Georgian scripts

{{Wide image|Asomtavruli Nuskhuri Mkhedruli.svg|1500px|The three Georgian scripts: Asomtavruli, Nuskhuri, and Mkhedruli.}}

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|caption1 = Bir el Qutt inscriptions, {{circa|430 AD}}, Studium Biblicum Franciscanum, Jerusalem

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|caption2 = Bolnisi inscriptions, {{circa|494 AD}}, Simon Janashia Museum of Georgia, Tbilisi

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The origin of the Georgian script is poorly known, and no full agreement exists among Georgian and foreign scholars as to its date of creation, who designed the script, and the main influences on that process.

The first attested version of the script is Asomtavruli, which dates back to the 5th century; the other scripts were formed in the following centuries. Most scholars link the creation of the Georgian script to the process of Christianization of Iberia (not to be confused with the Iberian Peninsula), a core Georgian kingdom of Kartli.{{sfn|Hewitt|1995|p=4}} The alphabet was therefore most probably created between the conversion of Iberia under King Mirian III (326 or 337) and the Bir el Qutt inscriptions of 430.{{sfn|Hewitt|1995|p=4}}{{sfn|West|2010|p=230|ps=: Archaeological work in the last decade has confirmed that a Georgian alphabet did exist very early in Georgia's history, with the first examples being dated from the fifth century C.E.}} It was first used for translation of the Bible and other Christian literature into Georgian, by monks in Georgia and Palestine. Professor Levan Chilashvili's dating of fragmented Asomtavruli inscriptions, discovered by him at the ruined town of Nekresi, in Georgia's easternmost province of Kakheti, in the 1980s, to the 1st or 2nd century has not been accepted.{{sfn|Rapp|2003|p=19|ps=: footnote 43: "The date of the supposed grave marker is hopelessly circumstantial ... I cannot support Chilashvili's dubious hypothesis."}}

A Georgian tradition first attested in the medieval chronicle Lives of the Kings of Kartli ({{circa|800}}), assigns a much earlier, pre-Christian origin to the Georgian alphabet, and names King Pharnavaz I (3rd century BC) as its inventor. This account is now considered legendary, and is rejected by scholarly consensus, as no archaeological confirmation has been found.{{sfn|Rayfield|2013|p=}}{{sfn|Rapp|2010|p=139}} Georgian linguist Tamaz Gamkrelidze offers an alternative interpretation of the tradition, in the pre-Christian use of foreign scripts to write down Georgian texts.{{sfn| Kemertelidze|1999|pp=228-}}

Another point of contention among scholars is the role played by Armenian clerics in that process. According to medieval Armenian sources and a number of scholars, Mesrop Mashtots, generally acknowledged as the creator of the Armenian alphabet, also allegedly created the Georgian and Caucasian Albanian alphabets. This tradition originates in the works of Koryun, a fifth-century historian and biographer of Mashtots, and has been quoted by Donald Rayfield and James R. Russell,{{sfn|Rayfield|2013|p=19|ps=: "The Georgian alphabet seems unlikely to have a pre-Christian origin, for the major archaeological monument of the 1st century 4IX the bilingual Armazi gravestone commemorating Serafua, daughter of the Georgian viceroy of Mtskheta, is inscribed in Greek and Aramaic only. It has been believed, and not only in Armenia, that all the Caucasian alphabets — Armenian, Georgian and Caucaso-Albanian — were invented in the 4th century by the Armenian scholar Mesrop Mashtots.<...> The Georgian chronicles The Life of Kartli – assert that a Georgian script was invented two centuries before Christ, an assertion unsupported by archaeology. There is a possibility that the Georgians, like many minor nations of the area, wrote in a foreign language — Persian, Aramaic, or Greek — and translated back as they read."}}{{sfn|Bowersock|Brown|Grabar|1999|p=289|ps=: Alphabets. "Mastoc' was a charismatic visionary who accomplished his task at a time when Armenia stood in danger of losing both its national identity, through partition, and its newly acquired Christian faith, through Sassanian pressure and reversion to paganism. By preaching in Armenian, he was able to undermine and co-opt the discourse founded in native tradition, and to create a counterweight against both Byzantine and Syriac cultural hegemony in the church. Mastoc' also created the Georgian and Caucasian-Albanian alphabets, based on the Armenian model."}} but has been rejected by Georgian scholarship and some Western scholars who judge the passage in Koryun unreliable or even a later interpolation. In his study on the history of the invention of the Armenian alphabet and the life of Mashtots, the Armenian linguist Hrachia Acharian strongly defended Koryun as a reliable source and rejected criticisms of his accounts on the invention of the Georgian script by Mashtots.{{cite book |last1=Acharian |first1=Hrachia |author-link1=Hrachia Acharian |title=Հայոց գրերը |trans-title=The Armenian Script |series=Հայագիտական հետազոտությունների մատենաշար |date=1984 |publisher=Hayastan Publishing |location=Yerevan |url=http://serials.flib.sci.am/Founders/Hayoc%20grer-%20Acharyan/book/index.html#page/185/mode/1up |language=hy |page= 181 |script-quote=hy:Կասկածել Կորյունի վրա՝ նշանակում է առհասարակ ուրանալ պատմությունը։ |trans-quote=To doubt Koryun['s account] means to deny history itself.}} Acharian dated the invention to 408, four years after Mashtots created the Armenian alphabet (he dated the latter event to 404).{{cite book |last1=Acharian |first1=Hrachia |author-link1=Hrachia Acharian |title=Հայոց գրերը |trans-title=The Armenian Script |series=Հայագիտական հետազոտությունների մատենաշար |date=1984 |publisher=Hayastan Publishing |location=Yerevan |url=http://haygirk.nla.am/cgi-bin/koha/opac-detail.pl?biblionumber=7946 |language=hy |page= [http://serials.flib.sci.am/Founders/Hayoc%20grer-%20Acharyan/book/index.html#page/394/mode/2up 391] |script-quote=hy:408 ... հնարում է վրաց գրերը}} Some Western scholars quote Koryun's claims without taking a stance on its validity{{sfn|Thomson|1996|pp=xxii–xxiii}}{{sfn|Rapp|2003|p=450|ps=: "There is also the claim advanced by Koriwn in his saintly biography of Mashtoc' (Mesrop) that the Georgian script had been invented at the direction of Mashtoc'. Yet it is within the realm of possibility that this tradition, repeated by many later Armenian historians, may not have been part of the original fifth-century text at all but added after 607. Significantly, all of the extant MSS containing The Life of Mashtoc* were copied centuries after the split. Consequently, scribal manipulation reflecting post-schism (especially anti-Georgian) attitudes potentially contaminates all MSS copied after that time. It is therefore conceivable, though not yet proven, that valuable information about Georgia transmitted by pre-schism Armenian texts was excised by later, post-schism individuals."}} or concede that Armenian clerics, if not Mashtots himself, must have played a role in the creation of the Georgian script.{{sfn|Rapp|2010|p=139}}{{sfn|Greppin|1981|pp=449–456}} Ivane Javakhishvili, a Georgian historian and scientist, studied this work of Koryun and concluded that the version of Mesrop Mashtots' creation of the Georgian alphabet is a VI-VII century addition. However, the 5th-century Armenian historian Ghazar Parpetsi considers Mashtots to be the creator of only the Armenian alphabet.{{Cite book |last=Thomson |first=Robert W. |title=The History of Łazar Pʻarpecʻi |location=Atlanta, Georgia |publication-date=1991 |pages=46-50}}

Another controversy regards the main influences at play in the Georgian alphabet, as scholars have debated whether it was inspired more by the Greek alphabet, or by Semitic alphabets such as Aramaic.{{sfn|Kemertelidze|1999|pp=228-}} Recent historiography focuses on greater similarities with the Greek alphabet than in the other Caucasian writing systems, most notably the order and numeric value of letters.{{sfn|Shanidze|2000|p=444}} Some scholars have also suggested certain pre-Christian Georgian cultural symbols or clan markers as a possible inspiration for particular letters.{{sfn|Haarmann|2012|p=299}}

File:Mikael Modrekili Iadgari (2).jpg in Asomtavruli, 10th century.]]

Asomtavruli ({{lang-ka|ასომთავრული}}, {{Lang|ka|ႠႱႭႫႧႠႥႰႳႪႨ}}; {{IPA|ka|asomtʰavɾuli}}) is the oldest Georgian script. The name {{lang|ka-Latn|Asomtavruli}} means "capital letters", from {{lang|ka-Latn|aso}} ({{lang|ka|ასო}}) "letter" and {{lang|ka-Latn|mtavari}} ({{lang|ka|მთავარი}}) "principal/head". It is also known as Mrgvlovani ({{lang-ka|მრგვლოვანი}}) "rounded", from {{lang|ka-Latn|mrgvali}} ({{lang|ka|მრგვალი}}) "round", so named because of its round letter shapes. Despite its name, this "capital" script is unicameral.{{sfn|Daniels|1996|p=367}}

The oldest Asomtavruli inscriptions found so far date from the 5th century{{sfn|Machavariani|2011| p= 177}} and are Bir el Quttქსე, ტ. 7, თბ., 1984, გვ. 651–652 and the Bolnisi inscriptions.შანიძე ა., ქართული საბჭოთა ენციკლოპედია, ტ. 2, გვ. 454–455, თბ., 1977 წელი

From the 9th century, Nuskhuri script started becoming dominant, and the role of Asomtavruli was reduced. However, epigraphic monuments of the 10th to 18th centuries continued to be written in Asomtavruli script. Asomtavruli in this later period became more decorative. In the majority of 9th-century Georgian manuscripts which were written in Nuskhuri script, Asomtavruli was used for titles and the first letters of chapters.კ. დანელია, ზ. სარჯველაძე, ქართული პალეოგრაფია, თბილისი, 1997, გვ. 218–219 However, some manuscripts written completely in Asomtavruli can be found until the 11th century.ე. მაჭავარიანი, მწიგნობრობაჲ ქართული, თბილისი, 1989

In early Asomtavruli, the letters are of equal height. Georgian historian and philologist Pavle Ingorokva believes that the direction of Asomtavruli, like that of Greek, was initially boustrophedon, though the direction of the earliest surviving texts is from left to the right.პ. ინგოროყვა, "შოთა რუსთაველი", "მნათობი", 1966, No. 3, გვ. 116

In most Asomtavruli letters, straight lines are horizontal or vertical and meet at right angles. The only letter with acute angles is Ⴟ (jani). There have been various attempts to explain this exception. Georgian linguist and art historian Helen Machavariani believes jani derives from a monogram of Christ, composed of {{Script|Geok|Ⴈ}} (ini) and {{Script|Geok|Ⴕ}} (kani).{{sfn|Machavariani|2011| pp= 121–122}} According to Georgian scholar Ramaz Pataridze, the cross-like shape of letter jani indicates the end of the alphabet, and has the same function as the similarly shaped Phoenician letter taw (20px), Greek chi (Χ), and Latin X,რ. პატარიძე, ქართული ასომთავრული, თბილისი, 1980, გვ. 151, 260–261 though these letters do not have that function in Phoenician, Greek, or Latin.

From the 7th century, the forms of some letters began to change. The equal height of the letters was abandoned, with letters acquiring ascenders and descenders.ივ. ჯავახიშვილი, ქართული დამწერლობათა-მცოდნეობა ანუ პალეოგრაფია, თბილისი, 1949, 185–187ე. მაჭავარიანი, ქართული ანბანი, თბილისი, 1977, გვ. 5–6

In Nuskhuri manuscripts, Asomtavruli are used for titles and illuminated capitals. The latter were used at the beginnings of paragraphs which started new sections of text. In the early stages of the development of Nuskhuri texts, Asomtavruli letters were not elaborate and were distinguished principally by size and sometimes by being written in cinnabar ink. Later, from the 10th century, the letters were illuminated. The style of Asomtavruli capitals can be used to identify the era of a text. For example, in the Georgian manuscripts of the Byzantine era, when the styles of the Byzantine Empire influenced Kingdom of Georgia, capitals were illuminated with images of birds and other animals.ელენე მაჭავარიანი, ენციკლოპედია "ქართული ენა", თბილისი, 2008, გვ. 403–404

From the 11th-century "limb-flowery", "limb-arrowy" and "limb-spotty" decorative forms of Asomtavruli are developed. The first two are found in 11th- and 12th-century monuments, whereas the third one is used until the 18th century.ვ. სილოგავა, ენციკლოპედია "ქართული ენა", თბილისი, 2008, გვ. 269–271ივ. ჯავახიშვილი, ქართული დამწერლობათა-მცოდნეობა ანუ პალეოგრაფია, თბილისი, 1949, 124–126

Importance was attached also to the colour of the ink itself.{{sfn|Machavariani|2011| p= 120}}

Asomtavruli letter Ⴃ (doni) is often written with decoration effects of fish and birds.{{sfn|Machavariani|2011| p= 129}}

The "Curly" decorative form of Asomtavruli is also used where the letters are wattled or intermingled on each other, or the smaller letters are written inside other letters. It was mostly used for the headlines of the manuscripts or the books, although there are complete inscriptions which were written in the Asomtavruli "Curly" form only.ივ. ჯავახიშვილი, ქართული დამწერლობათა-მცოდნეობა ანუ პალეოგრაფია, თბილისი, 1949, 127–128

The following table shows the stroke direction of each Asomtavruli letter:{{sfn|Mchedlidze|2013| p= 105}}

File:Asomtavruli.svg

File:Iviron Collection - John Tornikios 1.jpg collection of the Monastery of Iviron, 10th century.]]

Nuskhuri ({{lang-ka|ნუსხური}}, {{Lang|ka|ⴌⴓⴑⴞⴓⴐⴈ}}; {{IPA|ka|nusχuɾi}}) is the second Georgian script. The name {{lang|ka-Latn|nuskhuri}} comes from {{lang|ka-Latn|nuskha}} ({{lang|ka|ნუსხა}}), meaning "inventory" or "schedule". Nuskhuri was soon augmented with Asomtavruli illuminated capitals in religious manuscripts. The combination is called Khutsuri ({{lang-ka|ხუცური}}, {{Lang|ka|Ⴞⴓⴚⴓⴐⴈ}}; "clerical", from {{lang|ka-Latn|khutsesi}} ({{lang|ka|ხუცესი}} "cleric"), and it was principally used in hagiography.კ. დანელია, ზ. სარჯველაძე, ქართული პალეოგრაფია, თბილისი, 1997, გვ. 219

Nuskhuri first appeared in the 9th century as a graphic variant of Asomtavruli.{{sfn|Hewitt|1995|p=4}} The oldest inscription is found in the Ateni Sioni Church and dates to 835 AD.გ. აბრამიშვილი, ატენის სიონის უცნობი წარწერები, "მაცნე" (ისტ. და არქეოლოგ. სერია), 1976, No. c2, გვ. 170 The oldest surviving Nuskhuri manuscripts date to 864 AD.კ. დანელია, ზ. სარჯველაძე, ქართული პალეოგრაფია, თბილისი, 1997, გვ. 218 Nuskhuri becomes dominant over Asomtavruli from the 10th century.

Nuskhuri letters vary in height, with ascenders and descenders, and are slanted to the right. Letters have an angular shape, with a noticeable tendency to simplify the shapes they had in Asomtavruli. This enabled faster writing of manuscripts.ე. მაჭავარიანი, ქართული ანბანი, თბილისი, 1977

:Note: Without proper font support, you may see question marks, boxes or other symbols instead of Nuskhuri letters.

The following table shows the stroke direction of each Nuskhuri letter:{{sfn|Mchedlidze|2013| p= 107}}

File:Nuskhuri.svg

Asomtavruli is used intensively in iconography, murals, and exterior design, especially in stone engravings. Georgian linguist Akaki Shanidze made an attempt in the 1950s to introduce Asomtavruli into the Mkhedruli script as capital letters to begin sentences, as in the Latin script, but it did not catch on.{{sfn|Gillam|2003|p=249}} Asomtavruli and Nuskhuri are officially used by the Georgian Orthodox Church alongside Mkhedruli. Patriarch Ilia II of Georgia called on people to use all three Georgian scripts.{{in lang|ka}} [http://saqinform.ge/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1039:2010-10-11-11-41-17&catid=110:religia1&Itemid=514#axzz2pFKm92n7 ილია მეორე ერს ქართული ენის დაცვისკენ კიდევ ერთხელ მოუწოდებს] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304083729/http://saqinform.ge/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1039:2010-10-11-11-41-17&catid=110:religia1&Itemid=514#axzz2pFKm92n7 |date=2016-03-04 }} საქინფორმ.გე

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| caption1 = Royal charter of King Bagrat IV of Georgia in Mkhedruli, 11th century.

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| caption3 = Royal charter of King Heraclius II of Georgia in Mkhedruli, 1785 AD.

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Mkhedruli ({{lang-ka|მხედრული}}; {{IPA|ka|mχedɾuli}}) is the third and current Georgian script. Mkhedruli, literally meaning "cavalry" or "military", derives from {{lang|ka-Latn|mkhedari}} ({{lang|ka|მხედარი}}) meaning "horseman", "knight", "warrior"{{sfn|Nakanishi|1990|p=22}} and "cavalier".{{sfn|Gugushvili|1937|p=324}}

Mkhedruli is bicameral, with capital letters that are called Mkhedruli Mtavruli ({{lang|ka|მხედრული მთავრული}}) or simply Mtavruli ({{lang|ka|მთავრული}}; {{IPA|ka|mtʰavɾuli}}). Nowadays, Mkhedruli Mtavruli is only used in all-caps text in titles or to emphasize a word, though in the late 19th and early 20th centuries it was occasionally used, as in Latin and Cyrillic scripts, to capitalize proper nouns or the first word of a sentence. Contemporary Georgian script does not recognize capital letters and their usage has become decorative.

Mkhedruli first appears in the 10th century. The oldest Mkhedruli inscription is found in Ateni Sioni Church dating back to 982 AD. The second oldest Mkhedruli-written text is found in the 11th-century royal charters of King Bagrat IV of Georgia. Mkhedruli was mostly used then in the Kingdom of Georgia for the royal charters, historical documents, manuscripts and inscriptions.ატენის სიონის უცნობი წარწერები, აბრამიშვილი, გვ. 170-1 Mkhedruli was used for non-religious purposes only and represented the "civil", "royal" and "secular" script.{{sfn|Katzner|Miller|2002|p=118}}{{sfn|Chambers Encyclopedia|1901|p=165}}

Mkhedruli became more and more dominant over the two other scripts, though Khutsuri (Nuskhuri with Asomtavruli) was used until the 19th century. Mkhedruli became the universal writing Georgian system outside of the Church in the 19th century with the establishment and development of printed Georgian fonts.

Mkhedruli inscriptions of the 10th and 11th centuries are characterized in rounding of angular shapes of Nuskhuri letters and making the complete outlines in all of its letters. Mkhedruli letters are written in the four-linear system, similar to Nuskhuri.

Mkhedruli becomes more round and free in writing. It breaks the strict frame of the previous two alphabets, Asomtavruli and Nuskhuri. Mkhedruli letters begin to get coupled and more free calligraphy develops.მაჭავარიანი, თბილისი, 1977

The modern Georgian alphabet consists of 33 letters:

The Society for the Spreading of Literacy among Georgians, founded by Prince Ilia Chavchavadze in 1879, discarded five letters from the Georgian alphabet that had become redundant:{{sfn|Daniels|1996|p=367}}

• ჱ ({{Lang-ka|ე-მერვე|tr}}Otar Jishkariani, Praise of the Alphabet, 1986, Tbilisi, p. 1 "eighth e") /eɪ/ (like the ay in pay), Svan /eː/ (like the e in egg in some American and Canadian accents), sometimes called "ei",{{sfn|Shanidze|1973|p=18}} was equivalent to ეჲ ey, as in ქრისტჱ ~ ქრისტეჲ kristʼey 'Christ'.
• ჲ ({{Lang-ka|იოტა|tr}}) /j/ (like the word "yeah"), appeared instead of ი (ini) after a vowel (დედაჲ deday "mother", რაჲ{{Cite web |last=Orbeliani |first=Sulkhan-Saba |date=1658–1725 |editor-last=Met'reveli |editor-first=Elene |editor2-last=Kurtsik'idze |editor2-first=Tsiala |others=Prepared based on autograph lists, researched and supplemented with a glossary of definitions by Ilia Abuladze; Illustrated by Giorgi Lomidze. |title=რაჲ - ლექსიკონი ქართული |url=http://www.nplg.gov.ge/gwdict/index.php?a=term&d=8&t=35456 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240706232410/http://www.nplg.gov.ge/gwdict/index.php?a=term&d=8&t=35456 |archive-date=Jul 6, 2024 |website=National Parliamentary Library of Georgia |publisher=Merani}} ray "what"), but came to have the same pronunciation as ი (ini) and was replaced by it. Thus, ქრისტჱ ~ ქრისტეჲ kristʼey "Christ" is now written ქრისტე kristʼe.
• ჳ ({{Lang-ka|ვიე|tr}}) /wi~vi/ (like a cluster of the oo in too and the i in ill), Svan /w/ (like the w in water) came to be pronounced the same as ვი vi and was replaced by that sequence, as in სხჳსი > სხვისი skhvisi "others'".
• ჴ ({{Lang-ka|ხარი/ჴარი|tr}},{{Cite book |last=Mach'avariani |first=Elene |title=მწიგნობრობაჲ ქართული |publisher=Georgian Soviet Encyclopedia |others=Illustrated by R. Makharadze; corrected by D. T'abutsadze. |year=1989 |editor-last=Labadze |editor-first=O. |pages=41 |language=ka}} qari, hari) {{IPA|/q⁽ʰ⁾/}} (like the Arabic Qof) came to be pronounced the same as ხ (khani), and was replaced by it. e.g. ჴელმწიფე qelmtsʼipe became ხელმწიფე khelmtsʼipe "sovereign".
• ჵ ({{Lang-ka|ჰოე|tr}}) /oː/ (somewhat like the American o in go) was used for the interjection hoi! and is now spelled ჰოი. Also used in Bats for the {{IPAslink|ʕ}} or {{IPAslink|ɦ}} sound.

All but ჵ (hoe) continue to be used in the Svan alphabet; ჲ (hie) is used in the Mingrelian and Laz alphabets as well, for the y-sound {{IPAslink|j}}. Several others were used for Abkhaz and Ossetian in the short time they were written in Mkhedruli script.

Mkhedruli has been adapted to languages besides Georgian. Some of these alphabets retained letters obsolete in Georgian, while others acquired additional letters:

• ჶ (fi "phi") is used in Laz and Svan, and formerly in Ossetian and Abkhazian.Unicode Standard, V. 6.3. U10A0, p. 3 It derives from the Greek letter Φ (phi).
• ჷ (shva "schwa"), also called yn, is used for the schwa sound in Svan and Mingrelian, and formerly in Ossetian and Abkhazian.
• ჸ (elifi "alif") is used in for the glottal stop in Svan and Mingrelian. It is a reversed {{angbr|ყ}} (q'ari).
• ჹ (turned gani) was once used for {{IPAblink|ɢ}} in evangelical literature in Dagestanian languages.
• ჼ (modifier nar) is used in Bats. It nasalizes the preceding vowel.
• ჺ (aini "ain") is occasionally used for {{IPAblink|ʕ}} in Bats. It derives from the Arabic letter {{angbr|{{lang|ar|ع}}}} (ʿayn)
• ჽ (aen) was used in the Ossetian language when it was written in the Georgian script. It was pronounced {{IPAblink|ə}}.
• ჾ (hard sign) was used in Abkhaz for velarization of the preceding consonant.
• ჿ (labial sign) was used in Abkhaz for labialization of the preceding consonant.

The following table shows the stroke order and direction of each Mkhedruli letter:{{sfn|Aronson|1990|pp=21–25}}{{sfn|Paolini|Cholokashvili|1629|p=}}{{sfn|Mchedlidze|2013| p= 110}}

File:Mkhedruli.svg

ზ, ო, and ხ (zeni, oni, khani) are almost always written without the small tick at the end, while the handwritten form of ჯ (jani) often uses a vertical line, 14px (sometimes with a taller ascender, or with a diagonal cross bar); even when it is written at a diagonal, the cross-bar is generally shorter than in print.

• Only four letters are x-height, with neither ascenders nor descenders: ა, თ, ი, ო.
• Thirteen have ascenders, like b or d in English: ბ, ზ, მ, ნ, პ, რ, ს, შ, ჩ, ძ, წ, ხ, ჰ
• An equal number have descenders, like p or q in English: გ, დ, ე, ვ, კ, ლ, ჟ, ტ, უ, ფ, ღ, ყ, ც
• Three letters have both ascenders and descenders, like þ in Old English: ქ, ჭ, and (in handwriting) ჯ. წ sometimes has both ascender and descender in handwriting.{{cn|date=July 2023}}

File:Shota Rustaveli Ave. 50.jpg for Rustaveli Avenue, showing variations in the name Rustaveli, with {{lang|ka|2=რუსთაველის}} resembling {{lang|ka|2=ɦუსთავეჺის}}.]]

File:Police car in Tbilisi (78).jpg text, on a Georgian police car]]

{{CSS image crop

|Image = Tengiz Gurjidze memorial plaque.jpg

|bSize = 300

|cWidth = 250

|cHeight = 280

|oTop = 60

|oLeft = 25

|Location = right

|Description = A commemorative plaque using Mkhedruli for the upper four lines and Mtavruli for the lower two, with each line written in a different typeface and showing variant glyphs, like დ with a single curl and ჯ with reduced second stroke. A ligature of და ("and") with ა placed above დ can be seen in the fourth line.

}}

There is individual and stylistic variation in many of the letters. For example, the top circle of ზ ({{lang|ka-Latn|zeni}}) and the top stroke of რ ({{lang|ka-Latn|rae}}) may go in the other direction than shown in the chart (that is, counter-clockwise starting at 3 o'clock, and upwards – see the external-link section for videos of people writing).

Other common variants:

• გ ({{lang|ka-Latn|gani}}) may be written like ვ ({{lang|ka-Latn|vini}}) with a closed loop at the bottom.
• დ ({{lang|ka-Latn|doni}}) is frequently written with a simple loop at top, 15px.
• კ, ც, and ძ ({{lang|ka-Latn|k'ani}}, {{lang|ka-Latn|tsani}}, {{lang|ka-Latn|dzili}}) are generally written with straight, vertical lines at the top, so that for example ც ({{lang|ka-Latn|tsani}}) resembles a U with a dimple in the right side.
• ლ ({{lang|ka-Latn|lasi}}) is frequently written with a single arc, 15px, a little like a Greek rho symbol ⟨{{not a typo|ϱ}}⟩. Even when all three are written, they're generally not all the same size, as they are in print, but rather riding on one wide arc like two dimples in it.
• Rarely, ო ({{lang|ka-Latn|oni}}) is written as a right angle, 10px.
• რ ({{lang|ka-Latn|rae}}) is frequently written with one arc, 10px, like a Latin {{angbr|h}}.
• ტ ({{lang|ka-Latn|t'ari}}) often has a small circle with a tail hanging into the bowl, rather than two small circles as in print, or as an O with a straight vertical line intersecting the top. It may also be rotated a bit clockwise, with the small circles further to the right and not as close to the top.
• წ ({{lang|ka-Latn|ts'ili}}) is generally written with a round bowl at the bottom, 12px. Another variation features a triangular bowl.
• ჭ ({{lang|ka-Latn|ch'ari}}) may be written without the hook at the top, and often with a completely straight vertical line.
• ჱ ({{lang|ka-Latn|he}}) may be written without the loop, like a conflation of ს and ჰ.
• ჯ ({{lang|ka-Latn|jani}}) is sometimes written so that it looks like a hooked version of the Latin {{angbr|X}}.

Several letters are similar and may be confused at first, especially in handwriting.

• For ვ (vini) and კ (k'ani), the critical difference is whether the top is a full arc or a (more-or-less) vertical line.
• For ვ (vini) and გ (gani), it is whether the bottom is an open curve or closed (a loop). The same is true of უ (uni) and შ (shini); in handwriting, the tops may look the same. Similarly ს (sani) and ხ (khani).
• For კ (k'ani) and პ (p'ari), the crucial difference is whether the letter is written below or above x-height, and whether it's written top-down or bottom-up.
• ძ (dzili) is written with a vertical top.

{{Calligraphy}}

Asomtavruli is often highly stylized and writers readily formed ligatures, intertwined letters, and placed letters within letters or other such monograms.Ingorokva, Pavle [http://www.amsi.ge/istoria/pi/damcerlobis_Zegli.pdf ქართული დამწერლობის ძეგლები ანტიკური ხანისა (The monuments of ancient Georgian script)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120309022903/http://www.amsi.ge/istoria/pi/damcerlobis_Zegli.pdf |date=2012-03-09 }}

Nuskhuri, like Asomtavruli, is also often highly stylized. Writers readily formed ligatures and abbreviations for nomina sacra, including diacritics called karagma, which resemble titla. Because writing materials such as vellum were scarce and therefore precious, abbreviating was a practical measure widespread in manuscripts and hagiography by the 11th century.{{sfn|Shanidze |2003|p=}}

Mkhedruli, in the 11th to 17th centuries also came to employ digraphs to the point that they were obligatory, requiring adherence to a complex system.შანიძე, 2003

Traditionally, Asomtavruli was used for chapter or section titles, where Latin script might use bold or italic type.

In Asomtavruli and Nuskhuri punctuation, various combinations of dots were used as word dividers and to separate phrases, clauses, and paragraphs. In monumental inscriptions and manuscripts of 5th to 10th centuries, these were written as dashes, like −, = and =−. In the 10th century, clusters of one (·), two (:), three (჻) and six (჻჻) dots (later sometimes small circles) were introduced by Ephrem Mtsire to indicate increasing breaks in the text. One dot indicated a "minor stop" (presumably a simple word break), two dots marked or separated "special words", three dots for a "bigger stop" (such as the appositive name and title "the sovereign Alexander", below, or the title of the Gospel of Matthew, above), and six dots were to indicate the end of the sentence. Starting in the 11th century, marks resembling the apostrophe and comma came into use. An apostrophe was used to mark an interrogative word, and a comma appeared at the end of an interrogative sentence. From the 12th century on, these were replaced with the semicolon (the Greek question mark). In the 18th century, Patriarch Anton I of Georgia reformed the system again, with commas, single dots, and double dots used to mark "complete", "incomplete", and "final" sentences, respectively.Georgian Soviet Encyclopedia, V. 8, p. 231, Tbilisi, 1984 For the most part, Georgian today uses the punctuation as in international usage of the Latin script.{{sfn|Gillam|2003|p=252}}

{{multiple image

| align = right

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| image1 = Wikipedia puzzle globe on the wall of the Wikimedia Foundation, 2010-10-26.jpg

| width1 = 250

| alt1 =

| caption1 = The Georgian letter {{angbr|ვ}} is on the Wikipedia logo (lower left).

| image2 = 0873 - Kaukasus 2014 - Georgien - Batumi (17349857412).jpg

| width2 = 250

| alt2 =

| caption2 = The Alphabetic Tower seen on panorama of Georgia's port city of Batumi

}}

This table lists the three scripts in parallel columns, including the letters that are now obsolete in all alphabets (shown with a blue background), obsolete in Georgian but still used in other alphabets (green background), or additional letters in languages other than Georgian (pink background). The "national" transliteration is the system used by the Georgian government, whereas "Laz" is the Latin Laz alphabet used in Turkey. The table also shows the traditional numeric values of the letters.{{sfn|Aronson|1990|pp=30–31}}

File:Xussar-irystony-foklor ka.jpg

{{multiple image

| total_width = 200

| image1 = Image Avar Kreuz.jpg

| image2 = Old Avarian Cross Daghestan Khunzeti.jpg

| footer = Old Avar crosses with Avar inscriptions in Asomtavruli script.

}}

• Ossetian until the 1940s.{{sfn|George|2009|p=104}}
• Abkhaz until the 1940s.The Abkhazians: A Handbook, George Hewitt, p. 171
• Circassian (historically), later replaced in the 17th century by Arabic and by the Cyrillic script in the 20th century.Papşu, Murat (2006)."[http://www.circassianworld.com/TR/Adige_Yazisi.pdf Çerkes-Adığe yazısının tarihçesi] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131214161014/http://www.circassianworld.com/TR/Adige_Yazisi.pdf |date=December 14, 2013 }}". Nart, İki Aylık Düşün ve Kültür Dergisi, Sayı 51, Eylül-Ekim 2006. {{in lang|tr}}{{cite web|url=https://circassianweb.com/page/33|title=The Circassian Alphabet|website=circassianweb.com|publisher=Circassian Family Tree|access-date=24 March 2024}}
• Ingush (historically), later replaced in the 17th century by Arabic and by the Cyrillic script in the 20th century.Язык, история и культура вайнахов, И. Ю Алироев p.85, Чех-Инг. изд.-полигр. об-ние "Книга", 1990
• Chechen (historically), later replaced in the 17th century by Arabic and by the Cyrillic script in the 20th century.Чеченский язык, И. Ю. Алироев, p.24, Академия, 1999
• Avar (historically), later replaced in the 17th century by Arabic and by the Cyrillic script in the 20th century.Грузинско-дагестанские языковые контакты, Маджид Шарипович Халилов p.29, Наука, 2004История аварцев, М. Г Магомедов p.150, Дагестанский гос. университет, 2005
• Turkish; a Turkish Gospel, dictionary, poems, medical book dating from the 18th century.{{sfn|Enwall|2010|pp=144–145}}
• Persian; the 18th-century Persian translation of the Arabic Gospel is kept at the National Center of Manuscripts in Tbilisi.
• Armenian; in the Armenian community in Tbilisi, the Georgian script was occasionally used for writing Armenian in the 18th and 19th centuries, and some samples of this kind of texts are kept at the Georgian National Center of Manuscripts in Tbilisi.{{sfn|Enwall|2010|p=137}}
• Russian; in the collections of the National Center of Manuscripts in Tbilisi there are also a few short poems in the Russian language written in Georgian script dating from the late 18th and early 19th centuries.
• Azerbaijani; used by Azeris in Georgia.{{Cite book |last=Steffen |first=James |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RbDxAAAAQBAJ&dq=azerbaijani+in+georgian+script&pg=PA119 |title=The Cinema of Sergei Parajanov |date=2013-10-31 |publisher=University of Wisconsin Pres |isbn=978-0-299-29653-7 |language=en}}
• Other Northeast Caucasian languages; the Georgian script was used for writing North Caucasian and Dagestani languages in connection with Georgian missionary activities in the areas starting in the 18th century.{{sfn|Enwall|2010|pp=137–138}}

File:Ghani Mkhedruli.svg}} (ghani) is often used as a love or heart symbol online.]]

File:Mkhedruli l.svg}} (lasi) is sometimes used as a hand or fist in emoticons ( ex: ლ(╹◡╹ლ) ). ]]

The first Georgian script was included in Unicode Standard in October 1991 with the release of version 1.0. In creating the Georgian Unicode block, important roles were played by German Jost Gippert, a linguist of Kartvelian studies, and American-Irish linguist and script-encoder Michael Everson, who created the Georgian Unicode for the Macintosh systems.[http://bpgfonts.wordpress.com/2009/01/31/%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%9D%E1%83%93%E1%83%A8%E1%83%98-%E1%83%A5%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%97%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1-%E1%83%90%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%AE%E1%83%95%E1%83%98/ უნიკოდში ქართულის ასახვის ისტორია (History of the Georgian Unicode)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140309182256/http://bpgfonts.wordpress.com/2009/01/31/%e1%83%a3%e1%83%9c%e1%83%98%e1%83%99%e1%83%9d%e1%83%93%e1%83%a8%e1%83%98-%e1%83%a5%e1%83%90%e1%83%a0%e1%83%97%e1%83%a3%e1%83%9a%e1%83%98%e1%83%a1-%e1%83%90%e1%83%a1%e1%83%90%e1%83%ae%e1%83%95%e1%83%98/ |date=2014-03-09 }} Georgian Unicode fonts by BPG-InfoTech Significant contributions were also made by Anton Dumbadze and Irakli Garibashvili[https://www.unicode.org/charts/fonts.html Font Contributors Acknowledgements] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180322185646/http://www.unicode.org/charts/fonts.html |date=2018-03-22 }} Unicode (not to be mistaken with the Prime Minister of Georgia Irakli Garibashvili).

Georgian Mkhedruli script received an official status for being Georgia's internationalized domain name script for (.გე).{{in lang|ka}} [http://rustavi2.com/ka/news/36915 საქართველოში საინტერნეტო მისამართები მხედრული ანბანით დაიწერება] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160122090830/http://rustavi2.com/ka/news/36915 |date=2016-01-22 }} Rustavi 2

Mtavruli letters were added in Unicode version 11.0 in June 2018.{{Cite web | title=Unicode 11.0.0 | url=https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode11.0.0/ | publisher=Unicode Consortium | date=5 June 2018 | access-date=5 June 2018 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180606184010/https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode11.0.0/ | archive-date=6 June 2018 | url-status=live }} They are capital letters with similar letterforms to Mkhedruli, but with descenders shifted above the baseline, with a wider central oval, and with the top slightly higher than the ascender height.{{cite web |url=https://bpgfonts.wordpress.com/2016/02/24/mtavruli-for-perfection/ |title=Mtavruli for Perfect Bicameral Fonts |website=BPG Georgian Fonts |date=24 February 2016 |access-date=15 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180126185734/https://bpgfonts.wordpress.com/2016/02/24/mtavruli-for-perfection/ |archive-date=26 January 2018 |url-status=live }}{{cite web |url=https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/Unicode-11.0/U110-1C90.pdf |title=The Unicode Standard, Version 11.0 - U110-1C90.pdf |publisher=Unicode.org |access-date=2018-03-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180508184254/http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/Unicode-11.0/U110-1C90.pdf |archive-date=2018-05-08 |url-status=live }}{{cite web |url=https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2017/17199-n4827-mtavruli.pdf |first1=Michael |last1=Everson |first2=Nika |last2=Gujejiani |first3=Giorgi |last3=Vakhtangishvili |first4=Akaki |last4=Razmadze |title=Action plan for the complete representation of Mtavruli characters |date=2017-06-24 |website=Unicode Technical Committee Document Registry |access-date=2018-01-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190615001129/http://www.unicode.org/L2/L2017/17199-n4827-mtavruli.pdf |archive-date=2019-06-15 |url-status=live }} Before this addition, font creators included Mtavruli in various ways. Some fonts came in pairs, of which one had lowercase letters and the other uppercase; some Unicode fonts placed Mtavruli letterforms in the Asomtavruli range (U+10A0-U+10CF) or in the Private Use Area, and some ASCII-based ones mapped them to the ASCII capital letters.{{cite web |url=https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2016/16034-n4707-georgian.pdf |title=Proposal for the addition of Georgian characters to the UCS |last1=Everson |first1=Michael |last2=Gujejiani |first2=Nika |last3=Razmadze |first3=Akaki |date=24 January 2016 |website=Unicode Technical Committee Document Registry |access-date=14 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911160814/http://www.unicode.org/L2/L2016/16034-n4707-georgian.pdf |archive-date=11 September 2017 |url-status=live }}

{{Main | Georgian (Unicode block) | Georgian Supplement | Georgian Extended | l2 = Georgian Supplement (Unicode block) | l3= Georgian Extended (Unicode block) }}

Georgian characters are found in three Unicode blocks. The first block (U+10A0–U+10FF) is simply called Georgian. Mkhedruli (modern Georgian) occupies the U+10D0–U+10FF range (shown in the bottom half of the first table below) and Asomtavruli occupies the U+10A0–U+10CF range (shown in the top half of the same table). The second block is the Georgian Supplement (U+2D00–U+2D2F), and it contains Nuskhuri. Mtavruli capitals are included in the Georgian Extended block (U+1C90–U+1CBF).

Mtavruli is defined as the upper case, but not title case, of Mkhedruli, and Asomtavruli as the upper case and title case of Nuskhuri.{{Cite book | title=The Unicode Standard Version 11.0 – Core Specification |chapter=7: Europe-I: Modern and Liturgical Scripts | chapter-url=https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode11.0.0/ch07.pdf | publisher=Unicode Consortium | date=5 June 2018 | access-date=8 June 2018 }}

{{Unicode chart Georgian}}

{{Unicode chart Georgian Supplement}}

{{Unicode chart Georgian Extended}}

Mac OS Georgian is an unofficial{{Clarify|reason=What makes an encoding "unofficial"? We don't normally note the "officialness" of a company's products or technologies.|date=December 2021}} character encoding created by Michael Everson for Georgian on classic Mac OS. It is an extended ASCII encoding, using the 128 code points from 0x80 through 0xFF to represent the characters of the Asomtavruli and Mkhedruli scripts plus a number of widely-used symbols not included in 7-bit ASCII.{{cite web|url=http://www.evertype.com/standards/mappings/mac/GEORGIAN.TXT|title=Mac OS Georgian to Unicode table|last=Everson|first=Michael|date=2002-02-20|website=Evertype|access-date=2020-12-07}}

{{Main|Georgian keyboard layout}}

Below is the standard Georgian-language keyboard layout, the traditional layout of manual typewriters.

{{Georgian standard keyboard}}

Gallery of Asomtavruli, Nuskhuri and Mkhedruli scripts.

File:ხანმეტი ოთხთავი.png|Asomtavruli of the 6th and 7th centuries

File:Barakoni2.jpg|Asomtavruli at Barakoni

File:Doliskana Sumbat.jpg|Doliskana inscriptions in Asomtavruli

File:Ishkhani inscription.jpg|Asomtavruli inscription at Ishkhani

File:Inscription of Nikortsminda.jpg|Asomtavruli inscription at Nikortsminda Cathedral

File:საღმრთოჲ ჟამის წირვაჲ წმიდისა იოვანე ოქროპირისაჲ.jpg|Nuskhuri of 8th to 10th centuries

File:Jruchi MSS.jpg|Nuskhuri of Jruchi Gospels, 13th century

File:მცირე სჯულისკანონი.png|Nuskhuri of the 11th century

File:Mokvi Bible (Page).jpg|Nuskhuri of Mokvi

File:Georgian Manuscript Iadgari of Mikael Modrekili.jpg|Nuskhuri Iadgari of Mikael Modrekili, 10th century

File:Ioane sineli, klemaqsi.png|Nuskhuri by Nikrai, 12th century

File:Bagrat VI royal decree.jpg|Mkhedruli royal charter of King Bagrat IV of Georgia

File:1072 წელი. მეფე გიორგი II-ის სიგელი შიომღვიმის მონასტრისადმი.jpg|Mkhedruli royal charter of King George II of Georgia

File:დავით აღმაშენებლის ავტოგრაფი autograph of georgian king David IV aghmashenebeli.jpg|Mkhedruli royal charter of King David IV of Georgia

File:გიორგი III-ის სიგელი 1170 წ..jpg|Mkhedruli royal charter of King George III of Georgia

File:თამარ მეფის სამეფო სიგელი.jpg |Mkhedruli royal charter of Queen Tamar of Georgia

File:George the Brilliant royal charter.jpg|Mkhedruli royal charter of King George V of Georgia

• Bashplemi lake tablet

{{noteslist}}

{{Reflist|30em|refs=

{{Cite web |title=Lasha Kintsurashvili: About Georgian calligraphy |url=http://calligraphy-expo.com/eng/Personalities/Participants/Lasha_Kintsurashvili/Article.aspx?ItemID=54 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120514143310/http://calligraphy-expo.com/eng/Personalities/Participants/Lasha_Kintsurashvili/Article.aspx?ItemID=54 |archive-date=2012-05-14 |access-date=2012-01-03}}

{{Cite news |date=10 March 2015 |title=Georgian alphabet granted cultural heritage status |url=http://agenda.ge/news/31109/eng |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161201015102/http://agenda.ge/news/31109/eng |archive-date=1 December 2016 |access-date=30 November 2016 |work=Agenda.ge}}

{{Cite web |last=Seibt |first=Werner |date=2011-09-08 |title=The Creation of the Caucasian Alphabets as Phenomenon of Cultural History |url=https://www.academia.edu/1355678 |language=en |via=Academia.edu}}

{{Cite web |title=Living culture of three writing systems of the Georgian alphabet |url=http://www.unesco.org/culture/ich/en/RL/living-culture-of-three-writing-systems-of-the-georgian-alphabet-01205 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161203175412/http://www.unesco.org/culture/ich/en/RL/living-culture-of-three-writing-systems-of-the-georgian-alphabet-01205 |archive-date=3 December 2016 |access-date=30 November 2016 |website=Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity |publisher=UNESCO}}

{{Cite web |last=Ager |first=Simon |date=2021-04-23 |title=Bats alphabet, pronunciation and language |url=https://www.omniglot.com/writing/batsbi.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210424231900/https://www.omniglot.com/writing/batsbi.htm |archive-date=2021-04-24 |access-date=2024-06-12 |website=Omniglot}}

{{Cite web |last=Ager |first=Simon |date=2021-04-23 |title=Ossetian language, alphabet and pronunciation |url=http://www.omniglot.com/writing/ossetian.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210427181051/https://www.omniglot.com/writing/ossetian.htm |archive-date=2021-04-27 |access-date=2024-06-12 |website=Omniglot}}

{{Cite book |last=Koryun |author-link=Koryun |url=http://armenianhouse.org/koryun/mashtots-en.html |title=The life of Mashtots |date=1981 |translator-last=Norehad |translator-first=Bedros |access-date=2018-04-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927114022/http://armenianhouse.org/koryun/mashtots-en.html |archive-date=2011-09-27 |url-status=live |via=armenianhouse.org}}

{{Citation |last=Putkaradze |first=T. |title=Development of the Georgian writing system |date=2006 |work=History of Georgian language |at=paragraph II, 2.1.5}}

{{Cite web |last1=Everson |first1=Michael |last2=Melkadze |first2=Ninell |last3=Pentzlin |first3=Karl |last4=Yevlampiev |first4=Ilya |date=17 February 2010 |title=Proposal for encoding Georgian and Nuskhuri letters for Ossetian and Abkhaz |url=https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2010/10072-n3775-georgian.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170706090715/http://www.unicode.org/L2/L2010/10072-n3775-georgian.pdf |archive-date=6 July 2017 |access-date=2018-04-24 |website=unicode.org}}

}}

• https://drive.google.com/file/d/1jvWE4dBhMpY68SpuImW16-qVWdF8llKq/view?usp=drivesdk

{{Refbegin|30em}}

• {{Cite book |last=Aronson |first=Howard Isaac |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2RtkAAAAMAAJ |title=Georgian: A Reading Grammar |publisher=Slavica Publishers |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-89357-207-5 |location=Columbus, OH}}
• {{Cite book |last1=Bowersock |first1=Glen Warren |author-link=Glen Warren Bowersock |url={{Google books|plainurl=yes|id=c788wWR_bLwC|page=289}} |title=Late Antiquity: A Guide to the Postclassical World |last2=Brown |first2=Peter |author-link2=Peter Robert Lamont Brown |last3=Grabar |first3=Oleg |author-link3=Oleg Grabar |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-674-51173-6}}
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{{Refend}}

{{Refbegin|30em}}

1. Barnaveli, T. Inscriptions of Ateni Sioni Tbilisi, 1977
2. Gamkrelidze, T. Writing system and the old Georgian script Tbilisi, 1989
3. Javakhishvili, I. Georgian palaeography Tbilisi, 1949
4. Kilanawa, B. Georgian script in the writing systems Tbilisi, 1990
5. Khurtsilava, B. The Georgian asomtavruli alphabet and its authors: Bakur and Gri Ormizd, Tbilisi, 2009
6. Pataridze, R. Georgian Asomtavruli Tbilisi, 1980
7. {{citation|last1 = Shosted|first1 = Ryan K.|last2 = Chikovani|first2 = Vakhtang|year= 2006|title=Standard Georgian|journal=Journal of the International Phonetic Association|volume=36|issue=2|pages=255–264|doi = 10.1017/S0025100306002659|doi-access= free}}

{{Refend}}

{{Commons category}}

• [http://www.omniglot.com/writing/georgian2.htm Gallery of Mkhedruli], Omniglot page on Mkhedruli which shows some stylistic variations mentioned above
• {{youTube|x3vILjL-QO4|Georgian alphabet animation}}, produced by the Ministry of Education and Science of Georgia. Gives the sound of each letter, illustrates several fonts, and shows the stroke order of each letter.
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20120514143310/http://calligraphy-expo.com/eng/Personalities/Participants/Lasha_Kintsurashvili/Article.aspx?ItemID=54 Lasha Kintsurashvili] and [https://web.archive.org/web/20140407234557/http://calligraphy-expo.com/eng/Personalities/Participants/Levan_Chaganava/Biography.aspx?ItemID=98 Levan Chaganava], submissions to the 2014 International Exhibition of Calligraphy
• [http://www.seelrc.org:8080/grammar/pdf/stand_alone_georgian.pdf Reference grammar of Georgian by Howard Aronson (SEELRC, Duke University)]
• {{cite web |url=http://unicode.org/charts/PDF/U10A0.pdf |title=Unicode Code Chart (10A0–10FF) for Georgian scripts}} {{small|(105 KB)}}
• {{cite web|url= http://transliteration.eki.ee/pdf/Georgian.pdf |title=Transliteration of Georgian }} {{small|(105 KB)}}

{{Georgian language}}

{{List of writing systems}}

{{Georgia (country) topics}}

{{Authority control}}

Category:Caucasian scripts