in becoming a member on 1 January 1973, without referendum.{{cite news|title=1973: Britain joins the EEC |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/january/1/newsid_2459000/2459167.stm|work=BBC News |date=1 January 1973|access-date=9 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190114142111/http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/january/1/newsid_2459000/2459167.stm|archive-date=14 January 2019|url-status=live}}

During the 1970s and 1980s, the Labour Party was the more Eurosceptic of the two major parties, and the Conservatives the more Europhile. Labour won the February 1974 general election without a majority and then contested the subsequent October 1974 general election with a commitment to renegotiate Britain's terms of membership of the EC, believing them to be unfavourable, and then hold a referendum on whether to remain in the EC on the new terms.{{cite book |first=Alex |last=May |title=Britain and Europe since 1945 |date=1999 |publisher=Longmand |series=Seminar studies in history |isbn=9780582307780}} Labour again won the election (this time with a small majority), and in 1975 the UK held its first ever national referendum, asking whether the UK should remain in the EC. Despite significant division within the ruling Labour Party,{{cite news|title=BBC on this day – 26 – 1975: Labour votes to leave the EEC|work=BBC |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/26/newsid_2503000/2503155.stm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181212151032/http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/26/newsid_2503000/2503155.stm|archive-date=12 December 2018|url-status=live|access-date=20 May 2017}} all major political parties and the mainstream press supported continuing membership of the EC. On 5 June 1975, 67.2% of the electorate and all but twothe Shetland Islands and the Outer Hebrides British counties and regions voted to stay in;{{cite web|last1=Miller |first1=Vaughne |date=13 July 2015 |title=The 1974–75 UK Renegotiation of EEC Membership and Referendum |type=Research briefing |url=https://commonslibrary.parliament.uk/research-briefings/cbp-7253/ |publisher=House of Commons Library |website=commonslibrary.parliament.uk |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210305014515/https://commonslibrary.parliament.uk/research-briefings/cbp-7253/ |archive-date=5 March 2021}} support for the UK to leave the EC in 1975 appears unrelated to the support for Leave in the 2016 referendum.{{cite web|url=http://www.trfetzer.com/who-voted-for-brexit/ |title=Who Voted for Brexit? A comprehensive district level analysis|publisher=Becker, Fetzer, Novy, University of Warwick|access-date=22 November 2016|url-status=live|archive-date=1 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190401145148/http://www.trfetzer.com/who-voted-for-brexit/}}

In 1979, the UK secured its first opt-out, although the expression was not contemporary; it was the only EEC country not to take part in the European Monetary System.

The Labour Party campaigned in the 1983 general election on a commitment to withdraw from the EC without a referendum.{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/8550425.stm|title=Michael Foot: What did the "longest suicide note" say?|first=Rajini|last=Vaidyanathan|work=BBC News|date=4 March 2010|access-date=21 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170902193702/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/8550425.stm|archive-date=2 September 2017|url-status=live}} Following their heavy defeat in that election, Labour changed its policy. In 1985, the second Margaret Thatcher government ratified the Single European Act—the first major revision to the Treaty of Rome—without a referendum.{{Cite web|url=https://ukandeu.ac.uk/margaret-thatcher-the-critical-architect-of-european-integration/|title=Margaret Thatcher: the critical architect of European integration|first=Dr Helene Von|last=Bismarck|date=4 May 2016|website=UK in a changing Europe|access-date=9 March 2023|archive-date=26 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326032223/https://ukandeu.ac.uk/margaret-thatcher-the-critical-architect-of-european-integration/|url-status=live}}

File:United Kingdom European Communities membership referendum, 1975 compared to United Kingdom European Union membership referendum, 2016.svg

In October 1990, under pressure from senior ministers and despite Thatcher's deep reservations, the UK joined the European Exchange Rate Mechanism (ERM), with the pound sterling pegged to the deutschmark. Thatcher resigned as Prime Minister the following month, amid Conservative Party divisions arising partly from her increasingly Eurosceptic views. The UK was forced to withdraw from the ERM on Black Wednesday in September 1992, after the pound sterling came under pressure from currency speculation.{{cite web|last1=Dury|first1=Hélène |url=http://is.muni.cz/el/1456/podzim2011/MPF_AFIN/um/27608616/27608949/Black_Wednesday.pdf |access-date=24 February 2016 |title=Black Wednesday |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181001135346/https://is.muni.cz/el/1456/podzim2011/MPF_AFIN/um/27608616/27608949/Black_Wednesday.pdf|archive-date=1 October 2018|url-status=live}} Italy left the same month, but would soon rejoin on a different band. The UK did not seek re-entry and remained outside the ERM.

On 1 November 1993, after the UK and the other eleven member states had ratified, the EC became the EU under the Maastricht Treaty{{cite web|url=https://europa.eu/european-union/eu-law/decision-making/treaties_en|title=EU treaties|publisher=Europa (web portal)|access-date=15 September 2016 |url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913032647/http://europa.eu/european-union/eu-law/decision-making/treaties_en|archive-date=13 September 2016}} compromise between member states seeking deeper integration and those wishing to retain greater national control in the economic and political union.{{cite web|url=http://europa.eu/about-eu/basic-information/about/index_en.htm|title=EUROPA The EU in brief|publisher=Europa (web portal)|access-date=19 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160726054654/http://europa.eu/about-eu/basic-information/about/index_en.htm|archive-date=26 July 2016|url-status=live}} Denmark, France, and the Republic of Ireland held referendums to ratify the Maastricht Treaty. In accordance with Constitution of the United Kingdom, specifically that of parliamentary sovereignty, ratification in the UK was not subject to approval by referendum. Despite this, British constitutional historian Vernon Bogdanor wrote that there was "a clear constitutional rationale for requiring a referendum" because although MPs are entrusted with legislative power by the electorate, they are not given authority to transfer that power (the UK's previous three referendums all concerned this). Further, as the ratification of the treaty was in the manifestos of the three major political parties, voters opposed to ratification had limited options for expressing this. For Bogdanor, while the ratification by the House of Commons might be legal, it would not be legitimate—which requires popular consent. The way in which the treaty was ratified, he judged, was "likely to have fundamental consequences both for British politics and for Britain's relationship with the [EC]."Bogdanor also quotes John Locke's The Second Treatise of Government: 'The Legislative cannot transfer the power of making laws to any other hands. For it being but a delegated power from the People, they who have it cannot pass it to others.' – Bogdanor, Vernon (8 June 1993). [https://www.independent.co.uk/voices/why-the-people-should-have-a-vote-on-maastricht-the-house-of-lords-must-uphold-democracy-and-insist-1490346.html Why the people should have a vote on Maastricht: The House of Lords must uphold democracy and insist on a referendum] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190629035411/https://www.independent.co.uk/voices/why-the-people-should-have-a-vote-on-maastricht-the-house-of-lords-must-uphold-democracy-and-insist-1490346.html |date=29 June 2019 }}. The Independent.Bogdanor, Vernon (26 July 1993). [https://www.independent.co.uk/voices/futility-of-a-house-with-no-windows-1487252.html Futility of a House with no windows] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190708155618/https://www.independent.co.uk/voices/futility-of-a-house-with-no-windows-1487252.html |date=8 July 2019 }}. The Independent.

{{Main|Euroscepticism in the United Kingdom}}

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| footer = Conservative prime ministers Margaret Thatcher (left) and David Cameron (right) used Eurosceptic rhetoric while supporting the UK's membership and development of the European single market. Euroscepticism – and in particular the impact of the UK Independence Party (former leader Nigel Farage pictured centre) on the Conservatives' election results – contributed to Cameron's 2015–16 attempt to renegotiate the UK's EU membership, and ultimately the holding of the 2016 referendum.

}}

Thatcher, who had previously supported the common market and the Single European Act, in the Bruges speech of 1988 warned against "a European super-state exercising a new dominance from Brussels". She influenced Daniel Hannan, who in 1990 founded the Oxford Campaign for Independent Britain; "With hindsight, some see this as the start of the campaign for Brexit", the Financial Times later wrote.{{cite news|url=https://www.ft.com/content/85fc694c-9222-11e9-b7ea-60e35ef678d2|title=How Oxford university shaped Brexit – and Britain's next prime minister|last=Kuper|first=Simon|date=20 June 2019|work=Financial Times|access-date=21 June 2019|language=en-GB|url-access=subscription|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190621101919/https://www.ft.com/content/85fc694c-9222-11e9-b7ea-60e35ef678d2|archive-date=21 June 2019|url-status=live}}

The vote to approve the Maastricht Treaty in 1993 triggered a strong Eurosceptic response, splitting the Conservative Party and leading to many past supporters forming alternative Eurosceptic parties. This included Sir James Goldsmith forming the Referendum Party in 1994 to contest the 1997 general election on a platform of providing a referendum on the UK's relationship with the EU.{{cite journal |last1=Heath |first1=Anthony |last2=Jowell |first2=Roger |last3=Taylor |first3=Bridget |last4=Thomson |first4=Katarina |date=1 January 1998|title=Euroscepticism and the referendum party|journal=British Elections & Parties Review |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=95–110 |doi=10.1080/13689889808413007 |issn=1368-9886}}

Perceptions of EU leadership during major crises significantly contributed to Euroscepticism in the UK. During the eurozone debt crisis, strict austerity measures were imposed as a condition for bailouts, with EU member states, including the UK, asked to contribute to bailout plans. Critics argued that such policies disproportionately served the interests of leading EU nations, particularly Germany, and undermined national sovereignty.{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/mar/31/is-germany-too-powerful-for-europe|title=Is Germany too powerful for Europe?|author=Ian Traynor|date=31 March 2013|work=The Guardian|access-date=2 January 2025}}

Similarly, during the 2015 migration crisis, Chancellor Angela Merkel's decision to open EU borders and her request that member states share the burden of accommodating refugees sparked significant backlash. Many in the UK viewed this as an imposition of obligations without adequate consultation, reinforcing Eurosceptic narratives.{{cite journal|url=https://journals.openedition.org/lisa/13019|title=Perceptions of German Power in British Eurosceptic Discourse|author=Peter Ammon|journal=Revue Lisa/Lisa E-Journal. Littératures, Histoire des Idées, Images, Sociétés du Monde Anglophone – Literature, History of Ideas, Images and Societies of the English-Speaking World |date=2020|issue=19–n51 |publisher=Lisa e-journal|doi=10.4000/lisa.13019 |access-date=2 January 2025|doi-access=free}}

Populist parties such as UKIP exploited these perceptions, linking EU leadership to broader fears of a loss of British sovereignty. Campaign rhetoric often employed nationalist sentiments and portrayed the EU as disproportionately influenced by certain member states.{{cite web|url=https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/brexit/2019/01/04/from-euroscepticism-to-outright-populism-the-evolution-of-british-tabloids/|title=From Euroscepticism to outright populism: The evolution of British tabloids |author=LSE Brexit Blog |work=LSE BREXIT |date=4 January 2019}}

UKIP's electoral success, driven by its anti-EU campaigns, culminated in significant gains during the 2014 European elections, where it became the largest UK party with 27.5% of the vote.{{cite web|title=European elections 2014: UKIP tops British vote |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-27567744 |date=26 May 2014 |publisher=BBC}} This success put pressure on the ruling Conservative Party, ultimately leading to Prime Minister David Cameron’s decision to hold the 2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum.

By linking perceived EU leadership overreach to concerns about sovereignty, Eurosceptic parties and media shaped public opinion in the UK, contributing to the referendum outcome.

{{Main|Opinion polling for the United Kingdom European Union membership referendum}}

Both pro- and anti-EU views had majority support at different times from 1977 to 2015.{{Cite news|url=http://theconversation.com/polling-history-40-years-of-british-views-on-in-or-out-of-europe-61250|title=Polling history: 40 years of British views on "in or out" of Europe|last=Mortimore|first=Roger|newspaper=The Conversation|access-date=25 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190403145856/https://theconversation.com/polling-history-40-years-of-british-views-on-in-or-out-of-europe-61250|archive-date=3 April 2019|url-status=live}} In the EC membership referendum of 1975, two-thirds of British voters favoured continued EC membership. Over the decades of UK-EU membership, Euroscepticism existed on both the left and right of British politics.Gifford, Chris. The Making of Eurosceptic Britain. Ashgate Publishing, 2014. pp. 55, 68Foster, Anthony. Euroscepticism in Contemporary British Politics: Opposition to Europe in the Conservative and Labour Parties since 1945. Routledge, 2003. pp. 68–69Taylor, Graham. Understanding Brexit: Why Britain Voted to Leave the European Union. Emerald Group Publishing, 2017. p. 91. Quote: "The coalition that came together to secure Brexit, however, included a diverse range of individuals, groups and interests. [...] There were also supporters of Brexit on the left{{nbsp}}..."

According to a statistical analysis published in April 2016 by Professor John Curtice of Strathclyde University, surveys showed an increase in Euroscepticism (a wish to leave the EU or stay in the EU and try to reduce the EU's powers) from 38% in 1993 to 65% in 2015. The BSA survey for the period of July–November 2015 showed that 60% backed the option to continue as a member and 30% backed withdrawal.{{Cite journal|last=Tarran|first=Brian|date=8 April 2016|title=The Economy: a Brexit vote winner?|journal=Significance|volume=13|issue=2|pages=6–7|doi=10.1111/j.1740-9713.2016.00891.x|doi-access=free}}

{{Main|2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum}}

{{Main|2015–2016 United Kingdom renegotiation of European Union membership}}

In 2012, Prime Minister David Cameron initially rejected calls for a referendum on the UK's EU membership,{{cite news|title=Cameron defies Tory right over EU referendum: Prime minister, buoyed by successful negotiations on eurozone banking reform, rejects "in or out" referendum on EU|author=Nicholas Watt|url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2012/jun/29/cameron-no-eu-referendum|newspaper=The Guardian|date=29 June 2012|access-date=2 July 2012|quote=David Cameron placed himself on a collision course with the Tory right when he mounted a passionate defence of Britain's membership of the EU and rejected out of hand an "in or out" referendum.|location=London|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151226053945/http://www.theguardian.com/politics/2012/jun/29/cameron-no-eu-referendum|archive-date=26 December 2015|url-status=live}} but then suggested the possibility of a future referendum to endorse his proposed renegotiation of Britain's relationship with the rest of the EU.{{cite news|title=PM accused of weak stance on Europe referendum|first=Andrew|last=Sparrow|url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2012/jul/01/david-cameron-europe-referendum-noncommittal|newspaper=The Guardian|date=1 July 2012|access-date=2 July 2012|quote=Cameron said he would continue to work for "a different, more flexible and less onerous position for Britain within the EU".|location=London|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160604094602/http://www.theguardian.com/politics/2012/jul/01/david-cameron-europe-referendum-noncommittal|archive-date=4 June 2016|url-status=live}} According to the BBC, "The prime minister acknowledged the need to ensure the UK's [renegotiated] position within the [EU] had 'the full-hearted support of the British people' but they needed to show 'tactical and strategic patience'."{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-18659072|title=David Cameron 'prepared to consider EU referendum'|date=1 July 2012|work=BBC News|quote=Mr Cameron said{{nbsp}}... he would 'continue to work for a different, more flexible and less onerous position for Britain within the EU'.|access-date=2 July 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120702020639/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-18659072|archive-date=2 July 2012|url-status=live}} On 23 January 2013, under pressure from many of his MPs and from the rise of UKIP, Cameron promised in his Bloomberg speech that a Conservative government would hold an in-or-out referendum on EU membership before the end of 2017, on a renegotiated package, if elected in the 7 May 2015 general election.{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-21148282|title=David Cameron promises in/out referendum on EU|work=BBC News|date=23 January 2013|access-date=23 April 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190404020146/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-21148282|archive-date=4 April 2019|url-status=live}} This was included in the Conservative Party manifesto for the election.{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/election-2015-32302062|title=At-a-glance: Conservative manifesto|date=15 April 2015|work=BBC News|access-date=21 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190403121018/https://www.bbc.com/news/election-2015-32302062|archive-date=3 April 2019|url-status=live}}{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2015/apr/14/conservatives-election-manifesto-2015-the-key-points|title=Conservatives election manifesto 2015 – the key points|first=Frances|last=Perraudin|date=14 April 2015|website=The Guardian|access-date=27 January 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190402084711/https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2015/apr/14/conservatives-election-manifesto-2015-the-key-points|archive-date=2 April 2019|url-status=live}}

The Conservative Party won the election with a majority. Soon afterwards, the European Union Referendum Act 2015 was introduced into Parliament to enable the referendum. Cameron favoured remaining in a reformed EU, and sought to renegotiate on four key points: protection of the single market for non-eurozone countries, reduction of "red tape", exempting Britain from "ever-closer union", and restricting immigration from the rest of the EU.{{cite news|title=David Cameron sets out EU reform goals|work=BBC News|date=11 November 2015|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-34770875|access-date=16 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190402180734/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-34770875|archive-date=2 April 2019|url-status=live}}

In December 2015, opinion polls showed a clear majority in favour of remaining in the EU; they also showed support would drop if Cameron did not negotiate adequate safeguards{{Definition needed|What kind of 'safeguards'?|date=April 2019}} for non-eurozone member states, and restrictions on benefits for non-UK EU citizens.{{cite web |url=http://openeurope.org.uk/today/blog/new-open-europecomres-poll-failure-to-win-key-reforms-could-swing-uks-eu-referendum-vote |title=New Open Europe/ComRes poll: Failure to win key reforms could swing UK's EU referendum vote |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180615190602/https://openeurope.org.uk/today/blog/new-open-europecomres-poll-failure-to-win-key-reforms-could-swing-uks-eu-referendum-vote/ |archive-date=15 June 2018 |website=openeurope.org |date=16 December 2015 |url-status=dead}}

The outcome of the renegotiations was revealed in February 2016. Some limits to in-work benefits for new EU immigrants were agreed, but before they could be applied, a member state such as the UK would have to get permission from the European Commission and then from the European Council, which is composed of the heads of government of every member state.{{cite web|url=https://fullfact.org/europe/explaining-eu-deal-emergency-brake|first=Eleanore|last=Spaventa|title=Explaining the EU deal: the "emergency brake"|date=22 February 2016|access-date=25 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190329183814/https://fullfact.org/europe/explaining-eu-deal-emergency-brake/|archive-date=29 March 2019|url-status=live}}

In a speech to the House of Commons on 22 February 2016, Cameron announced a referendum date of 23 June 2016, and commented on the renegotiation settlement.{{cite web|title=Prime Minister sets out legal framework for EU withdrawal|website=UK Parliament|date=22 February 2016|url=https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201516/cmhansrd/cm160222/debtext/160222-0001.htm#16022210000001|access-date=29 February 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190215050849/https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201516/cmhansrd/cm160222/debtext/160222-0001.htm#16022210000001|archive-date=15 February 2019|url-status=live}} He spoke of an intention to trigger the Article 50 process immediately following a Leave vote and of the "two-year time period to negotiate the arrangements for exit."{{cite web|url=https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/504216/The_process_for_withdrawing_from_the_EU_print_ready.pdf|title=The process for withdrawing from the European Union|publisher=Government of the United Kingdom|access-date=24 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180224014248/https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/504216/The_process_for_withdrawing_from_the_EU_print_ready.pdf|archive-date=24 February 2018|url-status=live}}

After the original wording for the referendum question was challenged,{{cite news|url=https://www.itv.com/news/tyne-tees/2019-06-23/three-years-since-the-brexit-vote-meet-the-man-behind-leave-and-remain|title=Three years since the Brexit vote, meet the man behind Leave and Remain|work=ITV News|date=23 June 2019|access-date=25 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190625033043/https://www.itv.com/news/tyne-tees/2019-06-23/three-years-since-the-brexit-vote-meet-the-man-behind-leave-and-remain/|archive-date=25 June 2019|url-status=live}} the government agreed to change the official referendum question to "Should the United Kingdom remain a member of the European Union or leave the European Union?"

{{Main|Results of the 2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum}}

In the referendum 51.89% voted in favour of leaving the EU (Leave), and 48.11% voted in favour of remaining a member of the EU (Remain).{{cite news|title=EU referendum: BBC forecasts UK votes to leave|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-36615028|work=BBC News|access-date=24 June 2016|date=24 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190724232549/https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-36615028|archive-date=24 July 2019|url-status=live}}{{cite web|url=http://election.news.sky.com/referendum|title=EU Referendum Results|publisher=Sky (United Kingdom)|access-date=24 June 2016|archive-url=https://archive.today/20160624063333/http://election.news.sky.com/referendum|archive-date=24 June 2016|url-status=live}} After this result, Cameron resigned on 13 July 2016, with Theresa May becoming Prime Minister after a leadership contest. A petition calling for a second referendum attracted more than four million signatures,{{cite news|first=Christopher|last=Hooton|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/brexit-petition-for-second-eu-referendum-so-popular-the-government-sites-crashing-a7099996.html|title=Brexit: Petition for second EU referendum so popular the government site's crashing|newspaper=The Independent|publisher=Independent Print Limited|date=24 June 2016|access-date=24 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190726082136/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/brexit-petition-for-second-eu-referendum-so-popular-the-government-sites-crashing-a7099996.html|archive-date=26 July 2019|url-status=live}}{{cite news|first=Adam|last=Boult|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/06/24/petition-for-second-eu-referendum-attracts-thousands-of-signatur/|title=Petition for second EU referendum attracts thousands of signatures|newspaper=The Daily Telegraph|date=26 June 2016|access-date=26 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160624191630/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/06/24/petition-for-second-eu-referendum-attracts-thousands-of-signatur/|archive-date=24 June 2016|url-status=live}} but was rejected by the government on 9 July.{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-36754376|title=Brexit: Petition for second EU referendum rejected|date=9 July 2016|work=BBC News|access-date=9 July 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190726002830/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-36754376|archive-date=26 July 2019|url-status=live}}

{{UKEU2016Results}}

{{further|Causes of the vote in favour of Brexit}}

A 2017 study published in the journal Economic Policy showed that the Leave vote tended to be greater in areas which had lower incomes and high unemployment, a strong tradition of manufacturing employment, and in which the population had fewer qualifications. It also tended to be greater where there was a large flow of Eastern European migrants (mainly low-skilled workers) into areas with a large share of native low-skilled workers.{{cite journal |first1=Sascha O |last1=Becker |first2=Thiemo |last2=Fetzer |first3=Dennis |last3=Novy |doi=10.1093/epolic/eix012 |title=Who voted for Brexit? A comprehensive district-level analysis |journal=Economic Policy |volume=32 |issue=92 |date= 1 October 2017 |pages= 601–650 |quote= We find that fundamental characteristics of the voting population were key drivers of the Vote Leave share, in particular, their education profiles, their historical dependence on manufacturing employment as well as low income and high unemployment. At the much finer level of wards within cities, we find that areas with deprivation in terms of education, income and employment were more likely to vote Leave. [...] A larger flow of migrants from Eastern Europe reaching a local authority area with a larger share of unqualified people or a larger share of manufacturing workers is also associated with a larger Vote Leave share|doi-access=free |hdl=10419/161877 |hdl-access=free }} Those in lower social grades (especially the working class) were more likely to vote Leave, while those in higher social grades (especially the upper middle class) more likely to vote Remain.{{cite web|first1=Elise |last1=Uberoi |first2=Neil |last2=Johnston |date=25 February 2021 |url=https://researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk/documents/CBP-7501/CBP-7501.pdf |title=Political disengagement in the UK: who is disengaged? |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211008232148/https://researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk/documents/CBP-7501/CBP-7501.pdf |archive-date=8 October 2021 |url-status=live |type=Briefing paper |publisher=House of Commons Library |website=researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk |id=Number CBP-7501 |pages=25–26, 28}}{{cite journal|last=Hobolt|first=Sara B.|s2cid=158006844|date=20 October 2016|title=The Brexit vote: a divided nation, a divided continent|journal=Journal of European Public Policy|volume=23|issue=9|pages=1259–1277|doi=10.1080/13501763.2016.1225785|issn=1350-1763|url=http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/67546/7/Hobolt_The%20Brexit%20vote%20a%20divided%20.pdf|access-date=4 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191006145434/http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/67546/7/Hobolt_The%20Brexit%20vote%20a%20divided%20.pdf|archive-date=6 October 2019|url-status=live}} Studies found that the Leave vote tended to be higher in areas affected by economic decline,{{cite journal|last=Carreras|first=Miguel|date=1 December 2019|title='What do we have to lose?': Local economic decline, prospect theory, and support for Brexit|journal=Electoral Studies|volume=62|page=102094|doi=10.1016/j.electstud.2019.102094|s2cid=211461199|issn=0261-3794}} high rates of suicides and drug-related deaths,{{cite journal|last1=Koltai|first1=Jonathan|last2=Varchetta|first2=Francesco Maria|last3=McKee|first3=Martin|last4=Stuckler|first4=David|title=Deaths of Despair and Brexit Votes: Cross-Local Authority Statistical Analysis in England and Wales|journal=American Journal of Public Health|volume=110|issue=3|pages=e1–e6|doi=10.2105/AJPH.2019.305488|pmid=31855481|issn=0090-0036|year=2020|pmc=7002930}} and austerity reforms introduced in 2010.{{cite journal|last=Fetzer|first=Thiemo|date=2019|title=Did Austerity Cause Brexit?|journal=American Economic Review|volume=109|issue=11|pages=3849–3886|doi=10.1257/aer.20181164|issn=0002-8282|doi-access=free|hdl=10419/181359|hdl-access=free}}

Studies suggest that older people were more likely to vote Leave, and younger people more likely to vote Remain.{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/bbcthree/article/b8d097b0-3ad4-4dd9-aa25-af6374292de0|title=The truth about young people and Brexit|last=Spratt|first=Vicky|date=26 September 2018|publisher=BBC Three|language=en-GB|access-date=4 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191125041738/https://www.bbc.co.uk/bbcthree/article/b8d097b0-3ad4-4dd9-aa25-af6374292de0|archive-date=25 November 2019|url-status=live}} According to Thomas Sampson, an economist at the London School of Economics, "Older and less-educated voters were more likely to vote 'leave' [...] A majority of white voters wanted to leave, but only 33% of Asian voters and 27% of black voters chose leave. [...] Leaving the European Union received support from across the political spectrum [...] Voting to leave the European Union was strongly associated with holding socially conservative political beliefs, opposing cosmopolitanism, and thinking life in Britain is getting worse."{{Cite journal|last=Sampson|first=Thomas|s2cid=158102705|year=2017|title=Brexit: The Economics of International Disintegration|url=http://cep.lse.ac.uk/pubs/download/dp1499.pdf|journal=Journal of Economic Perspectives|volume=31|issue=4|pages=163–184|doi=10.1257/jep.31.4.163|issn=0895-3309|quote=The results I summarize in this section focus on long-run effects and have a forecast horizon of 10 or more years after Brexit occurs. Less is known about the likely dynamics of the transition process or the extent to which economic uncertainty and anticipation effects will impact the economies of the United Kingdom or the European Union in advance of Brexit.|access-date=20 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191214033313/http://cep.lse.ac.uk/pubs/download/dp1499.pdf|archive-date=14 December 2019|url-status=live|doi-access=free}}

Polling conducted by YouGov supported these conclusions, showing that factors such as age, political party affiliation, education, and household income were the primary factors indicating how people would vote. For example, Conservative Party voters were 61% likely to vote leave, compared to Labour Party voters, who were 35% likely to vote leave. Age was one of the biggest factors affecting whether someone would vote leave, with 64% of people over the age of 65 likely to vote leave, whereas 18–24-year-olds were only 29% likely to vote leave. Education was another factor indicating voting likelihood: people with a GCSE or lower level of education were 70% likely to vote leave, whereas university graduates were only 32% likely to vote leave. Household income was another important factor, with households earning less than £20,000 62% likely to vote leave, compared to households earning £60,000 or more, which were only 35% likely to vote leave.{{Cite web|date=27 June 2016|last=Moore|first=Peter|website=YouGov|title=How Britain Voted at the EU referendum|url=https://yougov.co.uk/topics/politics/articles-reports/2016/06/27/how-britain-voted|url-status=live|archive-date=2 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210902093901/https://yougov.co.uk/topics/politics/articles-reports/2016/06/27/how-britain-voted}}

There were major variations in geographic support for each side. Scotland and Northern Ireland both returned majorities for remain, although these had a relatively small impact on the overall result as England has a much larger population. There were also significant regional differences within England, with most of London returning a majority remain vote, alongside urban centres in northern England such as Manchester and Liverpool, which returned remain majorities of 60% and 58% respectively. Opposite trends appeared in industrial and post-industrial areas of Northern England, with areas such as North Lincolnshire and South Tyneside both heavily supporting leave.{{Cite web|date=2016|title=EU Referendum results|website=bbc.co.uk|publisher=BBC|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/politics/eu_referendum/results|url-status=live|archive-date=4 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210304094326/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/politics/eu_referendum/results}}

Opinion polls found that Leave voters believed leaving the EU was "more likely to bring about a better immigration system, improved border controls, a fairer welfare system, better quality of life, and the ability to control our own laws", while Remain voters believed EU membership "would be better for the economy, international investment, and the UK's influence in the world." Polls found that the main reasons people voted Leave were "the principle that decisions about the UK should be taken in the UK", and that leaving "offered the best chance for the UK to regain control over immigration and its own borders." The main reason people voted Remain was that "the risks of voting to leave the EU looked too great when it came to things like the economy, jobs and prices."[http://lordashcroftpolls.com/2016/06/how-the-united-kingdom-voted-and-why/ "How the United Kingdom voted on Thursday{{nbsp}}... and why"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190401203252/http://lordashcroftpolls.com/2016/06/how-the-united-kingdom-voted-and-why/ |date=1 April 2019 }}. Lord Ashcroft Polls. 24 June 2016.

{{see also|1=2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum#Investigations into campaigns|2=Allegations of unlawful campaigning in the 2016 EU referendum|label1=European Union membership referendum § Investigations into campaigns}}

Following the referendum, a series of irregularities related to campaign spending were investigated by the Electoral Commission, which subsequently issued a large number of fines. In February 2017, the main campaign group for the "Leave" vote, Leave.EU, was fined £50,000 for sending marketing messages without permission.{{cite web |title=EU campaign firm fined for sending spam texts |url=https://ico.org.uk/about-the-ico/news-and-events/news-and-blogs/2016/05/eu-campaign-firm-fined-for-sending-spam-texts/ |publisher=Information Commissioner's Office |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170705124856/https://ico.org.uk/about-the-ico/news-and-events/news-and-blogs/2016/05/eu-campaign-firm-fined-for-sending-spam-texts/ |archive-date=5 July 2017 |date=11 May 2016 |url-status=dead}} In December 2017, the Electoral Commission fined two pro-EU groups, the Liberal Democrats (£18,000) and Open Britain (£1,250), for breaches of campaign finance rules during the referendum campaign.{{cite news |last=Maidment |first=Jack |date=19 December 2017 |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2017/12/19/liberal-democrats-fined-18000-breaching-campaign-finance-rules |title=Liberal Democrats fined £18,000 for breaching campaign finance rules relating to EU referendum |work=The Daily Telegraph |access-date=10 July 2021 |archive-date=12 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210712015216/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2017/12/19/liberal-democrats-fined-18000-breaching-campaign-finance-rules/ |url-status=live }} In May 2018, the Electoral Commission fined Leave.EU £70,000 for unlawfully overspending and inaccurately reporting loans from Arron Banks totalling £6 million.{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2018/may/11/leaveeu-fined-70k-breaches-of-electoral-law-eu-referendum|title=Leave.EU fined £70k over breaches of electoral law|last=Weaver|first=Matthew|date=11 May 2018|newspaper=The Guardian|access-date=11 May 2018|archive-date=13 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230713184737/https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2018/may/11/leaveeu-fined-70k-breaches-of-electoral-law-eu-referendum|url-status=live}} Smaller fines were levelled against the pro-EU campaign group Best for Our Future and two trade union donors for inaccurate reporting.{{Cite web|url=https://www.electoralcommission.org.uk/i-am-a/journalist/electoral-commission-media-centre/news-releases-donations/campaigners-and-political-parties-fined-for-breaching-political-finance-rules |title=Campaigners and political parties fined for breaching political finance rules |website=The Electoral Commission |date=15 May 2018 |archive-date=1 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190401213339/https://www.electoralcommission.org.uk/i-am-a/journalist/electoral-commission-media-centre/party-and-election-finance-to-keep/campaigners-and-political-parties-fined-for-breaching-political-finance-rules |url-status=dead}} In July 2018 Vote Leave was fined £61,000 for overspending, not declaring finances shared with BeLeave, and failing to comply with investigators.[https://www.electoralcommission.org.uk/i-am-a/journalist/electoral-commission-media-centre/party-and-election-finance-to-keep/vote-leave-fined-and-referred-to-the-police-for-breaking-electoral-law "Vote Leave fined and referred to the police for breaking electoral law"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190729202449/https://www.electoralcommission.org.uk/i-am-a/journalist/electoral-commission-media-centre/party-and-election-finance-to-keep/vote-leave-fined-and-referred-to-the-police-for-breaking-electoral-law |date=29 July 2019 }}. The Electoral Commission. 17 July 2018

In November 2017, the Electoral Commission launched a probe into claims that Russia had attempted to sway public opinion over the referendum using social media platforms such as Twitter and Facebook.{{cite news |last1=Gillett |first1=Francesca |title=Electoral Commission launches probe into Russian meddling in Brexit vote using Twitter and Facebook |url=https://www.standard.co.uk/news/politics/election-watchdog-launches-probe-into-russian-meddling-in-brexit-vote-a3674251.html |work=Evening Standard |access-date=29 April 2021 |archive-date=23 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210423084321/https://www.standard.co.uk/news/politics/election-watchdog-launches-probe-into-russian-meddling-in-brexit-vote-a3674251.html |url-status=live }}

In February 2019, the parliamentary Digital, Culture, Media and Sport Committee called for an inquiry into "foreign influence, disinformation, funding, voter manipulation, and the sharing of data" in the Brexit vote.{{cite news |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/brexit-vote-investigate-law-breaking-influence-manipulation-theresa-may-facebook-a8783746.html |title=Theresa May must investigate 'foreign influence and voter manipulation' in Brexit vote, say MPs |date=18 February 2019 |newspaper=The Independent |access-date=18 February 2019 |archive-date=18 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190218032423/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/brexit-vote-investigate-law-breaking-influence-manipulation-theresa-may-facebook-a8783746.html |url-status=live }}

In July 2020, Intelligence and Security Committee of Parliament published a report which accused the UK government of actively avoiding investigating whether Russia interfered with public opinion. The report did not pass judgement over whether Russian information operations had an impact on the result.{{Cite journal |last1=Ellehuus |first1=Rachel |title=Did Russia Influence Brexit? |url=https://www.csis.org/blogs/brexit-bits-bobs-and-blogs/did-russia-influence-brexit |website=Center for Strategic and International Studies |access-date=29 April 2021 |archive-date=1 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210501075748/https://www.csis.org/blogs/brexit-bits-bobs-and-blogs/did-russia-influence-brexit |url-status=live }}

{{Further|Withdrawal from the European Union}}{{wikisource|Consolidated version of the Treaty on European Union/Title VI: Final Provisions#Article 50|Article 50 of the Treaty on European Union}}Withdrawal from the European Union is governed by Article 50 of the Treaty on European Union. It was originally drafted by Lord Kerr of Kinlochard,{{Cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/article-50-design-dictators-not-uk-eu-european-lisbon-treaty-author-lord-kerr-a7655891.html|title=Article 50 was designed for European dictators, not the UK, says man who wrote it|last=Kentish|first=Benjamin|date=29 March 2017|work=The Independent|access-date=29 December 2019|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191229205359/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/article-50-design-dictators-not-uk-eu-european-lisbon-treaty-author-lord-kerr-a7655891.html|archive-date=29 December 2019}} and introduced by the Treaty of Lisbon which entered into force in 2009.{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-scotland-politics-37852628|title=Article 50 author Lord Kerr says Brexit not inevitable|work=BBC News|date=3 November 2016|quote=After leaving the foreign office, he was secretary-general of the European [C]onvention, which drafted what became the Lisbon treaty. It included Article 50 which sets out the process by which any member state can leave the EU.|access-date=20 June 2018|archive-date=25 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180325154559/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-scotland-politics-37852628|url-status=live}} The article states that any member state can withdraw "in accordance with its own constitutional requirements" by notifying the European Council of its intention to do so.{{cite news|last1=Rankin|first1=Jennifer|last2=Borger|first2=Julian|last3=Rice-Oxley|first3=Mark|title=What is article 50 and why is it so central to the Brexit debate?|url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2016/jun/25/article-50-brexit-debate-britain-eu|url-status=live|work=The Guardian|date=25 June 2016|access-date=29 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191229105344/https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2016/jun/25/article-50-brexit-debate-britain-eu|archive-date=29 December 2019}} The notification triggers a two-year negotiation period, in which the EU must "negotiate and conclude an agreement with [the leaving] State, setting out the arrangements for its withdrawal, taking account of the framework for its future relationship with the [European] Union". If no agreement is reached within the two years, the membership ends without an agreement, unless an extension is unanimously agreed among all EU states, including the withdrawing state. On the EU side, the agreement needs to be ratified by qualified majority in the European Council, and by the European Parliament.

{{Main|United Kingdom invocation of Article 50 of the Treaty on European Union}}

File:Prime Minister’s letter to Donald Tusk triggering Article 50.pdfThe 2015 Referendum Act did not expressly require Article 50 to be invoked,{{cite web|url=https://constitution-unit.com/2016/01/19/what-happens-if-we-vote-for-brexit/|title=What happens if we vote for Brexit?|last=Renwick|first=Alan|date=19 January 2016|website=The Constitution Unit Blog|access-date=14 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190731162921/https://constitution-unit.com/2016/01/19/what-happens-if-we-vote-for-brexit/|archive-date=31 July 2019|url-status=live}} but prior to the referendum, the British government said it would respect the result.In a leaflet sent out before the referendum, the UK government stated "This is your decision. The Government will implement what you decide." {{Cite news|url=https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/515068/why-the-government-believes-that-voting-to-remain-in-the-european-union-is-the-best-decision-for-the-uk.pdf|title=Why the Government believes that voting to remain in the European Union is the best decision for the UK. The EU referendum, Thursday, 23 June 2016.|access-date=28 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180324214934/https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/515068/why-the-government-believes-that-voting-to-remain-in-the-european-union-is-the-best-decision-for-the-uk.pdf|archive-date=24 March 2018|url-status=live}} When Cameron resigned following the referendum, he said that it would be for the incoming prime minister to invoke Article 50.{{cite news|last=Cooper|first=Charlie|date=27 June 2016|title=David Cameron rules out second EU referendum after Brexit|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/brexit-what-is-eu-referendum-petition-david-cameron-a7105596.html|newspaper=The Independent|location=London|access-date=27 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190616105002/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/brexit-what-is-eu-referendum-petition-david-cameron-a7105596.html|archive-date=16 June 2019|url-status=live}} The new prime minister, Theresa May, said she would wait until 2017 to invoke the article, in order to prepare for the negotiations.{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2016/jul/20/angela-merkel-backs-theresa-mays-plan-not-to-trigger-brexit-this-year|title=Angela Merkel backs Theresa May's plan not to trigger Brexit this year|last1=Mason|first1=Rowena|date=20 July 2016|work=The Guardian|access-date=29 December 2019|url-status=live|last2=Oltermann|first2=Philip|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160720232931/http://www.theguardian.com/politics/2016/jul/20/angela-merkel-backs-theresa-mays-plan-not-to-trigger-brexit-this-year|archive-date=20 July 2016}} In October 2016, she said Britain would trigger Article 50 in March 2017,{{Cite news|url=https://www.politico.eu/article/theresa-may-to-begin-brexit-process-by-end-of-march/|title=Theresa May to begin Brexit process by end of March|last=Spence|first=Alex|date=2 October 2016|work=Politico|access-date=29 December 2019|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191229190204/https://www.politico.eu/article/theresa-may-to-begin-brexit-process-by-end-of-march/|archive-date=29 December 2019}} and in December she gained the support of MP's for her timetable.{{Cite news|url=https://www.politico.eu/article/british-mps-back-theresa-mays-brexit-timetable/|title=British MPs back Theresa May's Brexit timetable|last=Cooper|first=Charlie|date=9 December 2016|work=Politico|access-date=29 December 2019|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191229190203/https://www.politico.eu/article/british-mps-back-theresa-mays-brexit-timetable/|archive-date=29 December 2019}}

In January 2017, the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom ruled in the Miller case that government could only invoke Article 50 if authorised by an act of parliament to do so.{{cite news|last1=Bowcott|first1=Owen|last2=Mason|first2=Rowena|last3=Asthana|first3=Anushka|title=Supreme court rules parliament must have vote to trigger article 50|url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2017/jan/24/supreme-court-brexit-ruling-parliament-vote-article-50|access-date=9 February 2017|newspaper=The Guardian|date=24 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190527033524/https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2017/jan/24/supreme-court-brexit-ruling-parliament-vote-article-50|archive-date=27 May 2019|url-status=live}} The government subsequently introduced a bill for that purpose, and it was passed into law on 16 March as the European Union (Notification of Withdrawal) Act 2017.{{Cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2017/03/16/queen-give-royal-assent-article-50-bill-clearing-way-theresa/|title=Queen gives royal assent to Article 50 Bill, clearing way for Theresa May to start European Union exit talks|date=16 March 2017|work=The Telegraph|access-date=29 December 2019|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191229192010/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2017/03/16/queen-give-royal-assent-article-50-bill-clearing-way-theresa/|archive-date=29 December 2019}} On 29 March, Theresa May triggered Article 50 when Tim Barrow, the British ambassador to the EU, delivered the invocation letter to European Council President Donald Tusk. This made 29 March 2019 the expected date that UK would leave EU.{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-39422353|title=Article 50: UK set to formally trigger Brexit process|date=29 March 2017|work=BBC|access-date=29 December 2019|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190727021653/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-39422353|archive-date=27 July 2019}}{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-39431428|title='No turning back' on Brexit as Article 50 triggered|date=30 March 2017|work=BBC News|access-date=29 December 2019|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190727023251/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-39431428|archive-date=27 July 2019}}

{{see also|2017 United Kingdom general election}}

File:2017UKElectionMap.svg

In April 2017, Theresa May called a snap general election, held on 8 June, in an attempt to "strengthen [her] hand" in the negotiations;{{Cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/after-british-vote-brexit-negotiations-could-be-delayed/2017/06/09/1a2fee88-4c9b-11e7-987c-42ab5745db2e_story.html|title=After shocking British vote result, Europe ponders fate of Brexit negotiations|last=McAuley|first=James|date=9 June 2017|newspaper=The Washington Post|access-date=29 December 2019|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191229230200/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/after-british-vote-brexit-negotiations-could-be-delayed/2017/06/09/1a2fee88-4c9b-11e7-987c-42ab5745db2e_story.html|archive-date=29 December 2019}} The Conservative Party, Labour and UKIP made manifesto pledges to implement the referendum, the Labour manifesto differing in its approach to Brexit negotiations, such as unilaterally offering permanent residence to EU immigrants.{{cite news|last1=Asthana|first1=Anushka|last2=Walker |first2=Peter|title=Theresa May calls for general election to secure Brexit mandate |url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2017/apr/18/theresa-may-calls-for-general-election-in-bid-to-secure-brexit-mandate|access-date=19 April 2017|work=The Guardian|date=19 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190712181222/https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2017/apr/18/theresa-may-calls-for-general-election-in-bid-to-secure-brexit-mandate|archive-date=12 July 2019|url-status=live}}{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-39742407|title=General election 2017: UKIP needed to stop Brexit 'backsliding'|date=28 April 2017|work=BBC News|access-date=29 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190727070503/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-39742407|archive-date=27 July 2019|url-status=live}}{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-39698465|title=General Election 2017: Labour's 'day one' pledge to EU nationals|date=25 April 2017|work=BBC News|access-date=25 April 2017 |url-status=live|archive-date=27 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190727061457/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-39698465}} The Liberal Democrat Party and the Green Party manifestos proposed a policy of remaining in the EU via a second referendum.{{cite news|title='This is your chance,' Lib Dems tell voters opposed to Hard Brexit |url=http://www.heraldscotland.com/news/15230750._This_is_your_chance___Lib_Dems_tell_voters_opposed_to_Hard_Brexit/|access-date=23 April 2017|work=The Herald|date=18 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180825114208/http://www.heraldscotland.com/news/15230750._This_is_your_chance___Lib_Dems_tell_voters_opposed_to_Hard_Brexit/|archive-date=25 August 2018|url-status=live}}{{cite news |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/brexit-second-eu-referendum-green-party-caroline-lucas-leader-elected-a7222221.html|title=Green Party leader Caroline Lucas calls for second EU referendum|date=2 September 2016 |work=The Independent|access-date=19 April 2017|language=en-GB|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190612060902/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/brexit-second-eu-referendum-green-party-caroline-lucas-leader-elected-a7222221.html|archive-date=12 June 2019|url-status=live}}{{cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/tim-farron-general-election-liberal-democrat-leader-snap-change-country-direction-chance-june-8-a7688486.html|title=Lib Dem leader Tim Farron responds to Theresa May's general election announcement|date=18 April 2017|work=The Independent|access-date=19 April 2017|url-status=live|archive-date=5 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190705211044/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/tim-farron-general-election-liberal-democrat-leader-snap-change-country-direction-chance-june-8-a7688486.html}} The Scottish National Party (SNP) manifesto proposed a policy of waiting for the outcome of the Brexit negotiations and then holding a referendum on Scottish independence.{{cite web|date=1 June 2017 |url=https://d3n8a8pro7vhmx.cloudfront.net/thesnp/pages/9544/attachments/original/1496320559/Manifesto_06_01_17.pdf?1496320559|title=Stronger for Scotland|access-date=13 June 2018|publisher=SNP website|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170609083758/https://d3n8a8pro7vhmx.cloudfront.net/thesnp/pages/9544/attachments/original/1496320559/Manifesto_06_01_17.pdf?1496320559|archive-date=9 June 2017|url-status=live}}{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/election-2017-40091999|title=SNP manifesto summary: Key points at-a-glance|work=BBC News|date=30 May 2017|access-date=13 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181206031824/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/election-2017-40091999|archive-date=6 December 2018|url-status=live}}

The result produced an unexpected hung parliament, the governing Conservatives gained votes and remained the largest party but nevertheless lost seats and their majority in the House of Commons. Labour gained significantly on votes and seats, retaining its position as the second-largest party. The Liberal Democrats gained six seats despite a slight decrease in vote share compared with 2015. The Green Party kept its single MP while also losing national vote share. Losing votes and seats were the SNP, which lost 21 MPs, and UKIP, which suffered a −10.8% swing and lost its only MP. The Democratic Unionist Party (DUP) and Sinn Féin also made gains in votes and seats.{{cite news|title=Election 2017 Results|work=BBC News|date=9 June 2017 |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/election/2017/results|access-date=13 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190531172514/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/election/2017/results |archive-date=31 May 2019|url-status=live}}

On 26 June 2017, Conservatives and the DUP reached a confidence and supply agreement whereby the DUP would back the Conservatives in key votes in the House of Commons over the course of the parliament. The agreement included additional funding of £1 billion for Northern Ireland, highlighted mutual support for Brexit and national security, expressed commitment to the Good Friday Agreement, and indicated that policies such as the state pension triple lock and Winter Fuel Payments would be maintained.{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-40403434|title=Conservatives agree pact with DUP to support May government|date=26 June 2017|work=BBC News |access-date=26 June 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190728173408/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-40403434|archive-date=28 July 2019|url-status=live}}{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/election-2017-40245514|title=Theresa May and the DUP deal: What you need to know|last=Hunt|first=Alex|date=26 June 2019|work=BBC News|access-date=30 December 2019|url-status=live|archive-date=26 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190626230416/https://www.bbc.com/news/election-2017-40245514}}

{{Main|Brexit negotiations}}

Prior to the negotiations, May said that the British government would not seek permanent single market membership, would end ECJ jurisdiction, seek a new trade agreement, end free movement of people and maintain the Common Travel Area with Ireland.{{cite web|url=https://www.gov.uk/government/speeches/the-governments-negotiating-objectives-for-exiting-the-eu-pm-speech|title=The government's negotiating objectives for exiting the EU: PM speech|date=17 January 2017|publisher=Gov.uk|access-date=24 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170122234703/https://www.gov.uk/government/speeches/the-governments-negotiating-objectives-for-exiting-the-eu-pm-speech|archive-date=22 January 2017|url-status=live}} The EU had adopted its negotiating directives in May,{{cite web|url=http://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/press-releases/2017/05/22-brexit-negotiating-directives/|title=Council (Art 50) authorises the start of Brexit talks and adopts negotiating directives – Consilium|publisher=Europa (web portal)|access-date=23 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170928145943/http://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/press-releases/2017/05/22-brexit-negotiating-directives/|archive-date=28 September 2017|url-status=live}} and appointed Michel Barnier as Chief Negotiator. The EU wished to perform the negotiations in two phases: first the UK would agree to a financial commitment and to lifelong benefits for EU citizens in Britain, and then negotiations on a future relationship could begin.{{Cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2017/04/29/eu-brexit-guidelines-document-really-means/|title=EU Brexit guidelines: What's in the document, and what it really means|last=Foster|first=Peter|date=29 April 2017|work=The Daily Telegraph|access-date=14 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190402033538/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2017/04/29/eu-brexit-guidelines-document-really-means/|archive-date=2 April 2019|url-status=live}} In the first phase, the member states would demand that the UK pay a "divorce bill", initially estimated as amounting to £52 billion."Divorce settlement or leaving the club? A breakdown of the Brexit bill" March 2017, [http://bruegel.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/WP_2017_03-.pdf A breakdown of the Brexit bill (2017)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180709094307/http://bruegel.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/WP_2017_03-.pdf |date=9 July 2018 }} EU negotiators said that an agreement must be reached between UK and the EU by October 2018.{{cite web|url=https://www.usnews.com/news/business/articles/2017-09-22/the-latest-protests-in-florence-as-uk-leader-may-speaks|title=The Latest: EU's Brexit Chief Welcomes 'Constructive' Speech|website=USNews.com|access-date=1 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190330233432/https://www.usnews.com/news/business/articles/2017-09-22/the-latest-protests-in-florence-as-uk-leader-may-speaks|archive-date=30 March 2019|url-status=live}}

Negotiations commenced on 19 June 2017.{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2017/jun/19/uk-caves-in-to-eu-demand-to-agree-divorce-bill-before-trade-talks|title=Brexit: UK caves in to EU demand to agree divorce bill before trade talks|last=Roberts|first=Dan|date=20 June 2017|work=The Guardian|access-date=9 September 2017|location=London|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190620101013/https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2017/jun/19/uk-caves-in-to-eu-demand-to-agree-divorce-bill-before-trade-talks|archive-date=20 June 2019|url-status=live}} Negotiating groups were established for three topics: the rights of EU citizens living in Britain and vice versa; Britain's outstanding financial obligations to the EU; and the border between Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland.{{cite web|url=https://ec.europa.eu/commission/sites/beta-political/files/eu-uk-art-50-terms-reference_agreed_amends_en.pdf|title=Terms of Reference for the Article 50 TEU negotiations|date=19 June 2017|website=European Commission|access-date=29 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170829213212/https://ec.europa.eu/commission/sites/beta-political/files/eu-uk-art-50-terms-reference_agreed_amends_en.pdf|archive-date=29 August 2017|url-status=live}}{{cite web|url=https://commonslibrary.parliament.uk/research-briefings/cbp-8017/ |title=Brexit: the talks begin |publisher=House of Commons Library |website=commonslibrary.parliament.uk |date=12 July 2017 |type=Research briefing |last1=Lang |first1=Arabella |last2=Curtis |first2=John |last3=Walker |first3=Nigel |last4=Keen |first4=Richard |last5=Hinson |first5=Suzanna |last6=McGuinness |first6=Terry |last7=Miller |first7=Vaughne |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211121150324/https://commonslibrary.parliament.uk/research-briefings/cbp-8017/ |archive-date=21 November 2021 |url-status=live}}{{cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/britain/2017/06/22/let-the-brussels-games-begin|title=Let the Brussels games begin|access-date=22 September 2018|publisher=Economist.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180923052143/https://www.economist.com/britain/2017/06/22/let-the-brussels-games-begin|archive-date=23 September 2018|url-status=live}} In December 2017, a partial agreement was reached. It ensured that there would be no hard border in Ireland, protected the rights of UK citizens in the EU and of EU citizens in Britain, and estimated the financial settlement to be £35–39 billion.{{cite news|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/news/world/uk/brexit-breakthrough-may-pledges-no-hard-border-as-commission-says-sufficient-progress-made-1.3320030|title=Brexit breakthrough: May pledges 'no hard border' as commission says 'sufficient progress' made|newspaper=The Irish Times|date=8 December 2017|access-date=8 December 2017|archive-date=10 April 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240410051731/https://www.irishtimes.com/news/world/uk/brexit-breakthrough-may-pledges-no-hard-border-as-commission-says-sufficient-progress-made-1.3320030|url-status=live}} May stressed that "Nothing is agreed until everything is agreed".{{cite news |last=Hope |first=Christopher |author-link=Christopher Hope (journalist) |title=Theresa May to tell Ireland 'nothing is agreed' on terms of Brexit as row over deal intensifies |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2017/12/11/theresa-may-tell-ireland-nothing-agreed-terms-brexit-row-deal/ |url-status=live |work=The Telegraph |date=11 December 2017 |access-date=18 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191017235503/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2017/12/11/theresa-may-tell-ireland-nothing-agreed-terms-brexit-row-deal/ |archive-date=17 October 2019}} Following this partial agreement, EU leaders agreed to move on to the second phase in the negotiations: discussion of the future relationship, a transition period and a possible trade deal.{{cite news |last=Boffey |first=Daniel|title=EU leaders agree Brexit talks can move on to phase two|url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2017/dec/15/brexit-talks-eu-next-phase-brussels-theresa-may|date=15 December 2017|work=The Guardian|access-date=18 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191017235504/https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2017/dec/15/brexit-talks-eu-next-phase-brussels-theresa-may|archive-date=17 October 2019|url-status=live}}

In March 2018, a 21-month transition period and the terms for it were provisionally agreed.{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/03/19/world/europe/uk-brexit-eu.html|title=U.K. Reaches Brexit Transition Deal With E.U.|last=Castle|first=Stephen|date=19 March 2018|newspaper=The New York Times|access-date=30 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629160826/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/03/19/world/europe/uk-brexit-eu.html|archive-date=29 June 2018|url-status=live}} In June 2018, Irish Taoiseach Leo Varadkar said that there had been little progress on the Irish border question{{mdash}}on which the EU proposed a backstop, to come into effect if no overall trade deal had been reached by the end of the transition period{{mdash}}and that it was unlikely that there would be a solution before October, when the whole deal was to be agreed.{{cite news|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/news/politics/border-deal-is-not-likely-until-october-taoiseach-claims-1.3525988|title=Border deal is not likely until October, Taoiseach claims |date=11 June 2018|newspaper=The Irish Times|access-date=11 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180711032020/https://www.irishtimes.com/news/politics/border-deal-is-not-likely-until-october-taoiseach-claims-1.3525988|archive-date=11 July 2018|url-status=live}} In July 2018, the British government published the Chequers plan, containing its aims for the future relationship that was to be determined in the negotiations. The plan sought to keep British access to the single market for goods, but not necessarily for services, while allowing for an independent trade policy.{{cite news |last=Carswell |first=Simon |title=Brexit explained: What is Theresa May's Chequers plan?|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/news/world/uk/brexit-explained-what-is-theresa-may-s-chequers-plan-1.3661485|date=12 October 2018|newspaper=The Irish Times|access-date=18 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190815075412/https://www.irishtimes.com/news/world/uk/brexit-explained-what-is-theresa-may-s-chequers-plan-1.3661485|archive-date=15 August 2019|url-status=live}} The plan caused cabinet resignations, including those of Brexit Secretary David Davis{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2018/jul/08/david-davis-resigns-as-brexit-secretary-reports-say|title=Brexit secretary David Davis resigns plunging government into crisis|last=Stewart|first=Heather|date=9 July 2018|work=The Guardian|access-date=1 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180731123700/https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2018/jul/08/david-davis-resigns-as-brexit-secretary-reports-say|archive-date=31 July 2018|url-status=live}} and Foreign Secretary Boris Johnson.{{cite news |last1=Stewart |first1=Heather |last2=Crerar |first2=Pippa |last3=Sabbagh |first3=Dan|title=May's plan 'sticks in the throat', says Boris Johnson as he resigns over Brexit|url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2018/jul/09/boris-johnson-resigns-as-foreign-secretary-brexit|work=The Guardian|date=9 July 2018|access-date=31 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180831034544/https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2018/jul/09/boris-johnson-resigns-as-foreign-secretary-brexit|archive-date=31 August 2018|url-status=live}}

{{main|Brexit withdrawal agreement|Parliamentary votes on Brexit}}

{{Wikisource|Draft Agreement on the Withdrawal of the United Kingdom from the European Union|2018 Draft withdrawal agreement}}

On 13 November 2018, UK and EU negotiators agreed the text of a draft withdrawal agreement,{{cite news |last1=Cooper |first1=Charlie |last2=Bayer |first2=Lili |last3=Barigazzi |first3=Jacopo |title=Theresa May calls Cabinet meeting to approve Brexit 'draft agreement' |url=https://www.politico.eu/article/uk-cabinet-meeting-wednesday-to-consider-brexit-technical-agreement/ |url-status=live |work=Politico |date=14 November 2018 |access-date=30 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191230185457/https://www.politico.eu/article/uk-cabinet-meeting-wednesday-to-consider-brexit-technical-agreement/ |archive-date=30 December 2019}} and May secured her Cabinet's backing of the deal the following day,{{cite news|title=Brexit: Cabinet backs draft agreement|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-46215930|date=14 November 2018|work=BBC News|access-date=15 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190419181835/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-46215930|archive-date=19 April 2019|url-status=live}} though Brexit Secretary Dominic Raab resigned over "fatal flaws" in the agreement.{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-46219495|title=Brexit: Dominic Raab and Esther McVey among ministers to quit over EU agreement|date=15 November 2018|access-date=15 November 2018|work=BBC News|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190617094908/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-46219495|archive-date=17 June 2019|url-status=live}} It was expected that ratification in the British parliament would be difficult.{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-46334649|title=EU leaders agree UK's Brexit deal at Brussels summit|date=25 November 2019|work=BBC News|access-date=30 December 2019|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190910162614/https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-46334649|archive-date=10 September 2019}}{{cite news|last1=Cook|first1=Lorne|last2=Lawless|first2=Jill|last3=Casert|first3=Raf|url=https://apnews.com/e1384dc86bcd418a9eeddd81fdb27f78|title=EU seals Brexit deal as May faces a hard sell at home|date=25 November 2018|work=Associated Press|access-date=30 December 2019|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191230185501/https://apnews.com/e1384dc86bcd418a9eeddd81fdb27f78|archive-date=30 December 2019}}{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2018/nov/25/theresa-may-not-sad-but-defiant-makes-case-for-brexit-deal|title=Not sad but defiant: Theresa May makes case for Brexit deal|last=Stewart|first=Heather|date=25 November 2018|website=The Guardian|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191230185458/https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2018/nov/25/theresa-may-not-sad-but-defiant-makes-case-for-brexit-deal|archive-date=30 December 2019|access-date=30 December 2019}} On 25 November, all 27 leaders of the remaining EU countries endorsed the agreement.

On 10 December 2018, the Prime Minister postponed the vote in the House of Commons on her Brexit deal. This came minutes after the Prime Minister's Office confirmed the vote would be going ahead.{{cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/brexit-vote-delayed-postponed-theresa-may-commons-parliament-date-time-eu-deal-cabinet-a8675906.html|title=Theresa May calls off vote on Brexit deal after massive opposition from Tory rebels|date=10 December 2018|website=The Independent|access-date=11 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190619210106/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/brexit-vote-delayed-postponed-theresa-may-commons-parliament-date-time-eu-deal-cabinet-a8675906.html|archive-date=19 June 2019|url-status=live}} Faced with the prospect of a defeat in the House of Commons, this option gave May more time to negotiate with Conservative backbenchers and the EU, even though they had ruled out further discussions.{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2018/dec/10/eu-figures-rule-out-concessions-as-theresa-may-postpones-brexit-vote|title=EU figures rule out concessions as May postpones Brexit vote|last=Boffey|first=Daniels|date=10 December 2018|work=The Guardian|access-date=29 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190522111207/https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2018/dec/10/eu-figures-rule-out-concessions-as-theresa-may-postpones-brexit-vote|archive-date=22 May 2019|url-status=live}} The decision was met with calls from many Welsh Labour MPs for a motion of no confidence in the Government.{{cite news|url=https://www.itv.com/news/wales/2018-12-11/welsh-labour-mps-call-for-no-confidence-vote/|title=Welsh Labour MPs call for no confidence vote|website=ITV News|access-date=11 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190708151738/https://www.itv.com/news/wales/2018-12-11/welsh-labour-mps-call-for-no-confidence-vote/|archive-date=8 July 2019|url-status=live}}

Also on 10 December 2018, the European Court of Justice (ECJ) ruled that the UK could unilaterally revoke its notification of withdrawal, as long as it was still a member and had not agreed a withdrawal agreement. The decision to do so should be "unequivocal and unconditional" and "follow a democratic process".{{cite news|date=10 December 2018|title=Brexit ruling: UK can cancel decision, EU court says|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-scotland-politics-46481643|url-status=live|access-date=29 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200103035740/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-scotland-politics-46481643|archive-date=3 January 2020}} If the British revoked their notification, they would remain a member of the EU under their current membership terms. The case was launched by Scottish politicians and referred to the ECJ by the Scottish Court of Session.{{Cite news|last1=Taylor|first1=Robert|last2=Wilson|first2=Adelyn|date=11 December 2018|title=Revoking Article 50 after the ECJ's ruling|work=The UK in a Changing Europe|url=https://ukandeu.ac.uk/revoking-article-50-after-the-ecjs-ruling/|url-status=live|access-date=29 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190710143108/https://ukandeu.ac.uk/revoking-article-50-after-the-ecjs-ruling/|archive-date=10 July 2019}}

The European Research Group (ERG), a research support group of Eurosceptic Conservative MPs, opposed the Prime Minister's proposed Withdrawal Agreement treaty. Its members objected strongly to the Withdrawal Agreement's inclusion of the Irish backstop.{{cite news |first1=Jessica |last1=Elgot |first2=Heather |last2=Stewart |url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2019/jan/28/brexiter-mps-back-away-from-anti-backstop-brexit-amendment |title=Theresa May splits Tories over anti-backstop Brexit deal |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190226234115/https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2019/jan/28/brexiter-mps-back-away-from-anti-backstop-brexit-amendment |archive-date=26 February 2019 |work=The Guardian |date=28 January 2019}}{{cite news |first=Laura |last=Hughes |url=https://www.ft.com/content/3e102106-ff00-11e8-ac00-57a2a826423e |title=Eurosceptics still defiant over May's Brexit deal |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190226235625/https://www.ft.com/content/3e102106-ff00-11e8-ac00-57a2a826423e |archive-date=26 February 2019 |work=Financial Times |date=13 December 2018}} ERG members also objected to the proposed £39 billion financial settlement with the EU and stated that the agreement would result in the UK's agreement to continuing to follow EU regulations in major policy areas; and to the continuing jurisdiction of the ECJ over interpretation of the agreement and of European law still applicable to the UK.{{cite news |first=William |last=Booth |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2018/11/24/86b536a2-ef6b-11e8-96d4-0d23f2aaad09_story.html |title=May's plan for phasing Britain out of the E.U. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190226235549/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2018/11/24/86b536a2-ef6b-11e8-96d4-0d23f2aaad09_story.html |archive-date=26 February 2019 |newspaper=Washington Post |date=25 November 2018}}{{cite news |first=Jack |last=Maidment |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/politics/2018/11/18/eurosceptic-tories-publish-takedown-theresa-mays-brexit-deal/ |title=Eurosceptic Tories publish analysis of Theresa May's Brexit deal and claim UK could pay EU £39bn 'for nothing' |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190226234152/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/politics/2018/11/18/eurosceptic-tories-publish-takedown-theresa-mays-brexit-deal/ |archive-date=26 February 2019 |work=The Daily Telegraph |date=18 November 2018}}

On 15 January 2019, the House of Commons voted 432 to 202 against the deal, which was the largest majority ever against a United Kingdom government.{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-46885828|title=Brexit: Theresa May's deal is voted down in historic Commons defeat|date=15 January 2019|work=BBC News|access-date=16 January 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190430130037/https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-46885828|archive-date=30 April 2019|url-status=live}}{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/ng-interactive/2019/jan/15/how-did-your-mp-vote-on-mays-brexit-deal-meaningful-vote|title=How did your MP vote on May's Brexit deal?|last1=Voce|first1=Antonio|work=The Guardian|access-date=15 January 2019|last2=Clarke|first2=Seán|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077|last3=Voce|first3=Antonio|last4=Clarke|first4=Seán|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190714042332/https://www.theguardian.com/politics/ng-interactive/2019/jan/15/how-did-your-mp-vote-on-mays-brexit-deal-meaningful-vote|archive-date=14 July 2019|url-status=live}} Soon after, a motion of no confidence in Her Majesty's Government was tabled by the opposition,{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2019/jan/15/theresa-may-loses-brexit-deal-vote-by-majority-of-230|title=Theresa May loses Brexit deal vote by majority of 230|last=Stewart|first=Heather|date=15 January 2019|work=The Guardian|access-date=15 January 2019|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190713150628/https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2019/jan/15/theresa-may-loses-brexit-deal-vote-by-majority-of-230|archive-date=13 July 2019|url-status=live}} which was rejected by 325 votes to 306.{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/politics/2019/01/16/brexit-no-confidence-vote-result-theresa-may-news-latest/|title=No confidence vote result: Theresa May wins confidence vote but is snubbed by Jeremy Corbyn over cross-party Brexit talks|last1=Rayner|first1=Gordon|date=16 January 2019|work=The Telegraph|access-date=17 January 2019|last2=Maidment|first2=Jack|language=en-GB|issn=0307-1235|last3=Crisp|first3=James|last4=Yorke|first4=Harry|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190416171609/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/politics/2019/01/16/brexit-no-confidence-vote-result-theresa-may-news-latest/|archive-date=16 April 2019|url-status=live}}

On 24 February, Prime Minister May proposed that the next vote on the withdrawal agreement would be on 12 March 2019, 17 days away from the Brexit date.{{cite news|title=Another delay: Britain's May promises Brexit vote in parliament by March 12|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-britain-eu-may/another-delay-britains-may-promises-brexit-vote-in-parliament-by-march-12-idUSKCN1QD0J9|publisher=Reuters|date=24 February 2019|access-date=23 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190524022507/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-britain-eu-may/another-delay-britains-may-promises-brexit-vote-in-parliament-by-march-12-idUSKCN1QD0J9|archive-date=24 May 2019|url-status=live}} On 12 March, the proposal was defeated by 391 votes to 242{{mdash}}a loss by 149 votes, down from 230 from when the deal had been proposed in January.{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-47547887|title=Brexit: MPs reject Theresa May's deal for a second time|date=13 March 2019|work=BBC News|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190313043330/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-47547887|archive-date=13 March 2019|url-status=live|access-date=19 March 2019}}

On 18 March 2019, the Speaker informed the House of Commons that a third meaningful vote could be held only on a motion that was significantly different from the previous one, citing parliamentary precedents going back to 1604.{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-47614074|title=Third Brexit vote must be different – Speaker|date=18 March 2019|work=BBC News|access-date=18 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190318160131/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-47614074|archive-date=18 March 2019|url-status=live}}

The Withdrawal Agreement was brought back to the House without the attached understandings on 29 March.{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-47742395|title=Brexit: MPs face new vote on withdrawal deal|date=29 March 2019|work=BBC News|access-date=29 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190329053108/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-47742395|archive-date=29 March 2019|url-status=live}} The Government's motion of support for the Withdrawal Agreement was defeated by 344 votes to 286{{mdash}}a loss by 58 votes, down from 149 when the deal had been proposed on 12 March.{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-47752017|title=Brexit: Brexit: MPs reject May's EU withdrawal agreement|date=29 March 2019|work=BBC News|access-date=29 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190329145334/https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-47752017|archive-date=29 March 2019|url-status=live}}

On 20 March 2019, the Prime Minister wrote to European Council President Tusk requesting that Brexit be postponed until 30 June 2019.{{Cite news |date=20 March 2019 |title=Brexit: 'Tired' public needs a decision, says Theresa May |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-47647515 |url-status=live |access-date=21 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190321015120/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-47647515 |archive-date=21 March 2019}} On 21 March 2019, May presented her case to a European Council summit meeting in Brussels. After May left the meeting, a discussion amongst the remaining EU leaders resulted in the rejection of 30 June date and offered instead a choice of two new alternative Brexit dates. On 22 March 2019, the extension options were agreed between the British government and the European Council. The first alternative offered was that if MPs rejected May's deal in the next week, Brexit would be due to occur by 12 April 2019, with, or without, a deal—or alternatively another extension be asked for and a commitment to participate in the 2019 European Parliament elections given. The second alternative offered was that if MPs approved May's deal, Brexit would be due to occur on 22 May 2019. The later date was the day before the start of European Parliament elections.{{Cite news |date=22 March 2019 |title=Brexit: Theresa May to urge MPs to back deal as delay agreed |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-47663031 |url-status=live |access-date=22 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190322051804/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-47663031 |archive-date=22 March 2019}} After the government deemed unwarranted the concerns over the legality of the proposed change (because it contained two possible exit dates) the previous day,{{Cite web |date=26 March 2019 |title=Amendment to the Motion – Business of the House – Motion to Agree – in the House of Lords at 3:06 pm on 26th March 2019. |url=https://www.theyworkforyou.com/lords/?id=2019-03-26b.1715.1 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190328104029/https://www.theyworkforyou.com/lords/?id=2019-03-26b.1715.1 |archive-date=28 March 2019 |access-date=28 March 2019 |publisher=TheyWorkForYou |quote=...{{nbsp}}Lord Pannick:{{nbsp}}... A number of lawyers have expressed concern about the legality of this statutory instrument. The concern is that it sets out two alternative exit days: 12 April or 22 May.}} on 27 March 2019 both the Lords (without a vote){{Cite web |last1=Sparrow |first1=Andrew |author-link=Andrew Sparrow |last2=Otte |first2=Jedidajah |date=27 March 2019 |title=All eight indicative vote options on Brexit defeated by MPs – as it happened |url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/live/2019/mar/27/brexit-latest-news-live-debate-indicative-votes--to-vote-on-alternative-votes-as-speculation-mounts-may-could-announce-plans-to-quit-live-news?page=with:block-5c9bdf12e4b08334583633d3 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190328080933/https://www.theguardian.com/politics/live/2019/mar/27/brexit-latest-news-live-debate-indicative-votes--to-vote-on-alternative-votes-as-speculation-mounts-may-could-announce-plans-to-quit-live-news?page=with:block-5c9bdf12e4b08334583633d3 |archive-date=28 March 2019 |access-date=28 March 2019 |website=The Guardian |quote=The statutory instrument needs to be passed by both the Commons and the Lords. In the Lords peers passed it earlier today, without a division}} and the Commons (by 441 to 105) approved the statutory instrument changing the exit date to 22 May 2019 if a withdrawal deal is approved, or 12 April 2019 if it is not.{{Cite news |last=Thomas |first=Daniel |date=27 March 2019 |title=MPs vote down rival Brexit plans as May offers to resign – as it happened |work=Financial Times |url=https://www.ft.com/content/ec9ee89c-a1a7-3c88-a8c3-3818f3781d4f |url-status=live |access-date=28 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190328074207/https://www.ft.com/content/ec9ee89c-a1a7-3c88-a8c3-3818f3781d4f |archive-date=28 March 2019 |quote=MPs delay Brexit date by 441 to 105}} The amendment was then signed into law at 12:40 p.m. the next day.

Following the failure of the British Parliament to approve the Withdrawal Agreement by 29 March, the UK was required to leave the EU on 12 April 2019. On 10 April 2019, late-night talks in Brussels resulted in a further extension, to 31 October 2019; Theresa May had again requested an extension only until 30 June. Under the terms of this new extension, if the Withdrawal Agreement were to be passed before October, Brexit would occur on the first day of the subsequent month. The UK would then be obligated to hold European Parliament elections in May or leave the EU on 1 June without a deal.{{Cite news |date=11 April 2019 |title=New Brexit deadline set for 31 October |language=en-GB |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-47889404 |url-status=live |access-date=11 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190411015652/https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-47889404 |archive-date=11 April 2019}}{{Cite web |last=European Council |date=10 April 2019 |title=Special meeting of the European Council (Art. 50) (10 April 2019) – Conclusions |url=https://www.consilium.europa.eu/media/39042/10-euco-art50-conclusions-en.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190411085340/https://www.consilium.europa.eu/media/39042/10-euco-art50-conclusions-en.pdf |archive-date=11 April 2019 |access-date=11 April 2019}}

In granting the Article 50 extensions, the EU adopted a stance of refusing to "reopen" (that is, renegotiate) the Withdrawal Agreement.{{Cite web |date=21 March 2019 |title=European Council Art. 50 conclusions, 21 March 2019 |url=https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/press-releases/2019/03/21/european-council-art-50-conclusions-21-march-2019/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191023020612/https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/press-releases/2019/03/21/european-council-art-50-conclusions-21-march-2019/ |archive-date=23 October 2019 |access-date=20 December 2019 |publisher=European Council}} After Boris Johnson became prime minister on 24 July 2019 and met with EU leaders, the EU changed its stance. On 17 October 2019, following "tunnel talks" between UK and EU,{{Cite web |last=Walker |first=Peter |date=11 October 2019 |title=Entering 'the tunnel': what does it mean for the Brexit talks? |url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2019/oct/11/entering-the-tunnel-what-does-it-mean-for-brexit-talks |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191017024529/https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2019/oct/11/entering-the-tunnel-what-does-it-mean-for-brexit-talks |archive-date=17 October 2019 |access-date=17 October 2019 |website=The Guardian}} a revised withdrawal agreement was agreed on negotiators level, and endorsed by the British government and the EU Commission.{{Cite web |date=17 October 2019 |title=European Commission Recommendation |url=https://ec.europa.eu/commission/sites/beta-political/files/c2019_8000_7_en_act.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191017132754/https://ec.europa.eu/commission/sites/beta-political/files/c2019_8000_7_en_act.pdf |archive-date=17 October 2019 |access-date=17 October 2019 |publisher=European Commission}} The revised deal contained a new Northern Ireland Protocol, as well as technical modifications to related articles. In addition, the Political Declaration was also revised.{{Cite web |date=17 October 2019 |title=Revised Political Declaration |url=https://ec.europa.eu/commission/sites/beta-political/files/revised_political_declaration.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191017135747/https://ec.europa.eu/commission/sites/beta-political/files/revised_political_declaration.pdf |archive-date=17 October 2019 |access-date=17 October 2019 |publisher=European Commission}} The revised deal and the political declaration was endorsed by the European Council later that day.{{Cite web |last=Kirby |first=Jen |date=17 October 2019 |title=The UK and EU have a new Brexit agreement. But it's not a done deal yet. |url=https://www.vox.com/world/2019/10/17/20918879/brexit-deal-boris-johnson-european-union-irish-backstop |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200102022613/https://www.vox.com/world/2019/10/17/20918879/brexit-deal-boris-johnson-european-union-irish-backstop |archive-date=2 January 2020 |access-date=1 February 2020 |publisher=Vox}} To come into effect, it needed to be ratified by the European Parliament and the Parliament of the United Kingdom.{{Cite news |last1=Herszenhorn |first1=David M. |last2=Casalicchio |first2=Emilio |last3=Courea |first3=Eleni |date=17 October 2019 |title=EU and UK say they have Brexit deal |work=Politico |url=https://www.politico.eu/article/eu-and-uk-say-they-have-brexit-deal/ |url-status=live |access-date=17 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191017113546/https://www.politico.eu/article/eu-and-uk-say-they-have-brexit-deal/ |archive-date=17 October 2019}}

The British Parliament passed the European Union (Withdrawal) (No. 2) Act 2019, which received Royal Assent on 9 September 2019, obliging the Prime Minister to seek a third extension if no agreement has been reached at the next European Council meeting in October 2019.{{cite act|date=9 September 2019|title=European Union (Withdrawal) (No. 2) Act 2019|url=http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2019/26|access-date=14 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190929042010/http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2019/26|archive-date=29 September 2019|url-status=live}} {{Cite web |url=http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2019/26 |title=European Union (Withdrawal) (No. 2) Act 2019 |access-date=14 October 2019 |archive-date=29 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190929042010/http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2019/26 |url-status=bot: unknown }} In order for such an extension to be granted if it is requested by the Prime Minister, it would be necessary for there to be unanimous agreement by all other heads of EU governments.{{Cite news |last=Kraemer |first=Daniel |date=27 September 2019 |title=Can a no-deal Brexit still happen? |language=en-GB |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-49612757 |url-status=live |access-date=1 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191001051353/https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-49612757 |archive-date=1 October 2019}} On 28 October 2019, the third extension was agreed to by the EU, with a new withdrawal deadline of 31 January 2020.{{Cite news |date=28 October 2019 |title=Brexit: European leaders agree extension to 31 January |language=en-GB |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-50205603 |url-status=live |access-date=28 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191028093707/https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-50205603 |archive-date=28 October 2019}} 'Exit day' in British law was then amended to this new date by statutory instrument on 30 October 2019.

{{see also|2019 United Kingdom general election}}

[[File:2019UKElectionMap.svg|right|thumb|upright=1.35|A map presenting the results of the 2019 United Kingdom general election, by party of the MP elected from each constituency

{{Information

|Map for results of the 2019 general election in the United Kingdom. Ultimately based upon data from the Boundary Commission. Colours are as below.

{{legend|#0088DD|Conservative Party}}

{{legend|#DD1F19|Labour Party}}

{{legend|#FEF687|Scottish National Party}}

{{legend|#FAA813|Liberal Democrats}}

{{legend|#D56A4B|Democratic Unionist Party}}

{{legend|#326760|Sinn Féin}}

{{legend|#24a789|Social Democratic and Labour Party}}

{{legend|#008240|Plaid Cymru}}]]

After Johnson was unable to induce Parliament to approve a revised version of the withdrawal agreement by the end of October, he chose to call for a snap election. Due to the fact three motions for an early general election under the Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011 failed to achieve the necessary two-thirds super majority for it to pass so instead, in order to circumvent the existing law, the Government introduced an "election bill" which only needed a simple majority of MPs to vote in favour into the House of Commons which was passed by 438–20, setting the election date for Thursday 12 December.{{cite news|date=29 October 2019|title=UK set for 12 December general election|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-50229318|access-date=22 December 2019|archive-date=3 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191103131820/https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-50229318|url-status=live}} Opinion polls up to polling day showed a firm lead for the Conservatives against Labour throughout the campaign.{{cite news|last1=Stewart|first1=Heather|date=12 December 2019|title=Exit poll predicts 86-seat majority for Boris Johnson and Conservatives|work=The Guardian|url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2019/dec/12/exit-poll-predicts-majority-for-boris-johnson-and-conservatives|access-date=19 December 2020|archive-date=13 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191213202139/https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2019/dec/12/exit-poll-predicts-majority-for-boris-johnson-and-conservatives|url-status=live}}

In the run-up to the general election on 12 December 2019 the Conservative Party pledged to leave the EU with the withdrawal agreement negotiated in October 2019. Labour promised to renegotiate aforementioned deal and hold a referendum, letting voters choose between the renegotiated deal and remain. The Liberal Democrats vowed to revoke Article 50, while the SNP intended to hold a second referendum, however, revoking Article 50 if the alternative was a no-deal exit. The DUP supported Brexit but would seek to change parts related to Northern Ireland it was dissatisfied with. Plaid Cymru and the Green Party backed a second referendum, believing the UK should stay in the EU. The Brexit Party was the only major party running for election which wanted the UK to leave the EU without a deal.{{cite news|title=Where do the parties stand on Brexit?|work=BBC News|date=5 December 2019|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-48027580|access-date=13 September 2020|archive-date=30 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191130173357/https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-48027580|url-status=live}}

The election produced a decisive result for Boris Johnson with the Conservatives winning 365 seats (gaining 47 seats) and an overall majority of 80 seats with Labour suffering their worst election defeat since 1935 after losing 60 seats to leave them with 202 seats and only a single seat in Scotland. The Liberal Democrats won just 11 seats with their leader Jo Swinson losing her own seat. The Scottish National Party won 48 seats after gaining 14 seats in Scotland.

The result broke the deadlock in the UK Parliament and ended the possibility of a referendum being held on the withdrawal agreement and ensured that the United Kingdom would leave the European Union on 31 January 2020.

File:Westminster (49470617471).jpg illuminated in the colours of the Union Jack on 31 January 2020]]

Subsequently, the government introduced a bill to ratify the withdrawal agreement. It passed its second reading in the House of Commons in a 358–234 vote on 20 December 2019,{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2019/dec/20/brexit-pm-asks-britons-to-move-on-as-mps-debate-withdrawal-bill|title=Brexit: parliament passes withdrawal agreement bill by 124 majority|last=Stewart|first=Heather|date=20 December 2019|work=The Guardian|access-date=20 December 2019|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191220113442/https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2019/dec/20/brexit-pm-asks-britons-to-move-on-as-mps-debate-withdrawal-bill|archive-date=20 December 2019|url-status=live}} and became law on 23 January 2020 as the European Union (Withdrawal Agreement) Act 2020.{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/av/uk-politics-51221727/brexit-bill-receives-royal-assent|title=Brexit bill receives Royal Assent|date=23 January 2020|work=BBC News|access-date=2 February 2020|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200201235201/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/av/uk-politics-51221727/brexit-bill-receives-royal-assent|archive-date=1 February 2020}}

The withdrawal agreement received the backing of the constitutional committee in the European Parliament on 23 January 2020, setting expectation that the entire parliament would approve it in a later vote.{{Cite news|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-01-23/brexit-deal-passes-penultimate-eu-hurdle-with-committee-approval|title=Brexit Deal Passes Penultimate EU Hurdle With Committee Approval|last=Wishart|first=Ian|date=23 January 2020|work=Bloomberg|access-date=27 January 2020|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200126193820/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-01-23/brexit-deal-passes-penultimate-eu-hurdle-with-committee-approval|archive-date=26 January 2020}}{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-51244126|title=Brexit: Boris Johnson signs withdrawal agreement in Downing Street|date=24 January 2020|access-date=27 January 2020|url-status=live|work=BBC News|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200125041950/https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-51244126|archive-date=25 January 2020}}{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/01/22/world/europe/brexit-withdrawal-bill.html|title=U.K. Takes a Major Step Toward Brexit|last=Castle|first=Stephen|date=22 January 2020|work=The New York Times|access-date=27 January 2020|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200126044640/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/01/22/world/europe/brexit-withdrawal-bill.html|archive-date=26 January 2020}} On the following day, Ursula von der Leyen and Charles Michel signed the withdrawal agreement in Brussels, and it was sent to London where Boris Johnson signed it. The European Parliament gave its consent to ratification on 29 January by 621 votes to 49.{{Cite news|url=https://news.sky.com/story/european-parliament-ratifies-boris-johnsons-brexit-deal-ahead-of-exit-day-11921016|title=European Parliament ratifies Boris Johnson's Brexit deal ahead of exit day|last=McGuinness|first=Alan|date=29 January 2020|work=Sky News|access-date=29 January 2020|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200129195015/https://news.sky.com/story/european-parliament-ratifies-boris-johnsons-brexit-deal-ahead-of-exit-day-11921016|archive-date=29 January 2020}} Immediately after voting approval, members of the European Parliament joined hands and sang Auld Lang Syne.{{cite news|url=https://www.businessinsider.com/video-european-parliament-sings-auld-lang-syne-after-approving-brexit-2020-1|title=The European Parliament joined hands and sang Auld Lang Syne in an emotional Brexit farewell to the UK|last=Payne|first=Adam|date=30 January 2020|agency=Reuters|publisher=Business Insider|access-date=1 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200131154336/https://www.businessinsider.com/video-european-parliament-sings-auld-lang-syne-after-approving-brexit-2020-1|archive-date=31 January 2020|url-status=live}} The Council of the European Union concluded EU ratification the following day.{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/01/30/world/europe/eu-brexit-decision.html|last=Stevis-Gridneff|first=Matina|title=Press send for Brexit: E.U. seals U.K. withdrawal by email|work=The New York Times|date=30 January 2020|access-date=8 July 2020|archive-date=31 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200131154556/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/01/30/world/europe/eu-brexit-decision.html|url-status=dead}} At 11 p.m. GMT, 31 January 2020, the United Kingdom's membership of the European Union ended, 47 years after it had joined. As confirmed by the Court of Justice in EP v Préfet du Gers,{{Citation |title=EP v Préfet du Gers and Institut national de la statistique et des études économiques (INSEE) |date=9 June 2022 |url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/en/TXT/?uri=CELEX:62020CJ0673 |issue=Case C-673/20 |access-date=24 July 2023 |language=en |archive-date=21 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230721131205/https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/en/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A62020CJ0673 |url-status=live }} all British nationals ceased to be Union citizens.{{Cite journal |last=Lashyn |first=Serhii |date=2022 |title=Sacrificing EU citizenship on the altar of Brexit |journal=Maastricht Journal of European and Comparative Law |language=en |volume=29 |issue=6 |pages=736–744 |doi=10.1177/1023263X221146465 |issn=1023-263X|doi-access=free }}

To commemorate the moment of Brexit, a countdown clock was projected onto 10 Downing Street with a recording of Big Ben chiming. In addition, there was a nearby party in Parliament Square, being led by Farage, sang "God Save the Queen" at the moment of departure.{{cite news | url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/video/2020/jan/31/britain-leaves-the-eu-to-virtual-bongs-and-god-save-the-queen-video | title=Britain leaves the EU to recorded Big Ben bongs and God Save the Queen – video | newspaper=The Guardian |accessdate=25 November 2024 | date=31 January 2020 }} In Gibraltar, a flag ceremony was held as the EU flag was lowered to "Ode to Joy" and the Commonwealth flag was raised to "God Save the Queen".{{cite web | url=https://www.chronicle.gi/a-solemn-ceremony-laced-with-chants-and-cheers-as-gibraltar-lowers-eu-flag/ | title=A solemn ceremony laced with chants and cheers as Gibraltar lowers EU flag |work=Gibraltar Chronicle |accessdate=25 November 2024}}

File:Trim.124028DB-3986-4A22-BE88-3024C92E0C3A.webm answering frequently searched for online Brexit-related questions]]

Following the British exit on 31 January 2020 the UK entered a Transition Period for the rest of 2020. Trade, travel and freedom of movement remain largely unchanged during this period.{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-50838994 |newspaper=BBC News |title=Brexit: What is the transition period? |first=Tom |last=Edgington |date=20 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200201075405/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-50838994 |archive-date=1 February 2020 }}

The Withdrawal Agreement still applies after this date. This agreement provides free access of goods between Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland, provided checks are made to goods entering Northern Ireland from the rest of the UK. The British Government attempted to back out of this commitment{{cite news |url=https://www.irishtimes.com/news/world/uk/brexit-britain-says-it-may-break-international-law-in-limited-way-1.4349653 |newspaper=The Irish Times |title=Brexit: Britain says it may break international law in 'limited way' |date=8 September 2020 |access-date=1 November 2020 |archive-date=18 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200918143030/https://www.irishtimes.com/news/world/uk/brexit-britain-says-it-may-break-international-law-in-limited-way-1.4349653 |url-status=live }} by passing the Internal Market Bill: domestic legislation in the British Parliament. In September, Northern Ireland secretary Brandon Lewis said:

{{blockquote|I would say to my hon. Friend that yes, this does break international law in a very specific and limited way.{{cite web |url=https://www.theyworkforyou.com/debates/?id=2020-09-08c.497.0&s=%22very+specific+and+limited+way%22#g509.0 |title=Northern Ireland Protocol: UK Legal Obligations |publisher=TheyWorkForYou |date=8 September 2020 |access-date=1 November 2020 }}}}

leading to the resignation of Sir Jonathan Jones, permanent secretary to the Government Legal Department{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-54072347 |work=BBC News |title=Senior government lawyer quits over Brexit plans |date=8 September 2020 |access-date=1 November 2020 |archive-date=6 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201106183325/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-54072347 |url-status=live }} and Lord Keen, the law officer for Scotland.{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-scotland-politics-54179745 |title=Lord Keen: Senior law officer quits over Brexit bill row |date=16 September 2020 |work=BBC News |access-date=1 November 2020 |archive-date=1 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201101002000/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-scotland-politics-54179745 |url-status=live }} The European Commission started legal action.{{cite news |last1=Boffey |first1=Daniel |last2=O'Carroll |first2=Lisa |title=Brexit: EU launches legal action against UK for breaching withdrawal agreement |url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2020/oct/01/brexit-eu-launches-legal-action-against-uk-for-breaching-withdrawal-agreement |access-date=1 November 2020 |work=The Guardian |date=1 October 2020 |archive-date=17 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201217125215/https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2020/oct/01/brexit-eu-launches-legal-action-against-uk-for-breaching-withdrawal-agreement |url-status=live }}

During the transition period, David Frost and Michel Barnier continued to negotiate a permanent trade agreement.{{cite news |last1=Boffey |first1=Daniel |last2=Borger |first2=Julian |title=Brexit talks to resume after Michel Barnier speech breaks impasse |url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2020/oct/21/uk-welcomes-barnier-significant-remarks-on-unlocking-brexit-talks |access-date=2 May 2021 |work=The Guardian |date=21 October 2020 |archive-date=7 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210607093242/https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2020/oct/21/uk-welcomes-barnier-significant-remarks-on-unlocking-brexit-talks |url-status=live }} On 24 December 2020 both parties announced that a deal had been reached.{{cite news |last1=Boffey |first1=Daniel |last2=O'Carroll |first2=Lisa |title=UK and EU agree Brexit trade deal |url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2020/dec/24/uk-eu-agree-brexit-trade-deal-agreement |access-date=25 December 2020 |work=The Guardian |date=24 December 2020 |archive-date=29 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229024159/https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2020/dec/24/uk-eu-agree-brexit-trade-deal-agreement |url-status=live }} The deal was passed by both houses of the British parliament on 30 December and given Royal Assent in the early hours of the next day. In the House of Commons, the governing Conservatives and main opposition Labour voted in favour of the agreement whilst all other opposition parties voted against it.{{cite news|date=30 December 2020|title=Brexit: MPs overwhelmingly back post-Brexit deal with EU|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-55478513|access-date=30 December 2020|archive-date=30 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230163525/https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-55478513|url-status=live}} The transition period concluded under its terms the following evening.{{cite news|date=31 December 2020|title=Brexit: New era for UK as it completes separation from European Union|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-55502781|access-date=1 January 2021|archive-date=14 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210114212309/https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-55502781|url-status=live}} After the UK said it would unilaterally extend a grace period limiting checks on trade between Northern Ireland and Great Britain, the European Parliament postponed setting a date to ratify the agreement.{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2021/mar/04/uks-plan-to-extend-brexit-grace-period-infuriates-irish-and-eu-officials |title=EU postpones setting date for ratifying Brexit trade deal |work=The Guardian |date=4 March 2021 |access-date=15 March 2021 |archive-date=15 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415170051/https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2021/mar/04/uks-plan-to-extend-brexit-grace-period-infuriates-irish-and-eu-officials |url-status=live }} The vote was later scheduled for 27 April when it passed with an overwhelming majority of votes.{{cite web|last=Blenkinsop|first=Philip|date=22 April 2021|title=EU parliament agrees to April 27 vote on EU-UK trade deal|url=https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/european-parliament-agrees-april-vote-eu-uk-trade-deal-2021-04-22/|access-date=28 April 2021|publisher=Reuters|archive-date=28 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210428100216/https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/european-parliament-agrees-april-vote-eu-uk-trade-deal-2021-04-22/|url-status=live}}{{cite news|date=28 April 2021|title=Brexit: European Parliament backs UK trade deal|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-56899831|access-date=28 April 2021|archive-date=27 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210427230040/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-56899831|url-status=live}}

There was a customs transitional arrangement in place until 1 July 2021. During this time period, traders importing standard goods from the EU to the UK could defer submitting their customs declarations and paying import duties to HMRC for up to six months. This arrangement simplified and avoided most import controls during the early months of the new situation and was designed to facilitate inward trade during the COVID-19 health crisis and to avoid major disruptions in domestic supply chains in the short term.{{cite news |last1=Rankin |first1=Jennifer |last2=O'Carroll |first2=Lisa |title=Brexit: full controls on goods entering UK will not apply until July 2021 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2020/jun/12/brexit-full-border-controls-on-goods-entering-uk-will-not-apply-until-july-2021 |work=The Guardian |date=12 June 2020 |access-date=1 May 2021 |archive-date=1 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210501073245/https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2020/jun/12/brexit-full-border-controls-on-goods-entering-uk-will-not-apply-until-july-2021 |url-status=live }} Following reports that the border infrastructure was not ready, the UK government further postponed import checks from the EU to the UK until the end of the year in order to avoid supply issues during the ongoing Covid crisis.{{cite news |last=Partridge |first=Joanna |title=UK forced to delay checks on imports from EU by six months |url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2021/mar/11/uk-forced-to-delay-import-checks-on-eu-goods-by-six-months-2022-border-post-not-ready |work=The Guardian |date=11 March 2021 |access-date=22 June 2021 |archive-date=24 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210624205539/https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2021/mar/11/uk-forced-to-delay-import-checks-on-eu-goods-by-six-months-2022-border-post-not-ready |url-status=live }} This was again followed by another delay of import controls, in a situation of truck driver shortages; the controls are scheduled to be phased in during 2022.{{cite news |last=Holton |first=Kate |title=Britain delays post-Brexit import trade controls again |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/uk/britain-delays-implementation-post-brexit-trade-controls-2021-09-14/ |access-date=25 September 2021 |publisher=Reuters |date=14 September 2021 |archive-date=25 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210925064909/https://www.reuters.com/world/uk/britain-delays-implementation-post-brexit-trade-controls-2021-09-14/ |url-status=live }}

{{main|European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018}}

In October 2016, Theresa May promised a "Great Repeal Bill", which would repeal the European Communities Act 1972 and restate in British law all enactments previously in force under EU law. Subsequently renamed the European Union (Withdrawal) Bill, it was introduced into the House of Commons on 13 July 2017.{{cite web |url=https://services.parliament.uk/bills/2017-19/europeanunionwithdrawal.html |title=European Union (Withdrawal) Bill 2017–19 – UK Parliament |publisher=Parliament of the United Kingdom |access-date=23 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190725141501/https://services.parliament.uk/bills/2017-19/europeanunionwithdrawal.html |archive-date=25 July 2019 |url-status=live}}

On 12 September 2017, the Bill passed its first vote and second reading by a margin of 326 votes to 290 votes in the House of Commons.{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-41235522 |title=EU repeal bill wins first Commons vote |date=12 September 2017 |access-date=1 November 2017 |work=BBC News |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190727155411/https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-41235522 |archive-date=27 July 2019 |url-status=live}} The Bill was further amended on a series of votes in both Houses. After the Act became law on 26 June 2018, the European Council decided on 29 June to renew its call on member states and European Union institutions to step up their work on preparedness at all levels and for all outcomes.{{cite web |url=http://www.consilium.europa.eu/media/35966/29-euco-art50-conclusions-en.pdf |title=Conclusions adopted by the European Council (Art. 50), 29 June 2018 |website=europa.eu |access-date=2 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190214172737/https://www.consilium.europa.eu/media/35966/29-euco-art50-conclusions-en.pdf |archive-date=14 February 2019 |url-status=live}}

The Withdrawal Act fixed the period ending 21 January 2019 for the government to decide on how to proceed if the negotiations had not reached agreement in principle on both the withdrawal arrangements and the framework for the future relationship between the UK and EU; while, alternatively, making future ratification of the withdrawal agreement as a treaty between the UK and EU depend upon the prior enactment of another act of Parliament for approving the final terms of withdrawal when the Brexit negotiations were completed. In any event, the Act did not alter the two-year period for negotiating allowed by Article 50 that ended at the latest on 29 March 2019 if the UK had not by then ratified a withdrawal agreement or agreed a prolongation of the negotiating period.

The Withdrawal Act which became law in June 2018 allowed for various outcomes including no negotiated settlement. It authorises the government to bring into force, by order made under section 25, the provisions that fixed "exit day" and the repeal of the European Communities Act 1972 but exit day must be the same day and time as when the EU Treaties ceased to apply to the UK.{{cite web |last=Cowie |first=Graeme |title=What is "exit day"? Dispelling misconceptions about the extension of Article 50 |url=https://commonslibrary.parliament.uk/what-is-exit-day-dispelling-misconceptions-about-the-extension-of-article-50/ |url-status=live |website=commonslibrary.parliament.uk |publisher=House of Commons Library |date=19 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210516131529/https://commonslibrary.parliament.uk/what-is-exit-day-dispelling-misconceptions-about-the-extension-of-article-50/ |archive-date=16 May 2021}}

Exit day was the end of 31 January 2020 CET (11.00 p.m. GMT).{{cite web|title=The European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018 (Exit Day) (Amendment) (No. 3) Regulations 2019 |id=SI 2019 No. 1423 |date=30 October 2019 |url=https://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2019/1423/made |website=legislation.gov.uk |publisher=The National Archives |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191115183425/http://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2019/1423/made |archive-date=15 November 2019 |url-status=live}} The European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018 (as amended by a British Statutory Instrument on 11 April 2019), in section 20 (1), defined 'exit day' as 11:00 p.m. on 31 October 2019.{{cite web|title=Statutory Instruments – 2019 No. 859 – Exiting The European Union – The European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018 (Exit Day) (Amendment) (No. 2) Regulations 2019 |url=https://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2019/859/pdfs/uksi_20190859_en.pdf|date=11 April 2019 |access-date=13 April 2019 |publisher=The Stationery Office Limited |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190417225120/http://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2019/859/pdfs/uksi_20190859_en.pdf |archive-date=17 April 2019|url-status=live}} Originally, 'exit day' was defined as 11:00 p.m. on 29 March 2019 GMT (UTC+0).{{cite web |url=http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2018/16/contents/enacted/data.htm |website=legislation.gov.uk |title=European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018 |access-date=13 February 2019 |date=2018 |quote="exit day" means 29 March 2019 at 11.00 p.m.(and see subsections (2) to (5)); |at=sec. 20(1) |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190206234328/http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2018/16/contents/enacted/data.htm|archive-date=6 February 2019|url-status=live}} Subsections (2) to (5) provide the option of amending the date by a Ministerial Regulation "if the day or time on or at which the Treaties are to cease to apply to the United Kingdom in accordance with Article 50(3) of the Treaty on European Union is different from that specified in the definition of 'exit day' in subsection (1)." (Article 50(3) of the Treaty on European Union states: "The Treaties shall cease to apply to the State in question from the date of entry into force of the withdrawal agreement or, failing that, two years after the notification referred to in paragraph 2, unless the European Council, in agreement with the Member State concerned, unanimously decides to extend this period".){{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-britain-eu-timeline/key-dates-in-brexit-process-idUSKBN1FM2H9|title=Key dates in Brexit process|date=2 February 2018|publisher=Reuters|access-date=13 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180924163923/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-britain-eu-timeline/key-dates-in-brexit-process-idUSKBN1FM2H9|archive-date=24 September 2018|url-status=live}}{{cite web |last=Walker |first=Nigel |title=Brexit timeline: events leading to the UK's exit from the European Union |url=https://commonslibrary.parliament.uk/research-briefings/cbp-7960/ |url-status=live |type=Research briefing |website=commonslibrary.parliament.uk |publisher=House of Commons Library |date=6 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210813211646/https://commonslibrary.parliament.uk/research-briefings/cbp-7960/ |archive-date=13 August 2021 }}

A report published in March 2017 by the Institute for Government commented that, in addition to the European Union (Withdrawal) bill, primary and secondary legislation would be needed to cover the gaps in policy areas such as customs, immigration and agriculture.{{cite web |last1=White |first1=Hannah |last2=Rutter |first2=Jill |title=Legislating Brexit: The Great Repeal Bill and the wider legislative challenge |website=instituteforgovernment.org.uk |date=March 2017 |page=9 |url=https://www.instituteforgovernment.org.uk/sites/default/files/publications/IFGJ5347-Legislating-Brexit-IFG-Analysis-032017-WEB.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170321154433/https://www.instituteforgovernment.org.uk/sites/default/files/publications/IFGJ5347-Legislating-Brexit-IFG-Analysis-032017-WEB.pdf |archive-date=21 March 2017 |url-status=live}} The report also commented that the role of the devolved legislatures was unclear, and could cause problems, and that as many as 15 new additional Brexit Bills might be required, which would involve strict prioritisation and limiting Parliamentary time for in-depth examination of new legislation.{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-39322297|title=Brexit could place 'huge burden' on Parliament|work=BBC News|date=20 March 2017|access-date=29 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190727015516/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-39322297|archive-date=27 July 2019|url-status=live}}

In 2016 and 2017, the House of Lords published a series of reports on Brexit-related subjects, including:

{{div col|colwidth=27em}}

• [https://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld201617/ldselect/ldeucom/72/72.pdf Brexit: the options for trade]
• [https://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld201617/ldselect/ldeucom/76/76.pdf Brexit: UK–Irish relations]
• [https://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld201617/ldselect/ldeucom/77/77.pdf Brexit: future UK–EU security and police cooperation]
• [https://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld201617/ldselect/ldeucom/78/78.pdf Brexit: fisheries]
• [https://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld201617/ldselect/ldeucom/109/109.pdf Brexit: environment and climate change]
• [https://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld201617/ldselect/ldeucom/136/136.pdf Brexit: the Crown Dependencies]
• [https://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld201617/ldselect/ldeucom/134/134.pdf Brexit: justice for families, individuals and businesses?]
• [https://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld201617/ldselect/ldeucom/135/135.pdf Brexit: trade in non-financial services]

{{div col end}}

The Nuclear Safeguards Act 2018, relating to withdrawal from Euratom, was presented to Parliament in October 2017. The act makes provision about nuclear safeguards, and for connected purposes. The Secretary of State may by regulations ("nuclear safeguards regulations") make provision for the purpose of – (a) ensuring that qualifying nuclear material, facilities or equipment are available only for use for civil activities (whether in the UK or elsewhere), or (b) giving effect to provisions of a relevant international agreement.{{cite web|url=https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2018/15/pdfs/ukpga_20180015_en.pdf|title=Nuclear Safeguards Act 2018|website=www.legislation.gov.uk|access-date=3 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191214033335/https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2018/15/pdfs/ukpga_20180015_en.pdf|archive-date=14 December 2019|url-status=live}}

{{main|European Union (Withdrawal Agreement) Act 2020}}

The European Union (Withdrawal Agreement) Act 2020 makes legal provision for ratifying the Brexit Withdrawal Agreement and incorporating it into the domestic law of the United Kingdom.{{cite web |title=New Bill to implement Withdrawal Agreement |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/news/new-bill-to-implement-withdrawal-agreement |publisher=Government of the United Kingdom |date=13 November 2017 |access-date=18 February 2022 |archive-date=18 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220218125425/https://www.gov.uk/government/news/new-bill-to-implement-withdrawal-agreement |url-status=live }} The bill was first introduced{{cite web|url=https://services.parliament.uk/Bills/2019-19/europeanunionwithdrawalagreement.html|title=European Union (Withdrawal Agreement) Bill 2019 — UK Parliament|website=services.parliament.uk|access-date=18 February 2022|archive-date=11 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111175926/https://services.parliament.uk/Bills/2019-19/europeanunionwithdrawalagreement.html|url-status=live}} by the government on 21 October 2019. This bill was not further debated and lapsed on 6 November when parliament was dissolved in preparation for the 2019 general election. The bill was reintroduced immediately following the general election and was the first bill to be put before the House of Commons in the first session of the 58th Parliament,{{cite web|url=https://services.parliament.uk/Bills/2019-20/europeanunionwithdrawalagreement.html|title=European Union (Withdrawal Agreement) Bill 2019–20 — UK Parliament|website=services.parliament.uk|access-date=18 February 2022|archive-date=27 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200127052521/https://services.parliament.uk/Bills/2019-20/europeanunionwithdrawalagreement.html|url-status=live}} with changes from the previous bill, by the re-elected government and was read a first time on 19 December, immediately after the first reading of the Outlawries Bill and before the debate on the Queen's Speech began. The second reading took place on 20 December, and the third on 9 January 2020. This act was given Royal Assent on 23 January 2020, nine days before the UK left the European Union.

{{further|Opinion polling on the United Kingdom's membership of the European Union (2016–2020)}}

Opinion polling overall showed an initial fall in support for Brexit from the referendum to late 2016, when responses were split evenly between support and opposition. Support rose again to a plurality, which held until the 2017 general election. Since then, opinion polls tended to show a plurality of support for remaining in the EU or for the view that Brexit was a mistake, with the estimated margin increasing until a small decrease in 2019 (to 53% Remain: 47% Leave, {{as of|2019|10|lc=1}}).{{cite web|url=https://www.standard.co.uk/news/politics/brexit-news-latest-britain-against-leaving-eu-as-poll-of-polls-says-most-now-want-to-stay-a4257476.html|title=Brexit news latest: Poll of polls says Britain is now against leaving EU as most want to stay|last=Cecil|first=Nicholas|date=10 October 2019|website=Evening Standard|publisher=London Evening Standard|access-date=19 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191016201243/https://www.standard.co.uk/news/politics/brexit-news-latest-britain-against-leaving-eu-as-poll-of-polls-says-most-now-want-to-stay-a4257476.html|archive-date=16 October 2019|url-status=live}} This seems to be largely due to a preference for remaining in the EU among those who did not vote in 2016's referendum (an estimated 2.5 million of whom, {{As of|2019|October|lc=1}}, were too young to vote at the time).{{cite news|last=Kellner|first=Peter|date=10 October 2019|title=Everyone says they know what the public think about Brexit – here's the polling data that tells you who's right|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/voices/brexit-myths-busting-polling-second-referendum-leave-remain-a9149491.html|work=The Independent|access-date=16 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191016201237/https://www.independent.co.uk/voices/brexit-myths-busting-polling-second-referendum-leave-remain-a9149491.html|archive-date=16 October 2019|url-status=live}}{{cite web|url=https://whatukthinks.org/eu/has-there-been-a-shift-in-support-for-brexit/|title=Has There Been a Shift in Support for Brexit?|last=Curtice|first=John|date=8 February 2019|website=What UK Thinks|access-date=16 May 2019|quote=Until the 2017 general election typically more people said that the decision to leave the EU was right than stated it was wrong. Since then the oppose has been the case{{nbsp}}... The reason why the balance of opinion had shifted in favour of Remain, even though very few Leave voters had changed their minds, was because those who had not voted before (in some cases because they had been too young to do so) were now decisively in favour of Remain.|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190516224825/https://whatukthinks.org/eu/has-there-been-a-shift-in-support-for-brexit/|archive-date=16 May 2019|url-status=live}} Other reasons suggested include slightly more Leave voters than Remain voters (14% and 12% of each, respectively, {{as of|2019|10|lc=1}}){{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-50043549 |title=Have UK voters changed their minds on Brexit? |last=Curtice |first=John |date=17 October 2019 |work=BBC News |access-date=23 October 2019 |quote=On average, during the last month, polls that ask people how they would vote in another referendum suggest that 88% of those who backed Remain would do so again. Among those who voted Leave, 86% have not changed their minds. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191023163831/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-50043549 |archive-date=23 October 2019 |url-status=live }} changing how they would vote (particularly in Labour areas) and the deaths of older voters, most of whom voted to leave the EU. One estimate of demographic changes (ignoring other effects) implies that had an EU referendum taken place {{As of|alt=in October 2019|2019|10|post=,}} there would have been between 800,000 and 900,000 fewer Leave voters and between 600,000 and 700,000 more Remain voters, resulting in a Remain majority.

In March 2019, a petition submitted to the British Parliament petitions website, calling on the government to revoke Article 50 and stay in the EU, reached a record-level of more than 6.1 million signatures.{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2019/mar/31/article-50-petition-to-cancel-brexit-passes-6m-signatures|title=Article 50 petition to cancel Brexit passes 6m signatures|work=The Guardian|access-date=5 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190403074151/https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2019/mar/31/article-50-petition-to-cancel-brexit-passes-6m-signatures|archive-date=3 April 2019|url-status=live}}{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-47772682|title=Article 50: MPs debate six-million-signature petition|work=BBC News|access-date=5 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190410101020/https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-47772682|archive-date=10 April 2019|url-status=live}}

File:Brexit post-referendum polling - Right-Wrong.svg|Opinion polling on whether the UK was right or wrong to vote to leave the EU

File:Brexit post-referendum polling - Remain-Leave-Neither.svg|Opinion polling on whether the UK should leave or remain in the EU, including "Neither" responses

File:Brexit post-referendum polling - Remain-Leave.svg|Opinion polling on whether the UK should leave or remain in the EU, excluding "Neither" responses and normalised

{{further|Opinion polling on the United Kingdom rejoining the European Union (2020–present)}}

YouGov polling has shown a gradual but progressive decline in the public perception of the benefits of Brexit, with the overall margin of sentiment about the rightness of the Brexit decision declining from slightly positive in 2016 to −11% in 2022.{{cite web |date=July 2022 |title=EU Tracker Questions (GB): In hindsight, do you think Britain was right or wrong to vote to leave the European Union? |url=https://docs.cdn.yougov.com/fn8wcm524j/YG%20Trackers%20-%20EU%20Tracker%20Questions_W.pdf |access-date=5 June 2022 |website=YouGov |archive-date=2 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220602111434/https://docs.cdn.yougov.com/fn8wcm524j/YG%20Trackers%20-%20EU%20Tracker%20Questions_W.pdf |url-status=live }} A May 2022 poll showed that a majority of respondents who expressed an opinion thought that Brexit had gone either "badly" or "very badly".{{cite web |title=Daily Question {{!}} 10 May 2022 {{!}} YouGov |url=https://yougov.co.uk/topics/politics/survey-results/daily/2022/05/10/6f966/2 |access-date=5 June 2022 |website=yougov.co.uk |language=en-GB |archive-date=3 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220603143608/https://yougov.co.uk/topics/politics/survey-results/daily/2022/05/10/6f966/2 |url-status=live }} A new study showed that since Brexit, citizens in other European nations were more against leaving the EU than they had been since 2016.{{Cite web |date=12 January 2023 |title=Support for leaving EU has fallen significantly across bloc since Brexit |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/jan/12/support-for-leaving-eu-has-fallen-significantly-across-bloc-since-brexit |access-date=12 January 2023 |website=The Guardian |language=en |archive-date=12 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230112092431/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/jan/12/support-for-leaving-eu-has-fallen-significantly-across-bloc-since-brexit |url-status=live }} A January 2023 poll in the United Kingdom also reflected these numbers, with 54% of poll respondents who believed that the country was wrong to leave the European Union, while 35% of respondents believed it was the right decision.{{Cite web |title=Brexit opinion poll 2023 |url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/987347/brexit-opinion-poll/ |access-date=12 January 2023 |website=Statista |language=en |archive-date=12 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230112132202/https://www.statista.com/statistics/987347/brexit-opinion-poll/ |url-status=live }} An average of six polls conducted in June and July 2023 shows 58% of voters in favor of rejoining the EU with 42% of voters against rejoining the EU.{{Cite web |title=Post-Brexit Poll of Polls |url=https://www.whatukthinks.org/eu/opinion-polls/poll-of-polls-uk-eu/ |access-date=21 July 2023 |website=What UK Thinks: EU |language=en-US |archive-date=21 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230721171623/https://www.whatukthinks.org/eu/opinion-polls/poll-of-polls-uk-eu/ |url-status=live }}

Since 2020, pollsters have asked respondents how they would vote in a potential second referendum to rejoin the EU.

File:Opinion polling on the whether the United Kingdom should rejoin the European Union.svg

{{see also|No-deal Brexit|Operation Yellowhammer}}

On 19 December 2018, the EU Commission revealed its "no-deal" Contingency Action Plan in specific sectors, in respect of the UK leaving the EU "in 100 days' time."{{cite web|url=https://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_IP-18-6851_en.htm|title=European Commission – PRESS RELEASES – Press release – Brexit: European Commission implements "no-deal" Contingency Action Plan in specific sectors|website=europa.eu|access-date=5 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190905165240/https://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_IP-18-6851_en.htm|archive-date=5 September 2019|url-status=live}}

In the wake of the United Kingdom's vote to leave the European Union, the Department for International Trade (DIT) for reaching and extending trade agreements between the UK and non-EU states was created by Prime Minister May, shortly after she took office on 13 July 2016.{{cite web|url=https://www.civilserviceworld.com/articles/news/theresa-may-signals-whitehall-rejig-two-new-cabinet-posts|title=Theresa May signals Whitehall rejig with two new Cabinet posts|website=civilserviceworld.com|publisher=CSW|access-date=14 July 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160714151146/http://www.civilserviceworld.com/articles/news/theresa-may-signals-whitehall-rejig-two-new-cabinet-posts|archive-date=14 July 2016|url-status=live}} By 2017, it employed about 200 trade negotiatorsTrading places / Negotiating post-Brexit deals. Economist, 4–10 February 2017, p. 25 and was overseen by then Secretary of State for International Trade Liam Fox. In March 2019, the British government announced that it would cut many import tariffs to zero, in the event of a no-deal Brexit.{{cite web|url=https://www.gov.uk/government/news/temporary-tariff-regime-for-no-deal-brexit-published|title=Temporary tariff regime for no deal Brexit published|website=GOV.UK|date=13 March 2019 |access-date=14 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190329183755/https://www.gov.uk/government/news/temporary-tariff-regime-for-no-deal-brexit-published|archive-date=29 March 2019|url-status=live}} The Confederation of British Industry said the move would be a "sledgehammer for our economy",{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2019/mar/13/brexit-tariffs-on-87-of-uk-imports-cut-to-zero-in-temporary-no-deal-plan|title=UK will cut most tariffs to zero in event of no-deal Brexit|last1=O'Carroll|first1=Lisa|last2=Boffey|first2=Daniel|date=13 March 2019|work=The Guardian|access-date=14 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190314110111/https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2019/mar/13/brexit-tariffs-on-87-of-uk-imports-cut-to-zero-in-temporary-no-deal-plan|archive-date=14 March 2019|url-status=live}}{{cite news|url=https://www.walesonline.co.uk/news/uk-news/car-prices-rise-1500-no-15965400|title=Car prices to rise by £1,500 as no-deal tariffs are revealed|last1=Glaze|first1=Ben|last2=Bloom|first2=Dan|date=13 March 2019|website=walesonline|last3=Owen|first3=Cathy|access-date=14 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190329172608/https://www.walesonline.co.uk/news/uk-news/car-prices-rise-1500-no-15965400|archive-date=29 March 2019|url-status=live}}{{cite news|url=https://www.aol.co.uk/news/2019/03/13/no-deal-tariff-regime-would-be-a-sledgehammera-to-uk-economy/|title=No-deal tariff regime would be 'sledgehammer' to UK economy, CBI warns|website=Aol.co.uk|access-date=14 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190329172648/https://www.aol.co.uk/news/2019/03/13/no-deal-tariff-regime-would-be-a-sledgehammera-to-uk-economy/|archive-date=29 March 2019|url-status=live}} and the National Farmer's Union was also highly critical.{{cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/brexit-explained/brexit-no-deal-farmers-eu-tariffs-food-costs-imports-theresa-may-a8821096.html|title=This is why farmers are suddenly very worried about a no-deal Brexit|date=13 March 2019|website=The Independent|access-date=14 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190329185311/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/brexit-explained/brexit-no-deal-farmers-eu-tariffs-food-costs-imports-theresa-may-a8821096.html|archive-date=29 March 2019|url-status=live}} Additionally, the plan appeared to breach standard WTO rules.{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-northern-ireland-47551121|title=No-deal plans a bid 'to break EU unity'|date=13 March 2019|work=BBC News|access-date=14 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190331063145/https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-northern-ireland-47551121|archive-date=31 March 2019|url-status=live}}{{cite web|url=https://www.euronews.com/2019/03/13/uk-s-zero-tariff-plan-for-no-deal-brexit-would-not-spare-some-eu-imports|title=UK zero-tariff plan for no-deal Brexit would not spare some EU imports|last=Sandford|first=Alisdair|date=13 March 2019|website=Euronews.com|format=PDF|access-date=14 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190329172729/https://www.euronews.com/2019/03/13/uk-s-zero-tariff-plan-for-no-deal-brexit-would-not-spare-some-eu-imports|archive-date=29 March 2019|url-status=live}}{{cite news|url=https://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-britain-eu-tariffs-idUKKBN1QU1J9|title=EU to apply normal tariffs on trade with UK in case of no-deal Brexit|date=13 March 2019|publisher=Reuters|access-date=14 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190329183742/https://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-britain-eu-tariffs-idUKKBN1QU1J9|archive-date=29 March 2019|url-status=dead}}

On 2 June 2020, Chancellor of Germany Angela Merkel stated that the European Union must prepare for the possible failure of Brexit trade talks with the UK. She added that negotiations were being accelerated to try and reach a deal that could be ratified by the end of the year. Her warning came as the deadline for extending talks passed, with negotiations expected to end on 31 December with or without a deal.{{cite web|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/brexit-no-deal-eu-merkel-germany-trade-talks-boris-johnson-a9595511.html|title=Brexit: EU must prepare for no-deal, Merkel warns|access-date=2 June 2020|website=Independent|archive-date=1 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200701175318/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/brexit-no-deal-eu-merkel-germany-trade-talks-boris-johnson-a9595511.html|url-status=live}}

There has been litigation to explore the constitutional footings on which Brexit stands after R (Miller) v Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union (simply known as the "Miller case") and the 2017 Notification Act:

• In R. (Webster) v Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union, a divisional court of Gross LJ and Green MR determined that the substantive decision to leave the EU that was notified on 29 March 2017 was in fact the executive decision of the Prime Minister using a statutory power of decision found to have been delegated to her by the Notification Act: this is confirmed by the House of Commons Library commentary on the case.{{cite web|last1=de Mars |first1=Sylvia |last2=Miller |first2=Vaughne |url=https://commonslibrary.parliament.uk/research-briefings/cbp-8415/ |title=Brexit questions in national and EU courts |publisher=House of Commons Library |website=commonslibrary.parliament.uk |date=1 November 2019 |type=Research briefing |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224151736/https://commonslibrary.parliament.uk/research-briefings/cbp-8415/ |archive-date=24 February 2021 |url-status=live}} The case was appealed to the Court of Appeal{{cite news|url=https://www.crowdjustice.com/case/a50-chall-her-e50/|title=Article 50 Challenge|work=CrowdJustice|access-date=20 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190522112547/https://www.crowdjustice.com/case/a50-chall-her-e50/|archive-date=22 May 2019|url-status=live}} and paragraph 15 of the judgement, along with the citable nature of the decision were upheld. While the case was criticised academically by Robert Craig, who lectures in jurisprudence at the London School of Economics,{{cite news|url=https://ukconstitutionallaw.org/2018/06/26/robert-craig-new-article-50-case-resoundingly-rejected-by-the-divisional-court/|title=Robert Craig: New Article 50 Case Resoundingly Rejected by the Divisional Court|date=26 June 2018|work=UK Constitutional Law Association|access-date=20 November 2018|language=en-US|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190708132234/https://ukconstitutionallaw.org/2018/06/26/robert-craig-new-article-50-case-resoundingly-rejected-by-the-divisional-court/|archive-date=8 July 2019|url-status=live}} aspects of the case's analysis were supported by the Supreme Court in Miller 2 at paragraph 57, which confirmed:

{{blockquote|... that Parliament, and in particular the House of Commons as the democratically elected representatives of the people, has a right to have a voice in how that change comes about is indisputable.{{cite BAILII|litigants=R (on the application of Miller) v The Prime Minister; Cherry and Others v Advocate General for Scotland|court=UKSC|year=2019|num=41|date=24 September 2019}}|source=Supreme Court of the United Kingdom (UKSC/2019/41)}}

• This confirmation that the decision was an executive act was part of the basis of R. (Wilson) v. Prime Minister{{Cite web|title=Grounds for Judicial Review in Susan Wilson & others -and- The Prime Minister |date=13 August 2018 |url=https://www.croftsolicitors.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/239484-Grounds-for-Judicial-Review-and-Statement-of-Facts.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180825212619/http://www.croftsolicitors.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/239484-Grounds-for-Judicial-Review-and-Statement-of-Facts.pdf |archive-date=25 August 2018 |url-status=live |id=CO/3214/2018 |website=croftsolicitors.com}} which allied this point with the concerns about the irregularities in the referendum. The High Court hearing was on 7 December 2018 before Ouseley MJ{{cite web|url=https://www.ukineuchallenge.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/Bremain-mailer-021118-UKEU-edit-website.pdf|title=UKEU Challenge Update|website=UKEU Challenge|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190401210410/https://www.ukineuchallenge.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/Bremain-mailer-021118-UKEU-edit-website.pdf|archive-date=1 April 2019|url-status=live|access-date=20 November 2018}} and when judgement was given it was held that: courts' job was not to rule on irregularities in the 'leave' campaign as these were not questions of law; it was also said that the case was brought both too early and too late. Judgement in the Court of Appeal (before Hickinbottom LJ and Haddon-Cave LJ) before also went against the applicant.{{cite web|url=https://www.judiciary.uk/publications/wilson-others-v-the-prime-minister-respondent-1-and-the-electoral-commission-respondent-2/|title=Wilson & others –v- The Prime Minister (Respondent 1) and The Electoral Commission (Respondent 2)|website=www.judiciary.uk|language=en-GB|access-date=4 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190330073014/https://www.judiciary.uk/publications/wilson-others-v-the-prime-minister-respondent-1-and-the-electoral-commission-respondent-2/|archive-date=30 March 2019|url-status=live}}
• Regarding the reversibility of a notification under Article 50, Wightman and others v Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union was referred to the Court of Justice of the European Union;{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2018/sep/21/triggering-article-50-reversed-european-court-justice-brexit-bad-dream|title=Today's ruling shows the triggering of article 50 can be reversed|last=Maugham|first=Jolyon|date=21 September 2018|website=The Guardian|access-date=20 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190401210405/https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2018/sep/21/triggering-article-50-reversed-european-court-justice-brexit-bad-dream|archive-date=1 April 2019|url-status=live}} the UK government sought to block this referral, taking the matter on appeal to the Supreme Court, but was unsuccessful.{{cite web|url=https://www.supremecourt.uk/docs/reasons-for-the-determination-in-the-matter-of-secretary-of-state-for-exiting-the-european-union-v-wightman-and-others.pdf|title=Reasons for the determination in the matter of Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union (Appellant) v Wightman and others (Respondents)|last=UK Supreme Court|website=UK Supreme Court|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181120221031/https://www.supremecourt.uk/docs/reasons-for-the-determination-in-the-matter-of-secretary-of-state-for-exiting-the-european-union-v-wightman-and-others.pdf|archive-date=20 November 2018|url-status=live|access-date=20 November 2018}} On 10 December 2018, the Court of Justice of the EU ruled that the UK could unilaterally revoke its Article 50 notification.{{cite web|title=The United Kingdom is free to revoke unilaterally the notification of its intention to withdraw from the EU.|url=https://curia.europa.eu/jcms/upload/docs/application/pdf/2018-12/cp180191en.pdf|publisher=Court of Justice of the European Union|access-date=18 January 2019|date=10 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190612165315/https://curia.europa.eu/jcms/upload/docs/application/pdf/2018-12/cp180191en.pdf|archive-date=12 June 2019|url-status=live}}

{{redirect|Impact of Brexit|predicted impact|Predicted impact of Brexit}}

Many effects of Brexit depended on whether the UK left with a withdrawal agreement, or before an agreement was ratified ("no-deal" Brexit).{{cite web|url=https://inews.co.uk/news/brexit/no-deal-brexit-what-meaning-uk-leave-uk-consequences/|title=What is a no-deal Brexit? Here are the consequences of the UK leaving the EU without a deal|date=4 September 2019|website=inews.co.uk|access-date=20 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190610235916/https://inews.co.uk/news/brexit/no-deal-brexit-what-meaning-uk-leave-uk-consequences/|archive-date=10 June 2019|url-status=live}} In 2017, the Financial Times said that there were approximately 759 international agreements, spanning 168 non-EU countries, that the UK would no longer be a party to upon leaving the EU.{{cite news|url=https://www.ft.com/content/f1435a8e-372b-11e7-bce4-9023f8c0fd2e|title=After Brexit: the UK will need to renegotiate at least 759 treaties|last1=McClean|first1=Paul|date=30 May 2017|work=Financial Times|access-date=31 May 2017|quote=Through analysis of the EU treaty database, the FT found 759 separate EU bilateral agreements with potential relevance to Britain, covering trade in nuclear goods, customs, fisheries, trade, transport and regulatory co-operation in areas such as antitrust or financial services. This includes multilateral agreements based on consensus, where Britain must re-approach 132 separate parties. Around 110 separate opt-in accords at the UN and World Trade Organization are excluded from the estimates, as are narrow agreements on the environment, health, research and science. Some additional UK bilateral deals, outside the EU framework, may also need to be revised because they make reference to EU law. Some of the 759 are so essential that it would be unthinkable to operate without them. Air services agreements allow British aeroplanes to land in America, Canada or Israel; nuclear accords permit the trade in spare parts and fuel for Britain's power stations. Both these sectors are excluded from trade negotiations and must be addressed separately.|url-access=subscription|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170531162500/https://www.ft.com/content/f1435a8e-372b-11e7-bce4-9023f8c0fd2e|archive-date=31 May 2017|url-status=live}}

{{main|Economic effects of Brexit}}

Economists speculated that Brexit would have a damaging impact on the economies of the UK and at least part of the EU27. In particular, there was a broad consensus among economists and in the economic literature that Brexit would likely reduce the UK's real per capita income in the medium and long term, and that the Brexit referendum itself would damage the economy.{{cite news |last=Giles |first=Chris |title=Brexit will damage UK standards of living, say economists |url=https://www.ft.com/content/dc62922a-204b-11e7-a454-ab04428977f9 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |website=Financial Times |date=16 April 2017 |access-date=22 November 2017 |quote=Unlike the short-term effects of Brexit, which have been better than most had predicted, most economists say the ultimate impact of leaving the EU still appears likely to be more negative than positive. But the one thing almost all agree upon is that no one will know how big the effects are for some time. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190722161152/https://www.ft.com/content/dc62922a-204b-11e7-a454-ab04428977f9 |archive-date=22 July 2019}}{{cite web|url=https://piie.com/publications/working-papers/brexit-everyone-loses-britain-loses-most|title=Brexit: Everyone Loses, but Britain Loses the Most|date=March 2019 |first1=María C. |last1=Latorre |first2=Zoryana |last2=Olekseyuk |first3=Hidemichi |last3=Yonezawa |first4=Sherman |last4=Robinson |website=PIIE|access-date=17 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190327091244/https://piie.com/publications/working-papers/brexit-everyone-loses-britain-loses-most|archive-date=27 March 2019|url-status=live}} Studies found Brexit-induced uncertainty reduced British GDP, British national income, investment by business, employment, and British international trade from June 2016 onwards.{{cite web|url=https://voxeu.org/article/impact-brexit-uncertainty-uk-exports|title=The impact of Brexit uncertainty on UK exports|last1=Crowley|first1=Meredith|last2=Exton|first2=Oliver|date=21 January 2019|website=VoxEU|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190708142203/https://voxeu.org/article/impact-brexit-uncertainty-uk-exports|archive-date=8 July 2019|access-date=21 January 2019|last3=Han|first3=Lu}}{{cite news|url=https://theconversation.com/brexit-has-already-hurt-eu-and-non-eu-exports-by-up-to-13-new-research-105334 |date=October 23, 2018 |title=Brexit has already hurt EU and non-EU exports by up to 13% – new research|last1=Soegaard|first1=Christian |first2=Terence |last2=Huw Edwards |first3=Mustapha |last3=Douch |work=The Conversation|access-date=5 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181105202912/https://theconversation.com/brexit-has-already-hurt-eu-and-non-eu-exports-by-up-to-13-new-research-105334|archive-date=5 November 2018|url-status=live}}{{cite journal|last1=Douch|first1=Mustapha|last2=Edwards|first2=T. Huw|last3=Soegaard|first3=Christian|date=2018|title=The Trade Effects of the Brexit Announcement Shock|url=https://ideas.repec.org/p/wrk/warwec/1176.html|url-status=dead|journal=The Warwick Economics Research Paper Series |via=IDEAS/RePEc |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181106004634/https://ideas.repec.org/p/wrk/warwec/1176.html|archive-date=6 November 2018|access-date=5 November 2018}}

A 2019 analysis found that British firms substantially increased offshoring to the EU after the Brexit referendum, whereas European firms reduced new investments in the UK.{{cite web |last1=Breinlich |first1=Holger |last2=Leromain |first2=Elsa |last3=Novy|first3=Dennis|last4=Sampson|first4=Thomas|url=https://voxeu.org/article/brexit-and-outward-investment-uk-firms |title=Voting with their money: Brexit and outward investment by UK firms|date=12 February 2019|website=VoxEU |access-date=13 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190212120115/https://voxeu.org/article/brexit-and-outward-investment-uk-firms |archive-date=12 February 2019|url-status=live}}{{cite news|url=https://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-britain-eu-investment-idUKKCN1Q003D |first1=Andy |last1=Bruce |editor-first1=Louise |editor-last1=Heavens |title=Brexit referendum spurs British companies into investing in EU|date=11 February 2019 |publisher=Reuters |access-date=13 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190213124128/https://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-britain-eu-investment-idUKKCN1Q003D|archive-date=13 February 2019|url-status=dead }} The British government's Brexit analysis, leaked in January 2018, showed British economic growth would be stunted by 2–8% over the 15 years following Brexit, the amount depending on the leave scenario.{{cite news|title=This Leaked Government Brexit Analysis Says The UK Will Be Worse Off In Every Scenario |date=29 Jan 2018 |first1=Alberto |last1=Nardelli |url=https://www.buzzfeed.com/albertonardelli/the-governments-own-brexit-analysis-says-the-uk-will-be|work=BuzzFeed|access-date=30 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180129235752/https://www.buzzfeed.com/albertonardelli/the-governments-own-brexit-analysis-says-the-uk-will-be|archive-date=29 January 2018|url-status=live}}{{cite news |last=Parker |first=George |url=https://www.ft.com/content/b3d35136-0543-11e8-9650-9c0ad2d7c5b5 |url-access=subscription |title=Secret data show Britain worse off under all Brexit scenarios|website=Financial Times|date=30 January 2018|access-date=30 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190904210201/https://www.ft.com/content/b3d35136-0543-11e8-9650-9c0ad2d7c5b5|archive-date=4 September 2019|url-status=live}} Economists warned that London's future as an international financial centre depended on passport agreements with the EU.{{cite journal|last=Eichengreen|first=Barry|s2cid=159090073|date=7 January 2019|title=The international financial implications of Brexit|journal=International Economics and Economic Policy|volume=16|pages=37–50|doi=10.1007/s10368-018-0422-x|issn=1612-4812}}{{cite journal|last=Armour|first=John|date=1 March 2017|title=Brexit and financial settrvices|journal=Oxford Review of Economic Policy|volume=33|issue=suppl_1|pages=S54–S69|doi=10.1093/oxrep/grx014|issn=0266-903X|doi-access=free}} Pro-Brexit activists and politicians have argued for negotiating trade and migration agreements with the "CANZUK" countries—those of Canada, Australia, New Zealand and the United Kingdom{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/09/13/canzuk-after-brexit-canada-australia-new-zealand-and-britain-can/|title=CANZUK: after Brexit, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and Britain can unite as a pillar of Western civilisation|author=Andrew Roberts|date=13 September 2016|work=The Daily Telegraph|access-date=3 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190114034026/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/09/13/canzuk-after-brexit-canada-australia-new-zealand-and-britain-can/|archive-date=14 January 2019|url-status=live}}{{cite web|last=Bennett|first=James C.|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/opinion/columnist/2016/06/24/brexit-boosts-canzuk-replacement-european-union-column/86347818/|title=Brexit boosts 'CANZUK' replacement for European Union: Column|date=24 June 2016|work=USA Today|access-date=3 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180725124317/https://www.usatoday.com/story/opinion/columnist/2016/06/24/brexit-boosts-canzuk-replacement-european-union-column/86347818/|archive-date=25 July 2018|url-status=live}}—but economists have said that trade deals with those countries would be far less valuable to the UK than EU membership.{{cite news|last=Krugman|first=Paul|author-link=Paul Krugman|title=Opinion {{!}} Brexit Meets Gravity|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/07/10/opinion/brexit-meets-gravity.html|url-status=live|work=The New York Times|date=10 July 2018|access-date=14 January 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190115023457/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/07/10/opinion/brexit-meets-gravity.html|archive-date=15 January 2019|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}{{cite web|url=http://blogs.lse.ac.uk/brexit/2018/08/21/can-brexit-defy-gravity-right-now-it-is-still-much-cheaper-to-trade-with-neighbouring-countries/|title=Long read: Can Brexit defy gravity? It is still much cheaper to trade with neighbouring countries|date=21 August 2018|website=LSE BREXIT|language=en-US|access-date=14 January 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190115023228/http://blogs.lse.ac.uk/brexit/2018/08/21/can-brexit-defy-gravity-right-now-it-is-still-much-cheaper-to-trade-with-neighbouring-countries/|archive-date=15 January 2019|url-status=live}}{{cite web|url=https://voxeu.org/article/how-economists-brexit-manage-defy-laws-gravity|title=How 'Economists for Brexit' manage to defy the laws of gravity|last1=Sampson|first1=Thomas|last2=Dhingra|first2=Swati|date=2 June 2016|website=VoxEU.org|access-date=14 January 2019|last3=Ottaviano|first3=Gianmarco|last4=Reenen|first4=John Van|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190115023300/https://voxeu.org/article/how-economists-brexit-manage-defy-laws-gravity|archive-date=15 January 2019|url-status=live}} Studies projected that Brexit would exacerbate regional economic inequality in the UK, by hitting already-struggling regions the hardest.{{cite journal|last1=Carter|first1=Andrew|last2=Swinney|first2=Paul|year=2019|title=Brexit and the Future of the UK's Unbalanced Economic Geography|journal=The Political Quarterly|volume=90|pages=72–83|doi=10.1111/1467-923X.12649|issn=1467-923X|quote=What all of these studies agree on is that whichever Brexit deal is struck, even the most advantageous will have a negative impact on future economic growth for all places across the UK in the short to medium term. And they also agree that over the longer term its places that are already struggling that are likely to struggle the most, further exacerbating the country's unbalanced economic geography.|doi-access=free}}

On January 11, 2024, the London Mayor's Office released "Mayor highlights Brexit damage to London economy".{{cite web|url=https://www.london.gov.uk/new-report-reveals-uk-economy-almost-ps140billion-smaller-because-brexit|title=Mayor highlights Brexit damage to London economy|publisher=Mayor of London}} The release cites the independent report by Cambridge Econometrics that London has almost 300,000 fewer jobs, and nationwide two million fewer jobs as a direct consequence of Brexit. Brexit is recognized as a key contributor to the 2023 cost-of-living crisis, with the average citizen being nearly £2,000 worse off, and the average Londoner nearly £3,400 worse off in 2023 as a result of Brexit. In addition, UK real Gross Value Added was approximately £140bn less in 2023 than it would have been had the UK remained in the Single Market.

In 2024, French customs considered Brexit, in the meantime, has reduced trade between the UK and the EU, but increased trade between China and the United Kingdom.{{cite web |url=https://www.lesechos.fr/monde/europe/depuis-le-brexit-le-royaume-uni-sest-detourne-de-leurope-2139739 |title=Depuis le Brexit, le Royaume-Uni s'est détourné de l'Europe |trans-title=Since Brexit, the United Kingdom has turned away from Europe |first=Guillaume |last=de Calignon |work=Les Echos |language=fr |date=27 December 2024 |access-date=20 January 2025 |url-access=subscription}}

{{main|Post-Brexit United Kingdom relations with the European Union}}

File:The Border on Killeen School Road - geograph.org.uk - 446719.jpg in Northern Ireland), marked only by a speed limit in km/h (Northern Ireland uses mph.)]]

The potential impact on the border between Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland has been a contentious issue. Since 2005, the border had been essentially invisible.{{cite web|url=https://www.channel4.com/news/factcheck/factcheck-what-are-the-options-for-the-irish-border-after-brexit|title=FactCheck: What are the options for the Irish border after Brexit?|work=Channel4.com|date=29 November 2017|access-date=25 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180914121956/https://www.channel4.com/news/factcheck/factcheck-what-are-the-options-for-the-irish-border-after-brexit|archive-date=14 September 2018|url-status=live}} After Brexit, it became the only UK–EU land border{{cite news|title=Brexit will not mean hard border, leaders vow|url-access=registration|date=31 January 2017|url=https://www.thetimes.com/world/ireland-world/article/brexit-will-not-mean-hard-border-leaders-vow-83c7lzs80|work=The Times, Ireland edition|first=Niamh|last=Lyons|access-date=29 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170131070359/http://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/brexit-will-not-mean-hard-border-leaders-vow-83c7lzs80|archive-date=31 January 2017|url-status=live}} (not counting the land borders that EU states Spain and Cyprus have with British Overseas Territories). All involved parties agreed a hard border should be avoided,{{cite news|newspaper=The Irish Times|date=26 July 2016|url=http://www.irishtimes.com/news/world/uk/brexit-may-not-impact-common-travel-area-expert-claims-1.2711557|access-date=12 October 2016|title=Britain does not want return to Northern Ireland border controls, says May|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161012155040/http://www.irishtimes.com/news/world/uk/brexit-may-not-impact-common-travel-area-expert-claims-1.2711557|archive-date=12 October 2016|url-status=live}} because it might compromise the Good Friday Agreement that ended the Northern Ireland conflict.{{cite news |last=Robertson |first=Nic |title=Brexit: the unexpected threat to peace in Northern Ireland |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2018/04/06/opinions/20-years-good-friday-agreement-northern-ireland-nic-r-intl/index.html |publisher=CNN |date=6 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180614050104/https://edition.cnn.com/2018/04/06/opinions/20-years-good-friday-agreement-northern-ireland-nic-r-intl/index.html |archive-date=14 June 2018}}{{cite news |url=https://www.belfasttelegraph.co.uk/news/northern-ireland/george-mitchell-uk-and-ireland-need-to-realise-whats-at-stake-in-brexit-talks-36785893.html |title=George Mitchell: UK and Ireland need to realise what's at stake in Brexit talks |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190329172607/https://www.belfasttelegraph.co.uk/news/northern-ireland/george-mitchell-uk-and-ireland-need-to-realise-whats-at-stake-in-brexit-talks-36785893.html |archive-date=29 March 2019 |work=Belfast Telegraph |date=8 April 2018}}{{cite news |last=Smith |first=David |title=Brexit threatens Good Friday agreement, Irish PM warns |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/mar/14/brexit-threatens-good-friday-agreement-irish-pm-warns |work=The Guardian |date=14 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180731012207/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/mar/14/brexit-threatens-good-friday-agreement-irish-pm-warns |archive-date=31 July 2018}} To forestall this, the EU proposed a "backstop agreement" that would keep the UK in the Customs Union and keep Northern Ireland in some aspects of the Single Market until a lasting solution was found.{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-northern-ireland-politics-44615404|title=Brexit: What are the backstop options?|work=BBC News|date=13 September 2019|access-date=24 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180725040206/https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-northern-ireland-politics-44615404|archive-date=25 July 2018|url-status=live}} The UK Parliament rejected this proposal. After further negotiations in autumn of 2019, an alternative model, the Ireland/Northern Ireland Protocol was agreed between the UK and the EU. Under the Protocol, Northern Ireland is formally outside the EU single market, but EU free movement of goods rules and EU Customs Union rules still apply; this ensures there are no customs checks or controls between Northern Ireland and the rest of the island. In place of an Ireland/Northern Ireland land border, the protocol has created a {{lang|la|de facto}} customs "Irish Sea border" for goods from (but not to) Great Britain,{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-50083026|title=Brexit: What is in Boris Johnson's new deal with the EU?|website=BBC News|date=21 October 2019|access-date=2 January 2020|archive-date=22 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191222170733/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-50083026|url-status=live}}{{cite web|url=https://www.ft.com/content/cdb2dadc-ec40-11e9-a240-3b065ef5fc55|title=How Boris Johnson moved to break the Brexit deadlock|website=Financial Times|date=11 October 2019|access-date=2 January 2020|last1=Parker|first1=George|last2=Brunsden|first2=Jim|url-access=subscription|archive-date=7 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191207163635/https://www.ft.com/content/cdb2dadc-ec40-11e9-a240-3b065ef5fc55|url-status=live}} to the disquiet of prominent Unionists.{{cite news |date=7 May 2021 |title=Good Friday Agreement negotiators call for NI Protocol suspension |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-northern-ireland-57030871 |access-date=10 March 2022 |archive-date=11 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230111135248/https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-northern-ireland-57030871 |url-status=live }}

After the Brexit referendum, the Scottish Government – led by the Scottish National Party (SNP) – planned another independence referendum because Scotland voted to remain in the EU while England and Wales voted to leave.{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/06/25/world/europe/brexit-scotland-independence-referendum.html|title=Scotland Says New Vote on Independence Is 'Highly Likely'|date=25 June 2016|work=The New York Times|access-date=17 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170216050257/https://www.nytimes.com/2016/06/25/world/europe/brexit-scotland-independence-referendum.html|archive-date=16 February 2017|url-status=live}} It had suggested this before the Brexit referendum.{{cite web|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/2016/01/24/nicola-sturgeon-denies-she-has-machiavellian-wish-for-brexit_n_9063372.html|title=Nicola Sturgeon Denies She Has "Machiavellian" Wish For Brexit|last=Simons|first=Ned|date=24 January 2016|website=The Huffington Post UK|access-date=3 February 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160203234636/http://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/2016/01/24/nicola-sturgeon-denies-she-has-machiavellian-wish-for-brexit_n_9063372.html|archive-date=3 February 2016|url-status=live}} The First Minister of Scotland, Nicola Sturgeon, requested a referendum be held before the UK's withdrawal,{{cite news |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/nicola-sturgeon-scottish-independence-referendum-eu-membership-back-of-queue-spain-a7638101.html |title=Nicola Sturgeon says Scotland will pursue EU membership after independence |work=The Independent |date=20 March 2017 |access-date=20 March 2017 |archive-date=28 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190428213622/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/nicola-sturgeon-scottish-independence-referendum-eu-membership-back-of-queue-spain-a7638101.html |url-status=live }} but the British Prime Minister rejected this timing, but not the referendum itself.{{cite news|last=Stewart|first=Heather|date=16 March 2017|title=Theresa May rejects Nicola Sturgeon's referendum demand|url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2017/mar/16/theresa-may-rejects-nicola-sturgeons-scottish-referendum-demand|newspaper=The Guardian|access-date=15 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170531114753/https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2017/mar/16/theresa-may-rejects-nicola-sturgeons-scottish-referendum-demand|archive-date=31 May 2017|url-status=live}} At the referendum in 2014, 55% of voters had decided to remain in the UK, but the referendum on Britain's withdrawal from the EU was held in 2016, with 62% of Scottish voters against it. In March 2017, the Scottish Parliament voted in favour of holding another independence referendum. Sturgeon called for a "phased return" of an independent Scotland back to the EU.{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2017/may/14/sturgeon-independent-scotland-may-need-phased-return-to-eu |title=Sturgeon: independent Scotland may need "phased" return to EU |date=14 May 2017 |newspaper=The Guardian |access-date=15 May 2017 |archive-date=18 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190518142806/https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2017/may/14/sturgeon-independent-scotland-may-need-phased-return-to-eu |url-status=live }} In 2017, if Northern Ireland remained associated with the EU – for example, by remaining in the Customs Union – some analysts argued Scotland would also insist on special treatment.{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-britain-eu-deals/scotland-wales-and-london-want-special-brexit-deal-if-northern-ireland-gets-one-idUSKBN1DY24L|title=Scotland, Wales and London want special Brexit deal if Northern Ireland gets one|date=4 December 2017|publisher=Reuters|access-date=8 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191008152318/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-britain-eu-deals/scotland-wales-and-london-want-special-brexit-deal-if-northern-ireland-gets-one-idUSKBN1DY24L|archive-date=8 October 2019|url-status=live}} However, in that event, the only part of the United Kingdom which would receive unique treatment was Northern Ireland.{{cite news|date=15 March 2021|title=Brexit: What is the Northern Ireland Protocol and why are there checks?|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/explainers-53724381|access-date=21 April 2021|archive-date=20 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210420123453/https://www.bbc.com/news/explainers-53724381|url-status=live}}

On 21 March 2018, the Scottish Parliament passed the Scottish Continuity Bill.{{cite news |url=http://www.heraldscotland.com/news/16110743.Whitehall_lawyers_drawing_up_plans_to_challenge_Continuity_Bill_in_courts/ |title=Whitehall lawyers drawing up plans to challenge Continuity Bill in courts |work=Herald Scotland |date=2018 |access-date=3 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180403175132/http://www.heraldscotland.com/news/16110743.Whitehall_lawyers_drawing_up_plans_to_challenge_Continuity_Bill_in_courts/|archive-date=3 April 2018|url-status=live}} This was passed due to stalling negotiations between the Scottish Government and the British Government on where powers within devolved policy areas should lie after Brexit. The Act allowed for all devolved policy areas to remain within the remit of the Scottish Parliament and reduced the executive power upon exit day that the UK Withdrawal Bill provides for Ministers of the Crown.{{cite web|url=http://blogs.lse.ac.uk/businessreview/2018/03/17/forging-a-new-uk-wide-agricultural-framework-post-brexit/|title=Forging a new UK-wide agricultural framework post-Brexit |work=LSE Business Review |publisher=LSE|date=2018|access-date=3 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180403173752/http://blogs.lse.ac.uk/businessreview/2018/03/17/forging-a-new-uk-wide-agricultural-framework-post-brexit/|archive-date=3 April 2018|url-status=live}} The bill was referred to the UK Supreme Court, which found that it could not come into force as the European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018, which received royal assent between the Scottish Parliament passing its bill and the Supreme Court's judgement, designated itself under schedule{{nbsp}}4 of the Scotland Act 1998 as unamendable by the Scottish Parliament.{{cite web|url=http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2018/16/schedule/3/paragraph/21/enacted/data.htm|title=European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018|website=www.legislation.gov.uk|access-date=6 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190806182954/http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2018/16/schedule/3/paragraph/21/enacted/data.htm|archive-date=6 August 2019|url-status=live}} The bill has therefore not received royal assent.{{cite web|url=https://www.holyrood.com/articles/news/eu-continuity-bill-was-within-competence-scottish-parliament-when-it-was-passed|title=EU Continuity Bill was within competence of Scottish Parliament when it was passed|date=13 December 2018|website=Holyrood Magazine|access-date=6 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190806112407/https://www.holyrood.com/articles/news/eu-continuity-bill-was-within-competence-scottish-parliament-when-it-was-passed|archive-date=6 August 2019|url-status=live}}

File:Gibraltar Customs side of the Spain-Gibraltar frontier, Winston Churchill Avenue, Gibraltar.jpg from Spain clearing customs formalities. Gibraltar is outside the customs union, VAT area, and Schengen Zone.]]

Gibraltar, a British Overseas Territory bordering Spain, is affected by Brexit too. Spain asserts a territorial claim on Gibraltar. After the referendum, Spain's Foreign Minister renewed calls for joint Spanish–British control.{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-36618796|title=Brexit: Spain calls for joint control of Gibraltar|work=BBC News|access-date=26 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160626055917/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-36618796|archive-date=26 June 2016|url-status=live}} In late 2018, the British and Spanish governments agreed that any dispute over Gibraltar would not affect Brexit negotiations,{{cite news |url=http://www.digitaljournal.com/news/world/uk-spain-reach-brexit-deal-over-gibraltar-spanish-pm/article/534934 |title=UK, Spain reach Brexit deal over Gibraltar: Spanish PM|date=18 October 2018|work=Digital Journal|access-date=12 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190328153315/http://www.digitaljournal.com/news/world/uk-spain-reach-brexit-deal-over-gibraltar-spanish-pm/article/534934|archive-date=28 March 2019|url-status=live}} and the British government agreed that UK–EU treaties made after Brexit would not automatically apply to Gibraltar.{{cite news |url=https://www.irishtimes.com/news/world/europe/spanish-pm-lifts-effective-veto-on-brexit-deal-after-gibraltar-guarantee-1.3709604 |title=Spanish PM lifts effective veto on Brexit deal after Gibraltar 'guarantee' |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181125152747/https://www.irishtimes.com/news/world/europe/spanish-pm-lifts-effective-veto-on-brexit-deal-after-gibraltar-guarantee-1.3709604 |archive-date=25 November 2018 |newspaper=The Irish Times |date=24 November 2018}} In December 2020, Spain and the UK reached an agreement in principle on future arrangements for Brexit and invited the European Commission to formalise it as a treaty.

The French and British governments say they remain committed to the Le Touquet Agreement, which lets UK border checks be completed in France, and vice versa (juxtaposed controls).[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-42723401 "Calais migrants: UK and France sign new treaty"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220309220655/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-42723401 |date=9 March 2022 }}. BBC News. 19 January 2018. The two governments signed the Sandhurst Treaty in January 2018, which will shorten the time taken to process migrants attempting to reach the UK from Calais, from six months to one month. The UK also announced it will invest a further £44.5 million on border security at the English Channel.

{{main|Impact of Brexit on the European Union}}

Brexit caused the European Union to lose its second-largest economy, its third-most populous country,{{cite web|url=http://www.merkur.de/politik/brexit-folgen-fuer-deutschland-und-eu-zr-6489983.html|title=EU-Austritt des UK: Diese Folgen hat der Brexit für Deutschland und die EU|date=22 August 2016|work=Merkur.de|language=de|trans-title=UK Exit from EU: Brexit has these consequences for Germany and the EU|access-date=30 November 2016|quote=Die Briten haben sich für einen Abschied entschieden, Europa wird nun anders aussehen. Der Kontinent verliert seine (neben Frankreich) stärkste Militärmacht samt Atomwaffenarsenal, seine zweitgrößte Volkswirtschaft, das Land mit der drittgrößten Bevölkerung, die Finanzhauptstadt der Welt und einen von zwei Plätzen im UN-Sicherheitsrat. [The British have decided to leave. Europe will now look different. The continent will be losing its strongest military power (alongside France),{{nbsp}}... its second largest economy, the country with the third largest population, the financial capital of the world, and one of two seats on the UN Security Council.]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161209172124/http://www.merkur.de/politik/brexit-folgen-fuer-deutschland-und-eu-zr-6489983.html|archive-date=9 December 2016|url-status=live}} and the second-largest net contributor to the EU budget.{{cite news|url=https://www.faz.net/aktuell/wirtschaft/eurokrise/deutschland-zahlt-am-meisten-in-den-eu-haushalt-14378202.html|title=EU-Haushalt: Deutschland überweist das meiste Geld an Brüssel|last=Hendrik Kafsack|date=8 August 2016|work=Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung|access-date=9 October 2016|language=de|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161009105442/https://www.faz.net/aktuell/wirtschaft/eurokrise/deutschland-zahlt-am-meisten-in-den-eu-haushalt-14378202.html|archive-date=9 October 2016|url-status=live}}

The UK is no longer a shareholder in the European Investment Bank, where it had 16% of the shares.{{cite news|url=https://www.faz.net/aktuell/wirtschaft/wirtschaftspolitik/nettozahler-zum-eu-haushalt-brexit-wird-teuer-fuer-deutschland-14429116.html|title=Brexit wird teuer für Deutschland|publisher=Reuters/Deutsche Presse-Agentur|date=10 September 2016|work=Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung|access-date=9 October 2016|language=de|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161009105443/https://www.faz.net/aktuell/wirtschaft/wirtschaftspolitik/nettozahler-zum-eu-haushalt-brexit-wird-teuer-fuer-deutschland-14429116.html|archive-date=9 October 2016|url-status=live}} The European Investment Bank's Board of Governors decided that the remaining member states would proportionally increase their capital subscriptions to maintain the same level of overall subscribed capital (EUR 243.3 billion).{{cite web|title=EIB President regrets Brexit and welcomes EU 27 united support for EIB Group|url=https://www.eib.org/en/press/news/eib-president-regrets-brexit-welcomes-eu27-united-support-for-eib-group|access-date=28 April 2021|website=European Investment Bank|archive-date=28 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210428105400/https://www.eib.org/en/press/news/eib-president-regrets-brexit-welcomes-eu27-united-support-for-eib-group|url-status=live}} As of March 2020, the subscribed capital of the EIB had increased by an additional EUR 5.5 billion, following the decision by two member states to increase their capital subscriptions (Poland and Romania). The EIB's total subscribed capital thus amounted to EUR 248.8 billion. Brexit did not impact the EIB Group's AAA credit rating.{{cite web |title=EU member states avert €100bn Brexit 'disaster' for European Investment Bank |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/business/news/brexit-european-investment-bank-disaster-hoyer-a9310936.html |website=The Independent |date=31 January 2020 |access-date=28 April 2021 |archive-date=28 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210428103852/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/business/news/brexit-european-investment-bank-disaster-hoyer-a9310936.html |url-status=live }}

Analyses indicated that the departure of the relatively economically liberal UK would reduce the ability of remaining economically liberal countries to block measures in the Council of the EU.{{cite journal|last1=Huhe|first1=Narisong|last2=Naurin|first2=Daniel|last3=Thomson|first3=Robert|s2cid=211381583|title=Don't cry for me Britannia: The resilience of the European Union to Brexit|journal=European Union Politics|volume=21|page=1465116519882096|doi=10.1177/1465116519882096|issn=1465-1165|url=https://strathprints.strath.ac.uk/69935/1/Huhe_etal_EUP_2019_the_resilience_of_the_European_Union_to_Brexit.pdf|year=2020|hdl=10852/76151|access-date=30 January 2020|archive-date=24 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200224142252/https://strathprints.strath.ac.uk/69935/1/Huhe_etal_EUP_2019_the_resilience_of_the_European_Union_to_Brexit.pdf|url-status=live}}{{cite web|url=https://carnegieeurope.eu/2018/03/23/there-is-life-for-eu-after-brexit-pub-75876|title=There Is Life for the EU After Brexit|last=Gruyter|first=Caroline de|website=Carnegie Europe|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181205060756/https://carnegieeurope.eu/2018/03/23/there-is-life-for-eu-after-brexit-pub-75876|archive-date=5 December 2018|url-status=live}} In 2019, ahead of Brexit, the European Medicines Agency and European Banking Authority moved their headquarters from London to Amsterdam and Paris, respectively.{{cite press release|url=https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/news/ema-now-operating-amsterdam|title=EMA now operating from Amsterdam|publisher=European Medicines Agency|date=11 March 2019|access-date=3 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191016015945/https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/news/ema-now-operating-amsterdam|archive-date=16 October 2019|url-status=live}}{{cite news|url=https://www.thepharmaletter.com/article/ema-gets-keys-to-new-hq|work=The Pharma Letter|date=18 November 2019|title=EMA gets keys to new HQ|access-date=3 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200203032720/https://www.thepharmaletter.com/article/ema-gets-keys-to-new-hq|archive-date=3 February 2020|url-status=live}}{{cite news|url=https://www.thelocal.fr/20190605/european-bank-regulator-arrives-in-paris-in-boost-to-macrons-financial-vision-for-city|title=European bank regulator arrives in Paris in boost to Macron's financial vision for city|date=5 June 2019|work=The Local|access-date=3 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200203032718/https://www.thelocal.fr/20190605/european-bank-regulator-arrives-in-paris-in-boost-to-macrons-financial-vision-for-city|archive-date=3 February 2020|url-status=live}}

The UK has left the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP),{{cite web|first1=Fergal |last1=Davis |first2=Jonathan |last2=Finlay |first3=Sarah |last3=Coe |url=https://commonslibrary.parliament.uk/farm-payments-in-a-no-deal-brexit/ |title=Farm payments in a no-deal Brexit |publisher=House of Commons Library |website=commonslibrary.parliament.uk |date=18 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211121150326/https://commonslibrary.parliament.uk/farm-payments-in-a-no-deal-brexit/ |archive-date=21 November 2021 |url-status=live}} which provides government financial support to farmers in the EU.{{cite web |url=https://www.instituteforgovernment.org.uk/explainers/common-agricultural-policy |title=Common Agricultural Policy |date=16 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190906173554/https://www.instituteforgovernment.org.uk/explainers/common-agricultural-policy |archive-date=6 September 2019 |publisher=Institute for Government}} Brexit allowed the UK to develop its own agriculture policy{{cite web|first1=Emma |last1=Downing |first2=Lukas |last2=Audickas |first3=Sarah |last3=Coe |url=https://commonslibrary.parliament.uk/research-briefings/cbp-8218/ |title=Brexit: UK agriculture policy |publisher=House of Commons Library |website=commonslibrary.parliament.uk |type=Research briefing |date=11 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225001241/https://commonslibrary.parliament.uk/research-briefings/cbp-8218/ |archive-date=25 February 2021 |url-status=live}} and the Agriculture Act 2020 replaced the CAP with a new system.{{Cite web|url=https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2020/21/contents/enacted|title=Agriculture Act 2020}} The UK also left the Common Fisheries Policy (CFP){{cite web|first1=Elena |last1=Ares |date=30 October 2019 |url=https://researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk/documents/CBP-8396/CBP-8396.pdf |title=Fisheries and Brexit |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211009121948/https://researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk/documents/CBP-8396/CBP-8396.pdf |archive-date=9 October 2021 |url-status=live |type=Briefing paper |publisher=House of Commons Library |website=researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk |id=Number 8396 |page=4}} that lets all EU countries fish within 12 nautical miles of the British coast{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-eu-referendum-36358016 |title=Reality Check: How would Brexit affect the UK's fishing waters? |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191001015505/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-eu-referendum-36358016 |archive-date=1 October 2019 |work=BBC News |date=31 May 2016}} and lets the EU set catch quotas.{{cite web |url=https://www.instituteforgovernment.org.uk/explainers/common-fisheries-policy |title=Common Fisheries Policy |date=17 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190518094241/https://www.instituteforgovernment.org.uk/explainers/common-fisheries-policy |archive-date=18 May 2019 |publisher=Institute for Government}} The combined EU fishing fleets landed about six million tonnes of fish per year, as of 2016,{{cite web|url=http://ec.europa.eu/fisheries/documentation/publications/pcp_en.pdf |title=Main world producers (2007) |access-date=23 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160812111024/http://ec.europa.eu/fisheries/documentation/publications/pcp_en.pdf |archive-date=12 August 2016|url-status=live}} about half of which were from British waters.{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/feb/15/uk-fishermen-may-not-win-waters-back-after-brexit-eu-memo-reveals|title=UK fishermen may not win waters back after Brexit, EU memo reveals|author=Daniel Boffey|date=15 February 2017|newspaper=The Guardian|access-date=3 July 2017|location=London|quote=Source: House of Lords, NAFC Marine Centre, University of the Highlands and Islands.|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170702131533/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/feb/15/uk-fishermen-may-not-win-waters-back-after-brexit-eu-memo-reveals|archive-date=2 July 2017|url-status=live}} By leaving the CFP, the UK could develop its own fisheries policy. The UK did also leave the London Fisheries Convention that lets Irish, French, Belgian, Dutch and German vessels fish within six nautical miles of the UK's coast.{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-40471466 |title=UK to withdraw from international fishing arrangement |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190910072536/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-40471466 |archive-date=10 September 2019 |work=BBC News |date=2 July 2017}}

Brexit poses challenges to British academia and research, as the UK loses research funding from EU sources and sees a reduction in students from the EU. Academic institutions find it harder to hire researchers from the EU and British students will face greater difficulties with studying abroad in the EU.{{Cite journal|last=Mayhew|first=Ken|date=1 March 2017|title=UK higher education and Brexit|journal=Oxford Review of Economic Policy|volume=33|issue=suppl_1|pages=S155–S161|doi=10.1093/oxrep/grx012|issn=0266-903X|doi-access=free}} The UK was a member of the European Research Area and likely to wish to remain an associated member following Brexit."It is likely that the UK would wish to remain an associated member of the European Research Area, like Norway and Iceland, in order to continue participating in the EU framework programmes."{{Cite book|url=http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0023/002354/235406e.pdf|title=UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030|publisher=UNESCO Publishing|year=2015|isbn=978-92-3-100129-1|location=Paris|page=269|access-date=20 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170630025557/http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0023/002354/235406e.pdf|archive-date=30 June 2017|url-status=live}} The British government has guaranteed funding for research currently funded by EU.{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2016/aug/13/philip-hammond-treasury-to-guarantee-post-brexit-funding-for-eu-backed-projects|title=Treasury to guarantee post-Brexit funding for EU-backed projects|first1=Jessica|last1=Elgot|first2=Larry|last2=Elliott|first3=Nicola|last3=Davis|date=13 August 2016|newspaper=The Guardian|access-date=14 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170414164358/https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2016/aug/13/philip-hammond-treasury-to-guarantee-post-brexit-funding-for-eu-backed-projects|archive-date=14 April 2017|url-status=live}}

An early 2019 study found that Brexit would deplete the National Health Service (NHS) workforce, create uncertainties regarding care for British nationals living in the EU, and put at risk access to vaccines, equipment, and medicines.{{Cite journal|last1=McKee|first1=Martin|last2=Galsworthy|first2=Mike|last3=Stuckler|first3=David|last4=Jarman|first4=Holly|last5=Greer|first5=Scott|last6=Hervey|first6=Tamara|last7=Fahy|first7=Nick|s2cid=72334219|date=25 February 2019|title=How will Brexit affect health services in the UK? An updated evaluation|journal=The Lancet|volume=393|issue=10174|pages=949–958|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(19)30425-8|issn=0140-6736|pmid=30819519|url=http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/160321/3/Lancet%202019%20clean%20as%20submitted.pdf}} The Department of Health and Social Care has said it has taken steps to ensure the continuity of medical supplies after Brexit.{{cite web |url=https://www.england.nhs.uk/eu-exit/medicines/ |title=Continuity of supplies |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191212005859/https://www.england.nhs.uk/eu-exit/medicines/ |archive-date=12 December 2019 |publisher= NHS England}} The number of non-British EU nurses registering with the NHS fell from 1,304 in July 2016 to 46 in April 2017.{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/society/2017/jun/12/96-drop-in-eu-nurses-registering-to-work-in-britain-since-brexit-vote|title=96% drop in EU nurses registering to work in Britain since Brexit vote|last=Siddique|first=Haroon|date=12 June 2017|work=The Guardian|access-date=1 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190402084706/https://www.theguardian.com/society/2017/jun/12/96-drop-in-eu-nurses-registering-to-work-in-britain-since-brexit-vote|archive-date=2 April 2019|url-status=live}}{{update inline|date=December 2021}}In June 2016, 58,702 NHS staff recorded a non-British EU nationality, and in June 2022, 70,735 NHS staff recorded an EU nationality. However, "to present this as the full story would be misleading, because there are over 57,000 more staff for whom nationality is known now than in 2016"{{Cite web |last=Baker |first=Carl |date=22 November 2022 |title=NHS staff from overseas: statistics |url=https://commonslibrary.parliament.uk/research-briefings/cbp-7783/#:~:text=Between%20them%2C%20these%20staff%20hold,is%20correct%20at%20June%202022. |website=commonslibrary.parliament.uk}}{{Cite web |title=NHS Workforce Statistics – June 2022 (Including selected provisional statistics for July 2022) |url=https://digital.nhs.uk/data-and-information/publications/statistical/nhs-workforce-statistics/june-2022 |access-date=20 January 2023 |website=NDRS |language=en}}

There was a concern that a disorderly Brexit might have compromised patients' access to vital medicines.{{cite web |author=Sarah Marsh |date=16 February 2018 |title=Brexit deal delay could put NHS patients at risk, Tory MP warns |url=https://www.theguardian.com/society/2018/feb/16/brexit-deal-delay-could-put-nhs-patients-risk-tory-mp-sarah-wollaston-warns |newspaper=The Guardian}} Pharmaceutical organisations working with the Civil Service to keep medicine supplies available in the case of a no-deal Brexit had to sign 26 Non-Disclosure Agreements (NDAs) to prevent them from giving the public information. The figures were given on 21 December 2018 after Rushanara Ali asked a parliamentary question.{{cite web |author=Rajeev Syal |date=23 December 2018 |title=Drug firms preparing for no-deal Brexit told to sign 'gagging orders' |url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2018/dec/23/pharmaceutical-firms-preparing-no-deal-brexit-ordered-to-sign-ndas |newspaper=The Guardian}}

Under the European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018, EU laws will no longer have supremacy over British laws after Brexit.{{cite web |url=http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2018/16/pdfs/ukpgaen_20180016_en.pdf |title=Explanatory notes on the European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190930205726/http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2018/16/pdfs/ukpgaen_20180016_en.pdf |archive-date=30 September 2019 |publisher= The Stationery Office |pages=4, 8}} To maintain continuity, the Act converts EU law into British law as "retained EU law". After Brexit, the British parliament (and the devolved legislatures) can decide which elements of that law to keep, amend or repeal. Furthermore, British courts will no longer be bound by the judgments of the EU Court of Justice after Brexit.

After Brexit, the UK is able to control immigration from the European Economic Area (EU (except Ireland) and EFTA countries),{{cite web |url=https://www.instituteforgovernment.org.uk/publications/managing-migration-after-brexit |title=Managing migration after Brexit |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190929223849/https://www.instituteforgovernment.org.uk/publications/managing-migration-after-brexit |archive-date=29 September 2019 |publisher=Institute for Government |date=8 March 2019|last1=Owen |first1=Joe |last2=Jack |first2=Maddy Thimont |last3=Iacobov |first3=Adela |last4=Christensen |first4=Elliott }} as withdrawal ends UK participation in the EU's freedom of movement principle{{snd}}in both directions. The British government of time proposed to replace it with a new system of immigration control. The government's 2018 white paper proposes a "skills-based immigration system" that prioritises skilled migrants. EU and EEA citizens already living in the UK can continue living there after Brexit by applying to the EU Settlement Scheme, which began in March 2019. Irish citizens will not have to apply to the scheme.{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2018/dec/19/the-post-brexit-immigration-plans-at-a-glance |title=The post-Brexit immigration plans at a glance |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190726214731/https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2018/dec/19/the-post-brexit-immigration-plans-at-a-glance |archive-date=26 July 2019 |work=The Guardian|date=19 December 2018}}{{cite web|first1=Hannah |last1=Wilkins |first2=Melissa |last2=Macdonald |first3=Neil |last3=Johnston |first4=Steven |last4=Kennedy |first5=Susan |last5=Hubble |first6=Tom |last6=Powell |url=https://commonslibrary.parliament.uk/research-briefings/cbp-8584/ |title=EU Settlement Scheme |publisher=House of Commons Library |website=commonslibrary.parliament.uk |type=Research briefing |date=25 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210608103015/https://commonslibrary.parliament.uk/research-briefings/cbp-8584/ |archive-date=8 June 2021 |url-status=live}}{{cite web |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/the-uks-future-skills-based-immigration-system/future-skills-based-immigration-system-executive-summary |title=Future skills-based immigration system: executive summary |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190929223835/https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/the-uks-future-skills-based-immigration-system/future-skills-based-immigration-system-executive-summary |archive-date=29 September 2019 |publisher=Home Office |date=19 December 2018}} Studies estimate that Brexit and the end of free movement will likely result in a large decline in immigration from EEA countries to the UK.{{cite report |last1=Forte |first1=Giuseppe |last2=Portes |first2=Jonathan |date=1 May 2017|title=Macroeconomic Determinants of International Migration to the UK|location=Rochester, NY |ssrn=2979949}}{{cite journal|last=Portes|first=Jonathan|date=1 November 2016|title=Immigration after Brexit|journal=National Institute Economic Review|volume=238|issue=1|pages=R13–R21 |s2cid=157228784|issn=0027-9501 |doi=10.1177/002795011623800111}} After Brexit, any foreigner wanting to work in the UK would need a work permit.{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/sport/football/46038799|title=Brexit: What effect could leaving the European Union have on football transfers?|date=31 October 2018|work=BBC Sport|access-date=11 January 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190112051235/https://www.bbc.com/sport/football/46038799|archive-date=12 January 2019|url-status=live}}{{cite web|url=https://www.goal.com/en/news/how-brexit-will-affect-premier-league-football/cwp6p3hhmuxx119cm1syhwyi2|title=How Brexit will affect Premier League football|date=22 March 2019|website=Goal.com|access-date=11 January 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190112145957/https://www.goal.com/en/news/how-brexit-will-affect-premier-league-football/cwp6p3hhmuxx119cm1syhwyi2|archive-date=12 January 2019|url-status=live}}

By leaving the EU, the UK would leave the European Common Aviation Area (ECAA), a single market in commercial air travel,{{cite web |url=https://www.instituteforgovernment.org.uk/explainers/european-common-aviation-area-brexit |title=Aviation and the European Common Aviation Area (ECAA) |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190930210000/https://www.instituteforgovernment.org.uk/explainers/european-common-aviation-area-brexit |archive-date=30 September 2019 |publisher=Institute for Government |date=10 September 2017}} but could negotiate a number of different future relationships with the EU. British airlines would still have permission to operate within the EU with no restrictions, and vice versa. The British government seeks continued participation in the European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA). The UK has its own air service agreements with 111 countries, which permit flights to-and-from the country, and further 17 countries through its EU membership.{{cite web|url=https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/flights-to-and-from-the-uk-if-theres-no-brexit-deal/flights-to-and-from-the-uk-if-theres-no-brexit-deal|title=Flights to and from the UK if there's no Brexit deal|date=24 September 2018|work=Government of the United Kingdom|access-date=9 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190210152535/https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/flights-to-and-from-the-uk-if-theres-no-brexit-deal/flights-to-and-from-the-uk-if-theres-no-brexit-deal|archive-date=10 February 2019|url-status=live}} These have since been replaced. Ferries will continue, but with obstacles such as customs checks.{{cite web|url=https://www.atc-logistics.ie/getting-to-europe-post-brexit-the-impact-on-ferry-companies/|title=Getting to Europe Post Brexit – The Impact on Ferry Companies|date=23 April 2018|website=Atc-logistics.ie|access-date=22 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190323004211/https://www.atc-logistics.ie/getting-to-europe-post-brexit-the-impact-on-ferry-companies/|archive-date=23 March 2019|url-status=live}} New ferry departures between the Republic of Ireland and the European mainland have been established. {{As of|2020|08}}, the government's Goods Vehicle Movement Service, an IT system essential to post-Brexit goods movements, was still only in the early stages of beta testing, with four months to go before it is required to be in operation.{{cite news|date=27 August 2020|title=U.K. Starts Research on Brexit Customs System Due in Four Months|work=Bloomberg.com|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-08-27/u-k-starts-research-on-brexit-customs-system-due-in-four-months|access-date=29 August 2020}}

Concerns were raised by European lawmakers, including Michel Barnier, that Brexit might create security problems for the UK given that its law enforcement and counter-terrorism forces would no longer have access to the EU's security databases.{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/europe/why-brexit-may-be-good-for-terrorists-and-the-kremlin-and-bad-for-european-security/2018/12/24/b3ec2462-020a-11e9-958c-0a601226ff6b_story.html|title=Why Brexit may be good for terrorists and the Kremlin and bad for European security|date=2018|newspaper=The Washington Post|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190115234413/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/europe/why-brexit-may-be-good-for-terrorists-and-the-kremlin-and-bad-for-european-security/2018/12/24/b3ec2462-020a-11e9-958c-0a601226ff6b_story.html|archive-date=15 January 2019|url-status=live}}

Some analysts have suggested that the severe economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in the UK has masked the economic impact of Brexit in 2021.{{Cite news|last=Giles|first=Chris|date=1 July 2021|title=Covid pandemic masks Brexit impact on UK economy|work=Financial Times|url=https://www.ft.com/content/fbb70741-34cc-4f54-a66b-a2e4b9445f5b|access-date=13 October 2021}} In December 2021, the Financial Times quoted a range of economists as saying that the economic impact of Brexit on the UK economy and living standards "appears to be negative but uncertain".{{Cite news|last=Giles|first=Chris|date=23 December 2021|title=Brexit one year on: the impact on the UK economy|work=Financial Times|url=https://www.ft.com/content/c6ee4ce2-95b3-4d92-858f-c50566529b5e|access-date=31 December 2021}} According to the Office for Budget Responsibility, the new trade agreement between the EU and UK could, over time, result in a 4% reduction in British productivity, compared with its level had the 2016 EU referendum gone the other way.{{cite news |title=The initial impact of Brexit on UK trade with the EU |url=https://obr.uk/box/the-initial-impact-of-brexit-on-uk-trade-with-the-eu/ |work=Office for Budget Responsibility |date=27 October 2021 |access-date=15 January 2022}}

Brexit was widely described as a factor contributing to the 2021 United Kingdom natural gas supplier crisis, in which panic buying led to serious disruption of road fuel supplies across the UK, as it exacerbated the UK's shortage of HGV drivers.{{cite web|date=28 September 2021|title=Brexit has been a 'factor' in fuel crisis, Grant Shapps admits|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/brexit-petrol-shortage-grant-shapps-b1928368.html |access-date=6 October 2021|website=The Independent}}{{cite news |title=How serious is the shortage of lorry drivers? |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/57810729 |access-date=1 October 2021 |work=BBC News |date=14 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210929005239/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/57810729 |archive-date=29 September 2021|url-status=live}}{{cite news |last=Waterfield |first=Bruno |title=EU single market avoids supply problems |url=https://www.thetimes.com/uk/politics/article/eu-single-market-avoids-supply-problems-petrol-lorry-drivers-ld5526lv6 |url-status=live |work=The Times |date=29 September 2021 |access-date=30 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210929042941/https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/eu-single-market-avoids-supply-problems-petrol-lorry-drivers-ld5526lv6 |archive-date=29 September 2021}} In a July 2021 report, the Road Haulage Association estimated the UK faced a shortage of up to 100,000 truck drivers.{{cite web |date=July 2021 |title=A Report on the Driver Shortage |url=https://www.rha.uk.net/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=ICI0C-FWmVo%3D |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220531230607/https://www.rha.uk.net/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=ICI0C-FWmVo%3D |archive-date=31 May 2022 |archive-format=PDF |access-date=31 May 2022 |website=Road Haulage Association |format=PDF}}{{cite news |title=UK warned visa plan to fix truck driver shortage will not solve crunch |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/uk/uk-warned-visa-plan-fix-truck-driver-shortage-will-not-solve-crunch-2021-09-25/ |publisher=Reuters |date=26 September 2021}}{{cite news |title='Brexit made clear Eastern Europeans are not welcome in UK' |url=https://www.dw.com/en/brexit-made-clear-eastern-europeans-are-not-welcome-in-uk/av-59410886 |work=Deutsche Welle |date=5 October 2021}}

Forecasts were made at the time of the referendum that Brexit would impose trade barriers, leading to a decline in trade between the United Kingdom and the European Union: however after a dip in 2020 as result of worldwide lockdowns, by 2022 trade in both directions had risen to higher levels than before Brexit: goods trade had fallen but was outweighed by an increase in professional services.[https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/1129069/uk-exports-and-imports-by-eu-and-non-eu-seasonally-adjusted-current-prices.ods Total UK exports and imports (goods and services) by EU and non-EU, seasonally adjusted, current price] – UK trade in numbers: Office for National Statistics{{Cbignore}}

{{main|Brexit in popular culture}}

Brexit has inspired many creative works, such as murals, sculptures, novels, plays, movies and video games. The response of British artists and writers to Brexit has in general been negative, reflecting a reported overwhelming percentage of people involved in Britain's creative industries voting against leaving the European Union.{{cite web |first=Mia |last=Jankowicz |title=Britain's thriving art scene strangled by Brexit chaos |work=Politics.co.uk |date=20 March 2017 |url=http://www.politics.co.uk/comment-analysis/2017/03/20/britain-s-thriving-art-scene-strangled-by-brexit-chaos |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180924114435/http://www.politics.co.uk/comment-analysis/2017/03/20/britain-s-thriving-art-scene-strangled-by-brexit-chaos |archive-date=24 September 2018}} Despite issues around immigration being central in the Brexit debate, British artists left the migrants' perspective largely unexplored. However, Brexit also inspired UK-based migrant artists to create new works and "claim agency over their representation within public spaces and create a platform for a new social imagination that can facilitate transnational and trans-local encounters, multicultural democratic spaces, sense of commonality, and solidarity."{{cite book |last=Lech |first=K. |date=2020 |chapter=Claiming Their Voice: Foreign Memories on the Post-Brexit Stage |editor-last1=Meerzon |editor-first1=Y. |editor-last2=Dean |editor-first2=D. |editor-last3=McNeil |editor-first3=D. |title=Migration and Stereotypes in Performance and Culture |series=Contemporary Performance InterActions |pages=215–234 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-39915-3_12 |isbn=978-3-030-39914-6 |s2cid=226721346 |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-39915-3_12}}

{{portal|2010s|European Union|Modern history|Politics|United Kingdom}}

{{div col}}

• International reactions to the 2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum
• Opposition to Brexit
• Potential re-accession of the United Kingdom to the European Union
• United Kingdom–European Union relations
• Referendums related to the European Union
• Multi-speed Europe
• Interpretation of EU Treaty law by European Court of Justice
• 2010s in United Kingdom political history
• 2020s in United Kingdom political history
• Withdrawal from the European Union (Legal basis)
• Danish withdrawal from the European Union (proposed)
• Dutch withdrawal from the European Union (proposed)
• Frexit (French withdrawal from the European Union) (proposed)
• Greek withdrawal from the eurozone (proposed)
• Hungarian withdrawal from the European Union (proposed)
• Polish withdrawal from the European Union (proposed)
• Romanian withdrawal from the European Union (proposed)

{{end div col}}

{{notelist}}

{{reflist}}

{{refbegin|indent=yes|30em}}

• {{Cite journal |last1=Ansorg |first1=Nadine |last2=Haastrup |first2=Toni |date=2016 |title=Brexit Beyond the UK's Borders: What It Means for Africa |url=https://www.giga-hamburg.de/en/publications/giga-focus/brexit-beyond-the-uk-s-borders-what-it-means-for-africa |journal=German Institute for Global and Area Studies |series=GIGA Focus Afrika |language=en-GB |location=Hamburg |volume=3 |issn=1862-3603}}
• {{Cite book |last=Barnier |first=Michel |author-link=Michel Barnier |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OHNEEAAAQBAJ |title=My secret Brexit diary: a glorious illusion |date=2021 |publisher=Polity |isbn=978-1-5095-5086-9 |location=Cambridge, UK; Medford, MA |translator-last=Mackay |translator-first=Robin}}
• {{cite book|last1=Clarke|first1=Harold D.|last2=Goodwin|first2=Matthew|author2-link=Matthew Goodwin|last3=Whiteley|first3=Paul|title=Brexit: Why Britain Voted to Leave the European Union|date=2017|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-1316605042}}
• {{cite journal|last1=Clarke|first1=John|last2=Newman|first2=Janet|date=2 January 2017|title='People in this country have had enough of experts': Brexit and the paradoxes of populism|journal=Critical Policy Studies|volume=11|issue=1|pages=101–116|doi=10.1080/19460171.2017.1282376|s2cid=152164548|issn=1946-0171}}
• {{Cite book |last1=Culkin |first1=Nigel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bjt8DwAAQBAJ |title=Tales of Brexits past and present: understanding the choices, threats and opportunities in our separation from the EU |last2=Simmons |first2=Richard |date=2019 |publisher=Emerald Publishing |isbn=978-1-78769-438-5 |location=United Kingdom |oclc=on1041899176}}
• {{Cite book |last1=Evans |first1=Geoffrey |author-link=Geoff Evans (political scientist) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=syY-DwAAQBAJ |title=Brexit and British politics |last2=Menon |first2=Anand |author-link2=Anand Menon |date=2017 |publisher=Polity Press |isbn=978-1-5095-2385-6 |location=Cambridge, Grande; Bretagne Medford, MA}}
• {{Cite magazine |last=Freedland |first=Jonathan |author-link=Jonathan Freedman |date=26 September 2019 |title=Fools Rush Out |url=https://www.nybooks.com/articles/2019/09/26/fools-rush-out-boris-johnson-brexit/ |url-access=subscription |magazine=The New York Review of Books |pages=30, 32, 34–35 |volume=66 |issue=14 |issn=0028-7504}}
• {{Cite journal |last=Freedman |first=Lawrence D. |date=May–June 2020 |title=Britain Adrift: The United Kingdom's Search for a Post-Brexit Role |url=https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/united-kingdom/2020-04-13/britain-adrift |journal=Foreign Affairs |volume=99 |issue=3 |pages=118–130 |issn=0015-7120 |url-access=registration}}
• {{Cite journal |last=Hayton |first=Richard |date=February 2018 |title=British conservatism after the vote for Brexit: The ideological legacy of David Cameron |url=https://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/122446/3/HAYTON%20British%20Conservatism%20after%20the%20vote%20for%20Brexit%20.pdf |journal=The British Journal of Politics and International Relations |volume=20 |issue=1 |pages=223–238 |doi=10.1177/1369148117737278 |issn=1369-1481}}
• {{Cite journal |last=Hobolt |first=Sara B. |author-link=Sara Hobolt |date=2016-10-20 |title=The Brexit vote: a divided nation, a divided continent |url=https://eprints.lse.ac.uk/67546/7/Hobolt_The%20Brexit%20vote%20a%20divided%20.pdf |journal=Journal of European Public Policy |volume=23 |issue=9 |pages=1259–1277 |doi=10.1080/13501763.2016.1225785 |issn=1350-1763 |s2cid=158006844}}
• {{Cite book |last=Oliver |first=Timothy G. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jERmDwAAQBAJ |title=Understanding Brexit: a concise introduction |publisher=Policy Press |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-4473-4639-5 |location=Bristol}}
• {{Cite book |last=O'Rourke |first=Kevin H. |author-link=Kevin O'Rourke (economist) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D4l7DwAAQBAJ |title=A short history of Brexit: from brentry to backstop |date=2019 |publisher=Pelican Books |isbn=978-0-241-39827-2 |series=Pelican Books |location=London |oclc=on1082905086}}
• {{Cite book |last=O'Toole |first=Fintan |author-link=Fintan O'Toole |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lKufEAAAQBAJ |title=Heroic failure: Brexit and the politics of pain |date=2018 |publisher=Head of Zeus |isbn=978-1-78954-098-7 |location=London}}
• {{Cite book |last=Outhwaite |first=William |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fUE2DgAAQBAJ |title=Brexit: sociological responses |date=2017 |publisher=Anthem Press |isbn=978-1-78308-644-3 |series=Key issues in modern sociology |location=London, UK}}
• {{Cite book |last=Peers |first=Steve |author-link=Steve Peers |title=The Brexit: The Legal Framework for Withdrawal from the EU or Renegotiation of EU Membership |date=2016 |publisher=Hart Publishing |isbn=978-1-84946-874-9 |location=Oxford |oclc=917161408}}
• {{Cite book |last=Rogers |first=Ivan |author-link=Ivan Rogers |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wQDuDwAAQBAJ |title=9 Lessons in Brexit |date=2019 |publisher=Short Books |isbn=978-1-78072-399-0 |location=London}}
• {{Cite book |last=Shaw |first=Martin |title=Political racism: Brexit and its aftermath |date=2022 |publisher=Agenda Publishing |isbn=978-1-78821-508-4 |location=Newcastle upon Tyne}}
• {{Cite book |last=Shipman |first=Tim |author-link=Tim Shipman |url=https://archive.org/details/alloutwarfullsto0000ship |title=All out war: the full story of how Brexit sank Britain's political class |date=2016 |publisher=HarperCollins |isbn=978-0-00-821515-6 |location=London |url-access=registration}}
• {{Cite book |last=Shipman |first=Tim |url=https://archive.org/details/falloutyearofpol0000ship |title=Fall out: a year of political mayhem |date=2017 |publisher=HarperCollins |isbn=978-0-00-826441-3 |location=London |url-access=registration}} On Brexit debates in 2017

{{refend}}

{{Sister project links |wikt=Brexit |c=Category:Brexit |commonscat= |n=yes |q=no |s=Consolidated version of the Treaty on European Union/Title VI: Final Provisions#Article 50 |author=no |b=no |v=Brexit |d=Q7888194}}

• [https://services.parliament.uk/bills/2019-20/earlyparliamentarygeneralelection.html Early Parliamentary General Election Bill 2019–20, Progress in Parliament] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191031224436/https://services.parliament.uk/Bills/2019-20/earlyparliamentarygeneralelection.html |date=31 October 2019 }}
• [https://www.gov.uk/government/brexit British government's Brexit information]
• [https://www.gov.uk/government/collections/article-50-and-negotiations-with-the-eu British government's official negotiation documents]
• [http://www.europarl.europa.eu/unitedkingdom/en/brexitpublic/brexitstudies.html European Parliament – Brexit impact studies]
• [https://eur-lex.europa.eu/content/news/Brexit-UK-withdrawal-from-the-eu.html Brexit news on Eur-Lex website]
• [https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/761852/05_December-_EU_Exit_Attorney_General_s_legal_advice_to_Cabinet_on_the_Withdrawal_Agreement_and_the_Protocol_on_Ireland-Northern_Ireland.pdf Legal Effect of the Protocol on Ireland/Northern Ireland, Attorney General's advice to Prime Minister, 13 November 2018]
• [https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/756376/14_November_Explainer_for_the_agreement_on_the_withdrawal_of_the_United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Northern_Ireland_from_the_European_Union___1_.pdf British government's Explainer (for the withdrawal agreement) 14 November 2018]
• [https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld201719/ldselect/ldeucom/245/245.pdf House of Lords report analysing the proposed Withdrawal Agreement, 5{{nbsp}}December 2018]
• [https://ec.europa.eu/commission/brexit-negotiations/negotiating-documents-article-50-negotiations-united-kingdom_en EU's official negotiation documents]
• [http://www.parliament.uk/business/news/european-union British Parliament – Brexit News]
• [https://researchbriefings.parliament.uk/ResearchBriefing/Summary/CBP-7912 Reading list of post-EU Referendum publications by Parliament and the Devolved Assemblies] – House of Commons Library
• [https://researchbriefings.parliament.uk/ResearchBriefing/Summary/CBP-7815 Record of Brexit-related business in the devolved legislatures] (Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales) – House of Commons Library
• [http://www.gov.uk/government/organisations/department-for-exiting-the-european-union Gov.UK – Department for Exiting the European Union]
• [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-37507129 BBC: "Brexit: What are the options?" (10 October 2016)]
• [https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-46393399 BBC: "Brexit vote: What could happen next?" (17 December 2018)]
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20170510154849/http://www.barcouncil.org.uk/media/508513/the_brexit_papers.pdf The Brexit Papers, Bar Council, December 2016]
• [https://www.gov.uk/government/speeches/the-governments-negotiating-objectives-for-exiting-the-eu-pm-speech "Plan for Britain: The government's negotiating objectives for exiting the EU": PM's speech delivered and published on 17 January 2017] – transcript of speech as delivered at Lancaster House, London
• [https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/588948/The_United_Kingdoms_exit_from_and_partnership_with_the_EU_Web.pdf The United Kingdom's exit from and new partnership with the European Union, February 2017 ("White paper")]
• [http://quotes.euronews.com/topic/brexit Quotes about Brexit] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171114185045/http://quotes.euronews.com/topic/brexit |date=14 November 2017 }} on Euronews
• [http://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/press-releases/2017/04/29-euco-brexit-guidelines European Council Brexit Guidelines]
• [https://www.niesr.ac.uk/sites/default/files/publications/NIESR%20Report%20Brexit%20-%202018-11-26.pdf "The economic effects of the government's proposed Brexit deal"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201227153734/https://www.niesr.ac.uk/sites/default/files/publications/NIESR%20Report%20Brexit%20-%202018-11-26.pdf |date=27 December 2020 }}—National Institute of Economic and Social Research, November 2018
• [http://blogs.sussex.ac.uk/uktpo/2018/02/06/manufacturing-industry/ How will Brexit affect the UK's manufacturing industry?] UK Trade Policy Observatory, February 2018
• [https://www.civilservant.org.uk/library/2018-Ivan_Rogers-the_real_post-Brexit_options.pdf The real post-Brexit options] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191019121828/https://www.civilservant.org.uk/library/2018-Ivan_Rogers-the_real_post-Brexit_options.pdf |date=19 October 2019 }} Lecture by Ivan Rogers at the University of Glasgow, 23 May 2018
• [https://ukandeu.ac.uk/explainers/what-are-the-options-for-the-uks-trading-relationship-with-the-eu-after-brexit/ "What are the options for the UK's trading relationship with the EU after Brexit?"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191022134307/http://ukandeu.ac.uk/explainers/what-are-the-options-for-the-uks-trading-relationship-with-the-eu-after-brexit/ |date=22 October 2019 }} UK in a Changing Europe, King's College London, December 2018
• [https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2017/jun/19/brexit-phrasebook-a-guide-to-the-talks-key-terms "Brexit phrasebook: a guide to the talks' key terms"]—The Guardian, 23 November 2018
• [https://www.conservativehome.com/platform/2019/03/lord-ashcroft-how-the-united-kingdom-voted-on-eu-referendum-day-and-why.html "Lord Ashcroft: How the United Kingdom voted on EU referendum day – and why"] Conservative Home, 17 March 2019
• [https://www.dfa.ie/media/dfa/eu/brexit/keydocuments/Omnibus-Bill-Memo.pdf Explanatory Memorandum for the Withdrawal of the United Kingdom from the European Union (Consequential Provisions) Bill 2019 introduced by the Irish government in the legislature] (Oireachtas)
• [https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=OJ%3AL%3A2019%3A080I%3AFULL&from=EN EU Council decision, 22 March 2019, extending the negotiating period]
• {{Cite AV media| publisher = Financial Times| people = Garrahan, Daniel| title = The Brexit effect: how leaving the EU hit the UK| series = FT Film| accessdate = 25 October 2022| date = 2022| url = https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wO2lWmgEK1Y}}
• [https://researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk/documents/CBP-8805/CBP-8805.pdf Constitutional implications of the Withdrawal Agreement legislation] – House of Commons Library February 2020

• [http://www.bailii.org/uk/cases/UKSC/2017/5.html Judgment] of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom in R (Miller) v Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union
• [http://curia.europa.eu/juris/document/document.jsf?text=&docid=208636&pageIndex=0&doclang=en&mode=lst&dir=&occ=first&part=1&cid=1085843 Judgment] of the European Court of Justice in the Wightman case: Right of unilateral revocation of the notification
• Wilson v Prime Minister (2018) [https://www.ukineuchallenge.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/260395-Judgment-10.12.2018-Version-for-publication.pdf EWHC 3520 (Admin)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190116153032/https://www.ukineuchallenge.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/260395-Judgment-10.12.2018-Version-for-publication.pdf |date=16 January 2019 }}
• Ewan McGaughey [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09615768.2018.1555881 "Could Brexit be Void?"] King's Law Journal, Volume 29, 2018, Issue 3
• [http://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/IDAN/2017/599352/EPRS_IDA(2017)599352_EN.pdf UK withdrawal from the European Union: Legal and procedural issues] European Parliamentary Research Service, March 2017
• Ronan McCrea. [https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/brexit/2018/12/20/the-legal-issues-of-revoking-the-notification-to-leave-the-eu-but-then-notifying-to-leave-again/ "The legal issues of revoking the notification to leave the EU – but then notifying to leave again"]. London School of Economics, 20 December 2018

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