English alphabet#Diacritics

File:Chart of the English alphabet from 1740 (from James Hoy, Irish Spelling-Book).png.]]

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The names of the letters are commonly spelled out in compound words and initialisms (e.g., tee-shirt, deejay, emcee, okay, etc.), derived forms (e.g., exed out,{{efn|Clicked the 🅇 box to close a tab or app}} effing,{{efn|Fucking}} to eff and blind, {{notatypo|aitchless}},{{efn|Without the letter H}} etc.), and objects named after letters (e.g., en and em in printing, and wye in railroading). The spellings listed below are from the Oxford English Dictionary. Plurals of consonant names are formed by adding -s (e.g., bees, efs or effs, ems) or -es in the cases of aitches, esses, exes. Plurals of vowel names also take -es (i.e., aes, ees, ies, oes, ues), but these are rare. For a letter as a letter, the letter itself is most commonly used, generally in capitalised form, in which case the plural just takes -s or -'s (e.g. Cs or c's for cees).

{{Main|English terms with diacritical marks}}

The most common diacritic marks seen in English publications are the acute (é), grave (è), circumflex (â, î, or ô), tilde (ñ), umlaut and diaeresis (ü or ï—the same symbol is used for two different purposes), and cedilla (ç).{{Citation|last=Strizver|first=Ilene|title=Accents & Accented Characters|url=http://www.fonts.com/content/learning/fontology/level-3/signs-and-symbols/accents|work=Fontology|publisher=Monotype Imaging|access-date=2019-06-17}} Diacritics used for tonal languages may be replaced with tonal numbers or omitted.

Diacritic marks mainly appear in loanwords such as naïve and façade. Informal English writing tends to omit diacritics because of their absence from the keyboard, while professional copywriters and typesetters tend to include them.

As such words become naturalised in English, there is a tendency to drop the diacritics, as has happened with many older borrowings from French, such as hôtel. Words that are still perceived as foreign tend to retain them; for example, the only spelling of soupçon found in English dictionaries (the OED and others) uses the diacritic. However, diacritics are likely to be retained even in naturalised words where they would otherwise be confused with a common native English word (for example, résumé rather than resume).{{Citation |publisher=Modern Humanities Research Association |title=MHRA Style Guide: A Handbook for Authors and Editors |url=http://www.mhra.org.uk/style |year=2013 |postscript=. |at=Section 2.2 |edition=3rd |location=London |format=pdf |access-date=2019-06-17 |isbn=978-1-78188-009-8}} Rarely, they may even be added to a loanword for this reason (as in maté, from Spanish yerba mate but following the pattern of café, from French, to distinguish from mate).

Occasionally, especially in older writing, diacritics are used to indicate the syllables of a word: cursed (verb) is pronounced with one syllable, while cursèd (adjective) is pronounced with two. For this, è is used widely in poetry, e.g., in Shakespeare's sonnets. J. R. R. Tolkien used ë, as in O wingëd crown.

Similarly, while in chicken coop the letters -oo- represent a single vowel sound (a digraph), they less often represent two which may be marked with a diaresis as in zoölogist{{Cite book|last=Zoölogist|first=Minnesota Office of the State|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J_kUAAAAYAAJ&q=%22zo%C3%B6logist%22&pg=PA4|title=Report of the State Zoölogist|date=1892|language=en}} and coöperation. This use of the diaeresis is rare but found in some well-known publications, such as MIT Technology Review and The New Yorker. Some publications, particularly in UK usage, have replaced the diaeresis with a hyphen such as in co-operative.{{citation needed|date=September 2021}}

In general, these devices are not used even where they would serve to alleviate some degree of confusion.

The apostrophe (ʼ) is not usually considered part of the English alphabet nor used as a diacritic, even in loanwords. But it is used for two important purposes in written English: to mark the "possessive"{{efn|Linguistic analyses vary on how best to characterise the English possessive morpheme -'s: a noun case inflectional suffix distinct to possession, a genitive case inflectional suffix equivalent to prepositional periphrastic of X (or rarely for X), an edge inflection that uniquely attaches to a noun phrase's final (rather than head) word, or an enclitic postposition.}} and to mark contracted words. Current standards require its use for both purposes. Therefore, apostrophes are necessary to spell many words even in isolation, unlike most punctuation marks, which are concerned with indicating sentence structure and other relationships among multiple words.

• It distinguishes (from the otherwise identical regular plural inflection -s) the English possessive morpheme "'s" (apostrophe alone after a regular plural affix, giving -s' as the standard mark for plural + possessive). Practice settled in the 18th century; before then, practices varied but typically all three endings were written -s (but without cumulation). This meant that only regular nouns bearing neither could be confidently identified, and plural and possessive could be potentially confused (e.g., "the Apostles words"; "those things over there are my husbands"{{cite web |url-status=dead |url=http://www.news.com.au/couriermail/story/0,23739,21619016-27197,00.html |title=Little Things that Matter |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120904080438/www.news.com.au/couriermail/story/0,23739,21619016-27197,00.html |archive-date=2012-09-04 |website=The Courier-Mail |date=2007-04-26 |access-date=2013-04-07 |first1=Jane |last1=Fynes-Clinton }})—which undermines the logic of "marked" forms.
• Many common contractions have near-homographs from which they are distinguished in writing only by an apostrophe, for example it's (it is or it has) as opposed to its, the possessive form of "it", or she'd (she would or she had) as opposed to shed.

In a Chronicle of Higher Education blog, Geoffrey Pullum argued that apostrophe is the 27th letter of the alphabet, arguing that it does not function as a form of punctuation.{{cite journal |last=Pullum |first= Geoffrey K.|title=Being an apostrophe |journal =Lingua Franca |date=March 22, 2013 |publisher=Chronicle of Higher Education |url=https://www.chronicle.com/blogs/linguafranca/2013/03/21/being-an-apostrophe/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231013205712/https://www.chronicle.com/blogs/linguafranca/2013/03/21/being-an-apostrophe/ |archive-date= Oct 13, 2023 }}

Hyphens are often used in English compound words. Written compound words may be hyphenated, open or closed, so specifics are guided by stylistic policy. Some writers may use a slash in certain instances.{{Who|date=April 2025}}

{{Main|Letter frequency}}

The letter most commonly used in English is E. The least used letter is Z. The frequencies shown in the table may differ in practice according to the type of text.{{cite book|title=Cipher Systems: The Protection of Communications|last1=Beker|first1=Henry|last2=Piper|first2=Fred|publisher=Wiley-Interscience|year=1982|page=397}} Table also available from

{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CyCcRAm7eQMC&pg=PA36|title=Cryptological Mathematics|last=Lewand|first=Robert|publisher=Mathematical Association of America|year=2000|isbn=978-0883857199|page=36}} and {{cite web|url=http://pages.central.edu/emp/LintonT/classes/spring01/cryptography/letterfreq.html|title=English letter frequencies|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080708193159/http://pages.central.edu/emp/LintonT/classes/spring01/cryptography/letterfreq.html|archive-date=2008-07-08|url-status=dead|access-date=2008-06-25}}

{{Main|English phonology}}

The letters A, E, I, O, and U are considered vowel letters, since (except when silent) they represent vowels, although I and U represent consonants in words such as "onion" and "quail" respectively.

The letter Y sometimes represents a consonant (as in "young") and sometimes a vowel (as in "myth"). Very rarely, W may represent a vowel (as in "cwm", a Welsh loanword).

The consonant sounds represented by the letters W and Y in English (/w/ and /j/ as in went /wɛnt/ and yes /jɛs/) are referred to as semi-vowels (or glides) by linguists, however this is a description that applies to the sounds represented by the letters and not to the letters themselves.

The remaining letters are considered consonant letters, since when not silent they generally represent consonants.

{{See also|History of the Latin alphabet|English orthography}}

{{Main|Old English Latin alphabet}}

The English language itself was initially written in the Anglo-Saxon futhorc runic alphabet, in use from the 5th century. This alphabet was brought to what is now England, along with the proto-form of the language itself, by Anglo-Saxon settlers. Very few examples of this form of written Old English have survived, mostly as short inscriptions or fragments.

The Latin script, introduced by Christian missionaries, began to replace the Anglo-Saxon futhorc from about the 7th century, although the two continued in parallel for some time. As such, the Old English alphabet began to employ parts of the Roman alphabet in its construction.{{cite journal |journal=Early Medieval Europe |last=Shaw |first=Phillip |date=May 2013 |title=Adapting the Roman alphabet for Writing Old English: Evidence from Coin Epigraphy and Single-Sheet Characters |volume= 21 |issue=2 |pages=115–139|via=Ebscohost |doi=10.1111/emed.12012 |publisher=Wiley Blackwell |s2cid=163075636 |url=https://dx.doi.org/10.1111/emed.12012|url-access=subscription }} Futhorc influenced the emerging English alphabet by providing it with the letters thorn (Þ þ) and wynn (Ƿ ƿ). The letter eth (Ð ð) was later devised as a modification of dee (D d), and finally yogh ({{lang|ang|Ȝ}} {{lang|ang|ȝ}}) was created by Norman scribes from the insular g in Old English and Irish, and used alongside their Carolingian g.

The a-e ligature ash (Æ æ) was adopted as a letter in its own right, named after a futhorc rune æsc. In very early Old English the o-e ligature ethel (Œ œ) also appeared as a distinct letter, likewise named after a rune, œðel.{{citation_needed|date=March 2014}} Additionally, the v–v or u-u ligature double-u (W w) was in use.

In the year 1011, a monk named Byrhtferð recorded the traditional order of the Old English alphabet.Michael Everson, Evertype, Baldur Sigurðsson, Íslensk Málstöð, [http://www.evertype.com/standards/wynnyogh/thorn.html On the Status of the Latin Letter Þorn and of its Sorting Order] He listed the 23 letters of the Latin alphabet first, plus the ampersand, then 5 additional English letters, starting with the Tironian note ond (⁊), an insular symbol for and:

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|1={{big|A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T V X Y Z & ⁊ Ƿ Þ Ð Æ}}

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In the orthography of Modern English, the letters thorn (þ), eth (ð), wynn (ƿ), yogh ({{lang|ang|ȝ}}), ash (æ), and ethel (œ) are obsolete. Latin borrowings reintroduced homographs of æ and œ into Middle English and Early Modern English, though they are largely obsolete (see "Ligatures in recent usage" below), and where they are used they are not considered to be separate letters (e.g., for collation purposes), but rather ligatures. Thorn and eth were both replaced by th, though thorn continued in existence for some time, its lowercase form gradually becoming graphically indistinguishable from the minuscule y in most handwriting. Y for th can still be seen in pseudo-archaisms such as "Ye Olde Booke Shoppe". The letters þ and ð are still used in present-day Icelandic (where they now represent two separate sounds, {{IPA|/θ/}} and {{IPA|/ð/}} having become phonemically-distinct – as indeed also happened in Modern English), while ð is still used in present-day Faroese (although only as a silent letter). Wynn disappeared from English around the 14th century when it was supplanted by uu, which ultimately developed into the modern w. Yogh disappeared around the 15th century and was typically replaced by gh.

The letters u and j, as distinct from v and i, were introduced in the 16th century, and w assumed the status of an independent letter. The variant lowercase form long s (ſ) lasted into early modern English, and was used in non-final position up to the early 19th century. Today, the English alphabet is considered to consist of the following 26 letters:

{{flatlist | indent=1 |

• {{Nowrap|A a}}
• {{Nowrap|B b}}
• {{Nowrap|C c}}
• {{Nowrap|D d}}
• {{Nowrap|E e}}
• {{Nowrap|F f}}
• {{Nowrap|G g}}
• {{Nowrap|H h}}
• {{Nowrap|I i}}
• {{Nowrap|J j}}
• {{Nowrap|K k}}
• {{Nowrap|L l}}
• {{Nowrap|M m}}
• {{Nowrap|N n}}
• {{Nowrap|O o}}
• {{Nowrap|P p}}
• {{Nowrap|Q q}}
• {{Nowrap|R r}}
• {{Nowrap|S s}}
• {{Nowrap|T t}}
• {{Nowrap|U u}}
• {{Nowrap|V v}}
• {{Nowrap|W w}}
• {{Nowrap|X x}}
• {{Nowrap|Y y}}
• {{Nowrap|Z z}}

}}

Written English has a number of digraphs,{{Cite web|url=http://www.phonicsontheweb.com/digraphs.php|title=Digraphs (Phonics on the Web)|website=phonicsontheweb.com|access-date=2016-04-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160413162011/http://www.phonicsontheweb.com/digraphs.php|archive-date=2016-04-13|url-status=dead}} but they are not considered separate letters of the alphabet:

{{flatlist|indent=1|* ch (usually /t͡ʃ/)

• ck (/k/)
• gh (/f/, /g/ or /∅/)
• ng (/ŋ/)
• ph (/f/)
• qu (/kw/)
• sh (/ʃ/)
• th (/θ/ or /ð/)
• wh (/ʍ/ or /w/)
• zh (/ʒ/)}}

File:Caslon Pro Ligatures.svg of Adobe Caslon Pro]]

Outside of professional papers on specific subjects that traditionally use ligatures in loanwords, ligatures are seldom used in modern English. The ligatures æ and œ were until the 19th century (slightly later in American English){{citation needed|date=December 2014}} used in formal writing for certain words of Greek or Latin origin, such as encyclopædia and cœlom, although such ligatures were not used in either classical Latin or ancient Greek. These are now usually rendered as "ae" and "oe" in all types of writing,{{citation needed|date=December 2014}} although in American English, a lone e has mostly supplanted both (for example, encyclopedia for encyclopaedia, and maneuver for manoeuvre).

Some typefaces used to typeset English texts contain commonly used ligatures, such as for {{angle bracket|tt}}, {{angle bracket|fi}}, {{angle bracket|fl}}, {{angle bracket|ffi}}, and {{angle bracket|ffl}}. These are not independent letters{{snd}}although in traditional typesetting, each of these ligatures would have its own sort (type element) for practical reasons{{snd}} but simply type design choices created to optimize the legibility of the text.

{{Main article|List of language reforms of English}}

There have been a number of proposals to extend or replace the basic English alphabet. These include proposals for the addition of letters to the English alphabet, such as eng or engma (Ŋ ŋ), used to replace the digraph "ng" and represent the voiced velar nasal sound with a single letter. Benjamin Franklin's phonetic alphabet, based on the Latin alphabet, introduced a number of new letters as part of a wider proposal to reform English orthography. Other proposals have gone further, proposing entirely new scripts for written English to replace the Latin alphabet such as the Deseret alphabet and the Shavian alphabet.

• {{Annotated link |Alphabet song}}
• {{Annotated link |NATO phonetic alphabet}}
• {{Annotated link |English orthography}}
• {{Annotated link |English-language spelling reform}}
• {{Annotated link |American manual alphabet}}
• {{Annotated link |Two-handed manual alphabets}}
• {{Annotated link |English Braille}}
• {{Annotated link |American Braille |prefer=wikidata |desc_first_letter_case=upper}}
• {{Annotated link |New York Point}}
• {{Annotated link |Chinese respelling of the English alphabet}}
• {{Annotated link |Burmese respelling of the English alphabet}}
• {{Annotated link |Base36}}

{{Notelist}}

{{Reflist}}

• {{cite book| title=Alphabetical: How Every Letter Tells a Story| author=Michael Rosen |isbn=978-1619027022| year=2015 | publisher=Counterpoint }}
• {{Citation |last1=Upward |first1=Christopher |last2=Davidson |first2=George |title=The History of English Spelling |date=2011 |location=Oxford |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |author-link1=Christopher Upward |isbn=978-1-4051-9024-4 |lccn=2011008794 |postscript=.}}

{{Description of English}}

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Category:Alphabets

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Category:Latin alphabets