Glossary of geography terms (A–M)#F

This glossary of geography terms is a list of definitions of terms and concepts used in geography and related fields, including Earth science, oceanography, cartography, and human geography, as well as those describing spatial dimension, topographical features, natural resources, and the collection, analysis, and visualization of geographic data. It is split across two articles:

This page, Glossary of geography terms (A–M), lists terms beginning with the letters A through M.
Glossary of geography terms (N–Z) lists terms beginning with the letters N through Z.

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A

{{defn|The particular {{gli|location}} of a point on Earth's surface that can be expressed by a grid reference such as {{gli|latitude}} and {{gli|longitude}}.{{Citation |url=http://www2.ed.gov/pubs/parents/Geography/glossary.html |title=Archived: Helping Your Child Learn Geography: Glossary |last=OERI |first=U.S. Department of Education, Office of Educational Research and Improvement |author-link=Office of Educational Research and Improvement |date=October 1996 |work=Helping Your Child Learn Geography |publisher=U.S. Department of Education |location=Washington, DC |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130525054937/http://www2.ed.gov/pubs/parents/Geography/glossary.html |archive-date=May 25, 2013 |access-date=April 16, 2013 |url-status=dead }}}}

{{defn|A locational characteristic that permits a place to be reached by the efforts of those at other places.{{cite web |author=Bureau of International Information Programs (IIP) |author-link=Bureau of International Information Programs |title=Glossary: An Outline of American Geography |website=america.gov |date=2008-06-26 |url=https://www.america.gov/st/diversity-english/2008/May/20080618220306eaifas0.30677.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080626032146/https://www.america.gov/st/diversity-english/2008/May/20080618220306eaifas0.30677.html |archive-date=2008-06-26 |url-status=dead |publisher=United States Department of State |location=Washington, DC}}}}

{{defn|A naturally emergent landscape form that eases communication between areas.}}

{{defn|The act of adopting a culture different to your own; usually due to immersion into a dominant group.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|summit}}.}}

{{defn|A unit of area traditionally defined as the area of a plot of land one {{gli|chain}} (66 feet) by one furlong (660 feet), equivalent to {{convert|43560|sqft|sqmi sqm|sigfig=4}}, or about 0.40 {{gli|hectare}}.}}

{{defn|A {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|volcano}} that is currently erupting, or one that has erupted within the last 10,000 years (the Holocene) or during recorded history.{{Citation |author=USGS |author-link=United States Geological Survey |year=2010 |title=USGS Geography Products - Glossary |publisher=United States Geological Survey |location=Washington, DC |url=http://edc2.usgs.gov/pubslists/teachers-packets/volcanoes/teachgde/teachgdev.php#glossary |access-date=September 30, 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100528020039/http://edc2.usgs.gov/pubslists/teachers-packets/volcanoes/teachgde/teachgdev.php#glossary |archive-date=May 28, 2010}}}}

{{defn|The sunny, warm {{gli|aspect}} of a hill or mountain, as opposed to the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|ubac}} or shady side.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|tributary}}.}}

{{defn|A sub-discipline of geography which studies the spatial relationships between humans and agriculture, as well as the cultural, political, and environmental processes that lead to parts of the Earth's surface being transformed into agricultural landscapes through {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|primary sector}} activities.}}

{{defn|A distinctly triangular or fan-shaped deposit of sediment transported by water, often referred to as {{gli|alluvium}}. Alluvial fans usually form at the base of {{gli|mountains}}, where high-velocity rivers or streams meet a relatively flat area and lose the energy needed to carry large quantities of sediment, which ultimately spreads out in all available directions. They tend to be larger and more obvious in arid regions.}}

{{defn|A wide, flat, gently sloping {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|plain}} created by the long-term {{gli|deposition}} of {{gli|alluvium}} from one or more {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|rivers}} flowing from {{gli|highland}} regions, and typically characterized by various {{gli|fluvial}} landforms such as {{gli|braided streams}}, {{gli|fluvial terrace|terraces}}, and {{gli|meander|meanders}}. Alluvial plains encompass the larger area over which a river's {{gli|floodplain}} has shifted through geological time.}}

{{defn|Soils deposited through the action of moving water. These soils lack {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|soil horizon|horizons}} and are usually highly fertile.}}

{{defn|Clay, silt, gravel, or similar detrital material {{gli|deposited}} by flowing water.}}

{{defn|Characteristic of or resembling the European Alps, or any other high-elevation {{gli|mountain range}} or {{gli|montane|mountainous}} environment (especially one deeply modified by {{gli|glacial}} erosion so as to contain characteristic {{gli|landforms}} such as {{gli|cirques}}, {{gli|horns}}, etc.), in {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|topography}}, climate, or ecological communities.{{cite book |author=National Soil Survey Center |date=2018-02-01 |chapter=Part 629 – Glossary of Landform and Geologic Terms |chapter-url=https://directives.sc.egov.usda.gov/OpenNonWebContent.aspx?content=41992.wba |title=Title 430 – National Soil Survey Handbook |location= Washington, DC |publisher=Natural Resources Conservation Service |id={{OCLC|851204093|681768549}} |access-date=2018-10-07}}}}

{{defn|The height of an object in the {{gli|atmosphere}} above {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|sea level}}. The term is sometimes used interchangeably with {{gli|elevation}}.}}

{{defn|A geographical location where there is little or no {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|tide}}, i.e. where the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|tidal range|tidal amplitude}} is zero or nearly zero because the height of {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|sea level}} does not change appreciably over time (meaning there is no {{gli|high tide}} or {{gli|low tide}}), and around which a tidal crest circulates once per tidal period (approximately every 12 hours). Tidal amplitude increases, though not uniformly, with distance from these points. Amphidromic points are the consequence of resonance phenomena which occur when obstructing landmasses reflect tidal bulges back and forth across oceanic basins; their precise locations, usually in the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|open ocean}} near the center of the basin, depend largely on the surrounding {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|topography}} and {{gli|bathymetry}}, and also vary slightly with winds, currents, and the positions of the Sun and the Moon. There are at least a dozen well-defined amphidromic points across the Earth's oceans.{{cite web |title= Chapter 11 - Tides |website= Introduction to Oceanography |url= https://gotbooks.miracosta.edu/oceans/chapter11.html}}{{cite web |author= Dennis Bryant |title= Amphidromic point |date= 2014-11-25 |website= Maritime Logistics Professional |url= https://www.maritimeprofessional.com/amp/blogs/post/amphidromic-point-13608 |publisher= New Wave Media}}}}

File:M2_tidal_constituent.jpg – there is little or no change in sea level, and hence no high tides or low tides.]]

{{defn|A {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|stream}} or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|river}} composed of multiple, branching, interconnected, coexisting {{gli|channel|channels}} that enclose floodbasins on {{gli|alluvial plain|alluvial plains}}, usually formed when a slow-moving river encounters {{gli|avulsion|avulsions}} that divert its flow, creating new channels on the floodplain.Bart Makaske,

"Anastomosing rivers: a review of their classification, origin and sedimentary products", Earth-Science Reviews, 53: 3–4, 2001, pp. 149–196, ISSN 0012-8252, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0012-8252(00)00038-6.}}

{{defn|The part of the Earth's surface which is uninhabited and/or uninhabitable by human beings. Contrast {{gli|ecumene}}.}}

{{defn|The steepest angle of descent or dip, relative to the horizontal plane, at which a mass of loose, freely movable material such as sand or unconsolidated rock debris can remain stationary, i.e. without sliding downward, despite the pull of gravity.}}

{{defn|The region of the Earth that is south of the {{gli|Antarctic Circle}}.}}

{{defn|The southernmost of the Earth's two {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|polar circle|polar circles}} of {{gli|latitude}}, south of which the sun appears above the {{gli|horizon}} for 24 continuous hours at least once per year (and is therefore visible at midnight) and also appears at least partially below the horizon for 24 continuous hours at least once per year (and is therefore not visible at noon). Its latitude is approximately 66°33′47.1″ south of the {{gli|Equator}}. Contrast {{gli|Arctic Circle}}.}}

{{defn|A {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|stream}} or other {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|watercourse}} that existed before the present form of the surrounding land surface was established and which maintains its original course and pattern despite changes in the local geology or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|topography}}. For example, a landscape featuring a river with a dendritic drainage pattern may be altered by gradual, localized {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|tectonic uplift}}, but the river may be sufficiently powerful to erode through the new obstructions as rapidly as they are formed, carving a {{gli|gorge}} rather than being redirected, and thereby preserving its dendritic pattern even though it now flows over a landscape that typically produces very different drainage patterns. Compare {{gli|insequent stream}}.}}

{{defn|The conversion of open spaces, landscapes, and natural environments by human action.}}

{{defn|no=1|Of or relating to anthropogeny, the scientific study of the origins of human beings.}}

{{defn|no=2|Having an origin in human activity; caused by or attributable to humans.}}

{{defn|A stream flowing in a direction approximately opposite to that of the {{gli|dip}} of the underlying surface rocks. It is frequently, though not necessarily, an {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|obsequent}} stream.}}

{{defn|A geological {{gli|fold|upfold}} that has an arch-like convex shape and its oldest {{gli|beds}} near its center, often visible at the Earth's surface in exposed {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|stratum|rock strata}}. Contrast {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|syncline}}.}}

{{defn|no=1|The {{gli|meridian}} of {{gli|longitude}} that is directly opposite or {{gli|antipodes|antipodal}} to a given meridian, i.e. the imaginary line that is exactly 180 degrees of longitude distant from the given meridian. Together, a meridian and its antimeridian form a {{gli|great circle}} that passes through the geographic poles.}}

{{defn|no=2|The 180th meridian in particular, i.e. the meridian of longitude that is exactly 180 degrees both east and west of the {{gli|International Reference Meridian|Prime Meridian}}, with which it forms a great circle dividing the Earth into the {{gli|Eastern Hemisphere|Eastern}} and {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|Western Hemisphere|Western Hemispheres}}. The 180th meridian is used as the approximate basis for the {{gli|International Date Line}} because it mostly passes through the open waters of the Pacific Ocean.}}

{{defn|Any pair of points on the Earth's surface that are diametrically opposite to each other, such that a straight line connecting them would pass through the Earth's center. Such points are as far away from each other as possible, with the {{gli|great-circle distance}} between them being approximately {{convert|20000|km|mi}}.}}

{{defn|A geographic position which a {{gli|GPS}} receiver is able to calculate without requiring information about its own location or the local time.}}

{{defn|The {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|tide}} when the Moon is at its furthest distance from Earth in its orbit (its apogee), during which its gravitational pull is reduced, resulting in a smaller {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|tidal range}} than is usual, i.e. lower {{gli|high tides}} and higher {{gli|low tides}}. Contrast {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|perigean tide}}.}}

{{defn|The apparent position of an object in space as seen by an observer, which, because of physical and geometric effects, may differ from the object's true position.}}

{{defn|The application of geographical knowledge and techniques to the solution of economic and social problems on any scale, ranging from {{gli|local}} to {{gli|global}}, in disciplines such as civic planning, {{gli|land use}} and management, location policy, and population studies, among many others.}}

{{defn|A {{gli|glacier}} resulting from the merging of two separate glaciers.}}

{{defn|A spread of {{gli|alluvium}} deposited by streams, especially those originating from a melting {{gli|glacier}}. See also {{gli|alluvial fan}} and {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|outwash plain}}.}}

{{defn|A normally {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|permeable}} rock, underlying or overlying an {{gli|aquifer}}, which becomes impermeable because of the saturation of its pores by water, potentially creating a {{gli|confined aquifer}}.}}

{{defn|An underground layer of {{gli|groundwater|water-bearing}} {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|permeability|permeable}} rock, rock fractures, or unconsolidated materials such as gravel, sand, or silt, which is sufficiently porous to carry or conduct water yet also sufficiently coarse or non-absorptive to release the water and thereby permit its exposure to or access from the ground surface. Groundwater from aquifers may naturally emerge at the surface, e.g. at a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|spring}}, or may be extracted using man-made {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|wells}}. There are many different types of aquifer with various levels of {{gli|hydraulic conductivity}}.}}

File:Groundwater flow.svg

{{defn|An {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|permeability|impermeable}} rock stratum which not only obstructs the passage of water but cannot absorb it, e.g. granite.}}

{{defn|A {{gli|bed}} or layer of rock that slows the conveyance of water from an {{gli|aquifer}} due to its low {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|permeability}} or low {{gli|hydraulic conductivity}}.}}

{{defn|A chain, cluster, or collection of {{gli|islands}} in a sea.}}

{{defn|A sharp, narrow mountain {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|ridge}}, often resulting from the erosive activity of alpine {{gli|glaciers}} flowing in adjacent {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|valleys}}.}}

{{defn|A deep {{gli|gully}} cut by a stream that flows only part of the year; a dry {{gli|gulch}}. The term is used primarily in {{gli|desert}} areas in North America and South America.}}

{{defn|The region of the Earth that is north of the {{gli|Arctic Circle}}.}}

{{defn|The northernmost of the Earth's two {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|polar circle|polar circles}} of {{gli|latitude}}, north of which the sun appears above the {{gli|horizon}} for 24 continuous hours at least once per year (and is therefore visible at midnight) and also appears at least partially below the horizon for 24 continuous hours at least once per year (and is therefore not fully visible at noon). Its latitude is approximately 66°33′47.1″ north of the {{gli|Equator}}. Contrast {{gli|Antarctic Circle}}.}}

{{defn|Fragments of {{gli|lava}} or rock less than {{convert|1/3|cm|in}} in diameter that have been ejected into the atmosphere by a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|volcanic}} explosion.}}

{{defn|The direction toward which a {{gli|grade|slope}} faces with respect to a {{gli|compass}} or to the Sun's position in the sky, or the direction which a segment of {{gli|coast|coastline}} faces as it meets the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|sea}}.}}

{{defn|The act of adopting a culture different from one's own, usually due to immersion in a dominant culture. This is very common with people who migrate to another region that holds a different culture.}}

{{defn|The physiographic border between the Piedmont and Atlantic coastal plain regions of eastern North America. The name derives from the river rapids and {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|waterfalls}} that occur as the water flows from the hard rocks of the higher {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|piedmont}} onto the softer rocks of the {{gli|coastal plain}}.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|discordant coastline}}.}}

{{defn|A bound collection of {{gli|maps}}.}}

{{defn|The mixture of gases, aerosols, solid particles, and water vapor that envelops the Earth.}}

{{defn|A ring-shaped {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|reef|coral reef}} that partially or completely encircles a {{gli|lagoon}}.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|topographic prominence}}.}}

{{defn|A vertical or inclined shaft connecting a {{gli|cave}} passage to the surface.}}

{{defn|no=2|The rapid abandonment by a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|river}} or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|stream}} of an existing {{gli|channel}} in favor of the formation of a new channel, typically because the new channel follows a steeper or less obstructed course.}}

{{defn|All of the locations of which an individual is "aware", i.e. about which they have knowledge above some minimum level, even those they may not have actually visited. Awareness space includes {{gli|activity space}}, and it enlarges as new locations are discovered and new information is gathered. See also {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|search space}} and {{gli|mental map}}.}}

{{defn|no=1|(coordinate system) Any of the reference lines of a Cartesian coordinate system, from which the signed distances to each coordinate are measured, e.g. the x-axis or the y-axis.}}

{{defn|no=2|(of a {{gli|fold}}) The imaginary central line or plane dividing the limbs of the fold as symmetrically as possible; the crest from which {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|strata}} dip downward and away in an {{gli|anticline}}, or the lowest depth of the trough from which strata rise in opposite directions in a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|syncline}}.}}

{{defn|no=3|(of the Earth) The rotational axis of the Earth: the diameter between the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|North Geographic Pole}} and the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|South Geographic Pole}}, passing through the planet's geometric center, around which the Earth rotates anti-clockwise (i.e. to the east) once every 23 hours and 56 minutes. This axis is constantly tilted at an angle of about 66°30' with respect to the plane of the Earth's orbit around the Sun, which is the primary cause of the seasonal weather cycles experienced at temperate and polar latitudes.}}

{{defn|Another name for a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|shingle beach}} or other gravel-covered {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|spit}}, {{gli|bar}}, or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|tombolo}}, used primarily in the {{gli|archipelago|archipelagos}} of northern Scotland.}}

{{defn|The angle formed between a reference vector (often {{gli|magnetic north}}) and a line from the observer to a point of interest projected perpendicularly to the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|zenith}} on the same plane as the reference vector. Azimuth is usually measured in {{gli|degrees}} and can be determined with a {{gli|compass}}.}}

{{defn|A {{gli|map projection}} in which all {{gli|bearing|bearings}} are laid off correctly from the centerpoint of the map, so that all points on the map are true in distance and direction from the center.}}

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B

{{defn|Any geographical area that is remote, isolated, undeveloped, or difficult to access, as contrasted with {{gli|frontcountry}}; sparsely populated or uninhabited {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|wilderness}}. See also {{gli|bush}}.}}

{{defn|The part of a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|seashore}} lying inland from the {{gli|mean high water line}}, {{gli|landwards}} of the {{gli|foreshore}}, from which it is often delineated by the presence of a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|strandline}}. This part of the {{gli|beach}} is only affected by waves during exceptional {{gli|high tides}} or severe storms.}}

{{defn|The part of the profile of a {{gli|grade|hillslope}} that forms the steepest, typically linear portion of the slope, generally located in the middle and bounded by a convex {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|shoulder}} above and a concave {{gli|footslope}} below. The backslope may or may not include vertical or near-vertical {{gli|cliffs}}.}}

{{defn|The seaward return flow of a receding wave after it has broken on a {{gli|beach}} or other surface. Contrast {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|swash}}.}}

{{defn|no=1|A part of a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|river}} in which there is little or no current, especially a side channel, a sluggish {{gli|meander}}, or a slowing and widening of the {{gli|main stem}} created by an obstruction to flow.}}

{{defn|no=2|A place regarded as remote, underdeveloped, or culturally backward relative to other places; a place or state of stagnation, in which little or no economic, social, or intellectual progress occurs.}}

{{defn|In the Middle East, an arid area characterized by low or irregular precipitation and little or no vegetation.}}

{{defn|An area of rugged or irregular {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|topography}} resulting from extensive wind and water erosion of unconsolidated sedimentary rock.}}

{{defn|A series of adjacent {{gli|alluvial fans}} coalescing in a {{gli|depression|basin}} at the foot of a {{gli|mountain range}}.}}

{{defn|The political fragmentation of a larger {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|region}} or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|state}} into multiple smaller regions or states, often implying mutual hostility or lack of cooperation between such units, as has occurred frequently in the Balkan Peninsula of southeastern Europe.}}

{{defn|no=1|The land alongside a {{gli|body of water}}, particularly the sloping ground bordering and defining the {{gli|channel}} of a flowing {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|watercourse}} such as a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|river}} or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|stream}}.}}

{{defn|no=2|An elevation in the {{gli|bed}} of a river, stream, or shallow {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|sea}}, either fully or partially submerged, mid-channel or connected to the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|shore}}, and usually made of sand, mud, gravel, or other loose sediment. See also {{gli|bar}} and {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|shoal}}.}}

{{defn|no=3|Another name for a {{gli|hill}} or hillside.}}

{{defn|The {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|stream stage|stage}} during which the {{gli|channel}} of a river or stream is completely filled with water from {{gli|bank}} to bank, immediately preceding the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|overbank stage}}, when the river overflows its banks and inundates the surrounding {{gli|floodplain}}.}}

{{defn|An elevated area of unconsolidated sediment such as sand or gravel which has been deposited by the flow of a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|river}} or other moving body of water. See also {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|shoal}}.}}

{{defn|An {{gli|impoundment}} built for seasonal floodwater storage and/or to create a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|reservoir}} for irrigation, as opposed to a {{gli|dam}}, which instead serves the purpose of hydroelectric power generation, though the terms are sometimes used more or less interchangeably.}}

{{defn|A long, narrow {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|ridge}} or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|shoal}} lying above the {{gli|highest high water|highest high tide}} level (thereby creating an {{gli|island}}) and parallel to the mainland {{gli|coast}}, from which it is separated by a {{gli|lagoon}}. Barrier islands are analogous to very large sandbars deposited naturally by wave and tidal action, often in extensive chains along the coastline, but may also be created artificially by {{gli|dredging}}. Though their size and shape change frequently, particularly during storms, they are important natural {{gli|breakwaters}} which shelter areas of relatively calm waters where {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|wetlands}} and marine life flourish. See also {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|spit}} and {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|tied island}}.}}

File:Accreting coast Image6.svg

{{defn|A {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|reef|coral reef}} lying parallel to a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|shore}} and some distance from it, creating a sheltered {{gli|lagoon}} which the reef protects from the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|open ocean}}.}}

{{defn|Any steep, unnavigable {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|ridge}} or {{gli|escarpment}} isolating one {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|terrain}} from another.}}

{{defn|In the Spanish-speaking world, a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|neighborhood}} or community within a larger urban area, generally with informal boundaries, though in some places the term may refer to a formal {{gli|administrative subdivision|subdivision}} of a {{gli|municipality}}.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|tumulus}}.}}

{{defn|The {{gli|Earth's core}} and {{gli|mantle}} considered together, i.e. all of the Earth's interior beneath the {{gli|lithosphere}}.}}

{{defn|The lowest level to which a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|stream}} can erode its {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|streambed|bed}}. The ultimate base level of all streams is {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|sea level}}.}}

{{defn|An accurately measured line of known length on the Earth's surface, used as a reference line in {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|triangulation}} and other {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|surveying}} operations.}}

{{defn|Another name for a {{gli|depression}}, particularly one that is approximately circular, level or nearly level at the bottom, and/or surrounded on all sides by land of uniform elevation.}}

{{defn|A very large body of {{gli|igneous rock}}, usually granite, which has been exposed by erosion of the overlying rock.}}

{{defn|no=1|The measurement of water depth, mainly of {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|seas}} and {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|oceans}} but sometimes of deep {{gli|lakes}}.}}

{{defn|no=2|The study and depiction of the physical features or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|terrain|relief}} of the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|seabed|floor}} of a lake or ocean. In this sense bathymetry is considered the underwater equivalent of {{gli|hypsometry}} or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|topography}}.}}

{{defn|A {{gli|coastal}} body of water that is directly connected to but recessed from a larger body of water, such as an {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|ocean}}, {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|sea}}, {{gli|lake}}, or another bay. The land surrounding a bay usually shelters it from strong winds and waves, making bays ideal places for {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|ports}} and {{gli|harbors}}.}}

{{defn|In the southern United States, a sluggish or stagnant {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|slough}} or {{gli|backwater}}, or a {{gli|marsh|marshy}} outlet of a {{gli|lake}} or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|river}}.}}

{{defn|A landform along the {{gli|coast|shoreline}} of an {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|ocean}}, {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|sea}}, {{gli|lake}}, or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|river}} with a loose surface of sand, gravel, shingle, pebbles, shells, stones, or coral.}}

{{defn|The direction or position of an object, or the direction of an object's movement, relative to a fixed point. It is typically measured in {{gli|degrees}} and can be determined with a {{gli|compass}}. By convention, {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|North Magnetic Pole|magnetic north}} is defined as having a bearing of zero degrees.}}

{{defn|The solid rock in the Earth's {{gli|crust}} that underlies all soil and other loose material; the rock material that breaks down eventually to form soil.}}

{{defn|A large {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|region}} or {{gli|district}} (often but not necessarily a broad, elongated area of vague or indeterminate boundaries) identified or associated with one or more particular, distinctive characteristics, e.g. of climate (banana belt), vegetation (Pine Belt), topography (Alpide belt), geology or mineral resources (Lead Belt), agriculture (Corn Belt), land use ({{gli|green belt}}), language or ethnicity (Hindi Belt), or social/cultural demographics (Bible Belt). See also {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|regionalism}}.}}

{{defn|A narrow step, shelf, ledge, or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|terrace}}, typically backed by a steep slope, produced either naturally (e.g. by erosion, as with a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|wave-cut platform|wave-cut bench}}) or artificially (e.g. by mining).}}

{{defn|A {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|surveying}} mark cut or embedded into a durable, fixed material, such as a rock or the wall of a building, for which the height above some designated {{gli|datum level}} has been accurately measured.}}

{{multiple image|total_width=250|direction=vertical|image1=Benchmark in Edinburgh.jpg|image2=USCGS-E134.jpg|footer=A traditional {{gli|benchmark}} of the British Ordnance Survey, consisting of a chiseled arrow indicating a horizontal line (top), and a modern bronze disc benchmark of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey (bottom)}}

{{defn|no=1|A {{gli|mountain}} or hill; a {{gli|cliff}} face or precipice.}}

{{defn|no=2|Another name for a {{gli|bergschrund}}, {{gli|iceberg}}, or {{gli|inselberg}}.}}

{{defn|A {{gli|crevasse}} or series of parallel crevasses that opens in a {{gli|glacier}} when a mass of moving ice detaches and pulls away from stagnant ice or {{gli|firn}}. Bergschrunds are common in mountainous areas, often forming seasonally near the back of a {{gli|cirque}} where the ice meets a steep or rocky {{gli|headwall}}. When the rift forms directly between ice and rock, the gap is called a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|randkluft}}.}}

{{defn|no=1|A level space, shelf, or raised barrier separating two areas, often man-made and built of compacted earth. Berms often function as {{gli|dam|impoundments}}, fortification lines, or {{gli|border}} walls and other lines of demarcation.}}

{{defn|no=2|A low, impermanent, nearly horizontal or landward-sloping shelf, {{gli|bench}}, or narrow {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|terrace}} on the {{gli|backshore}} of a {{gli|beach}} and parallel to the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|shore|shoreline}}, formed by waves which deposit material beyond the average {{gli|high water mark}}, e.g. during storms. Some beaches have no berms; others may have one or more.}}

{{defn|A bend or curve in a coastline, river, or other geographical feature typically indicating an especially large, open {{gli|bay}} that is shallower than a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|sound}}.}}

{{defn|In Australia, a branch of a river that is {{gli|meander cutoff|cut off}} when the main stem changes course, leaving an elongated and often ephemeral {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|waterhole}} or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|oxbow lake}}.}}

{{defn|The study of the distribution of biological species and ecosystems in geographic space and through geological time.}}

{{defn|The outer part of the {{gli|lithosphere}}, specifically the part which is also part of the {{gli|biosphere}}, from the surface of the Earth to the greatest subterranean depths at which organic life can exist.}}

{{defn|A concept recognizing the variety of life forms in an area of the Earth and the ecological interdependence of these life forms.}}

{{defn|A large ecosystem characterized by a distinct climate, flora, and fauna.}}

{{defn|The entirety of all biological systems on Earth, integrating all living beings and ecosystems; the realm in which biological organisms live.}}

{{defn|The animal and plant life of a region, considered as a total ecological entity.}}

{{defn|The water of a slow-moving river {{gli|channel}} flowing through a forested {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|swamp}} or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|wetland}}, characterized by high concentrations of tannins leached from decaying vegetation, which gives it a darkly stained color and high acidity.}}

{{defn|A surface of broken, boulder-sized rock fragments found in {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|periglacial}} or volcanic environments,{{cite book |last1=Mayhew |first1=Susan |title=A Dictionary of Geography |date=2023 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=9780192896391 |edition=6th}} created in situ by processes other than {{gli|mass wasting}}, often by frost weathering in the joints of larger rocks.}}

{{defn|A hole or {{gli|fissure}}, especially a nearly vertical one, that is the landward opening of a {{gli|cave|sea cave}}, frequently spouting or spraying air and {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|salt water|seawater}} as waves crash against the cave's seaward opening.}}

{{defn|A sandy {{gli|depression}} formed when wind erodes into patches of bare sand on otherwise vegetation-stabilized {{gli|sand dunes}} at the margins of coastal and arid ecosystems.}}

{{defn|A steep slope or {{gli|cliff}} marking the outer margin of a {{gli|floodplain}}, especially one formed as the river erodes the concave bend of a {{gli|meander}}. See also {{gli|cut bank}}.}}

{{defn|A landscape of mixed woodland and {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|pasture}}, with fields and winding country lanes sunken between low, narrow ridges and banks surmounted by tall, thick {{gli|hedgerows}}, especially as found in rural parts of western Europe.}}

{{term|body of water}}{{anchor|bodies of water|water body|water bodies|waterbody|waterbodies}}

{{defn|Any significant accumulation of water, either natural or artificial, on the surface of the Earth. Bodies of water may hold or contain water, as with {{gli|lakes}} and {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|oceans}}, or they may collect and move water from one place to another, as with {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|rivers}}, {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|streams}}, and other {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|watercourses}}.}}

{{ghat|Also mire, quagmire, or {{gli|muskeg}}.}}

{{defn|A type of {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|wetland}} which accumulates deposits of dead plant material, especially mosses, known as peat. Bogs occur where the water at the ground surface is acidic and low in dissolved nutrients. They are one of four main types of wetland.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|salient}}.}}

{{defn|The geographical boundary of a political entity or legal jurisdiction, such as a {{gli|country}}, {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|state}}, or other subnational entity.}}

{{defn|no=1|(tidal) A steep-fronted wave formed by the convergence of two {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|tide|tidal bulges}} or by the constriction of an incoming tide as it travels up a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|river}}, {{gli|firth}}, or narrow {{gli|bay}}, temporarily reversing the direction of the current.}}

{{defn|no=2|(hole) A deep, man-made hole or shaft drilled into the ground, e.g. in mining, or for digging a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|well}} or tunnel.}}

{{defn|A bald, steep-sided, dome-shaped hill, mountain, or rock {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|outcrop|outcropping}} at least {{convert|30|m|ft}} in height and several hundred meters in width. Compare {{gli|inselberg}}, {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|tor}}, and {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|nubbin}}.}}

{{defn|A type of {{gli|administrative division|administrative subdivision}} in certain English-speaking parts of the world. Though traditionally used to refer to a fortress or a walled {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|town}}, modern usage of the term can variably refer to any town with its own local self-government, a formal or informal subdivision of a large {{gli|metropolis}} (as in New York City and London), or an entire administrative {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|region}} (as in the U.S. state of Alaska).}}

{{defn|See {{gli|floodplain}}.}}

{{defn|The replacement of the narrow, congested, winding streets of an older town or neighborhood with wider, more modern streets or boulevards, often according to a carefully plotted grid layout.}}

{{defn|Any line of demarcation, real or imaginary, visible or invisible, natural or artificial, with or without legal significance, which may be perceived from either or both sides of the line, indicating the place at which two or more geographical areas of distinct ownership, administration, legal jurisdiction, or any other quality meet; e.g. a {{gli|border}} separating political or {{gli|administrative divisions}}, zones of occupation, natural areas, or private and public property. See also {{gli|frontier}}.}}

{{ghat|Also bourn, born, borne, and {{gli|burn}}.}}

{{defn|no=1|A seasonal or {{gli|intermittent stream}} flowing from a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|spring}} in an otherwise dry {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|valley}}, and whose flow depends on the level of the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|water table}}; or the spring or fount itself. The term is used primarily in the {{gli|downland|chalklands}} of southern England. See also {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|winterbourne}}.}}

{{defn|A short, narrow {{gli|canyon}} with steep walls on three sides, allowing entry and exit only through the {{gli|mouth}} of the canyon.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|canebrake}}.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|drift ice}}.}}

{{defn|A region of a country or other polity which supports a large proportion of the country's domestic food production (especially of wheat and other grains) due to its fertile soils, favorable climate, and/or relative accessibility to agricultural interests.}}

{{defn|no=1|Any more or less abrupt change in the profile of a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|slope}} or hillside.}}

{{defn|no=2|A heavily eroded area along a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|river}} featuring steep {{gli|banks}}, {{gli|bluffs}}, {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|ravines}}, or {{gli|canyon|gorges}}. The term is used chiefly in the plural (i.e. breaks) and primarily in the United States and Canada.}}

{{defn|no=1|Another name for a {{gli|breaking wave}}.}}

{{defn|no=2|A {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|reef}}, {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|shoal}}, {{gli|bar}}, {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|skerry}}, or area of shallow water against which waves routinely break.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|surf zone}}.}}

{{defn|A transfer point on a transport route where the mode of transport or type of carrier changes and where large-volume shipments are reduced in size. For example, goods may be unloaded from a ship and transferred to trucks at an ocean port.}}

{{defn|A wave of water on the surface of an {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|ocean}}, {{gli|lake}}, or other {{gli|body of water}} with enough energy that, upon reaching a peak size or velocity, its crest "breaks" or overturns upon itself with a distinct forward curve, with the linear energy transforming into turbulence. Waves tend to break as they enter areas of shallow water, most reliably near {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|shorelines}}, where the decreasing depth of the sea floor beneath them forces them to grow to a critical height at which point they overturn and the remaining forward energy is dissipated upon the {{gli|beach}} as {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|swash}}, though other forces may also cause breaking, including stormy weather and passing watercraft.}}

{{defn|Any man-made structure built on the {{gli|coast}} of a body of water, typically the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|sea}}, in order to reduce the intensity of wave action in an area adjacent to the shore, thereby providing safe harbourage for human activities in the inshore waters. Breakwaters may also be designed to protect the coastline from coastal erosion and {{gli|longshore drift}}.}}

{{defn|Any previously developed area of land that is no longer in use, often with derelict buildings and infrastructure, in some contexts implying land that has been abandoned because of pollution or contamination. Compare {{gli|greenfield}}.}}

{{defn|Low-lying, woody, often dense vegetation or plant debris, e.g. {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|scrub}}; a thicket of small trees and shrubs, or the plant community characterized by vegetation dominated by shrubs.}}

{{defn|The human-made spaces that provide the setting for human activity, in which people live, work, and recreate on a day-to-day basis.}}

{{defn|A type of {{gli|administrative division|administrative subdivision}} in Scotland and northern England, equivalent to a {{gli|borough}}.}}

{{defn|In parts of the United Kingdom, Australia, and New Zealand, a large {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|stream}} or a small {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|river}}. See also {{gli|bourne}}.}}

{{defn|Wild, undeveloped, or uncultivated land, especially when covered by thick shrubs and vegetation; sparsely populated or uninhabited {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|wilderness}}. See also {{gli|backcountry}}, {{gli|hinterland}}, {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|outback}}, and {{gli|bushveld}}.}}

{{defn|In southern Africa, a tropical or subtropical woodland {{gli|ecoregion}} consisting largely of open {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|savanna}} with scattered trees; wild countryside as opposed to cultivated land.}}

{{defn|An isolated {{gli|hill}} or {{gli|mountain}} with steep or precipitous sides, usually having a smaller summit area than a {{gli|mesa}}.}}

{{defn|no=1|A {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|route}} which diverges around a place rather than traveling through it, especially a road or footpath built specifically for the purpose of diverting automobile or pedestrian traffic away from areas that are congested, blocked, under construction, or unsafe.}}

{{defn|no=2|See {{gli|flood bypass}}.}}

{{Compact ToC|side=yes|center=yes|top=yes|extlinks=yes|seealso=yes|refs=yes|nobreak=yes|n=N|o=O|p=P|q=Q|r=R|s=S|t=T|u=U|v=V|w=W|x=X|y=Y|z=Z}}

C

{{defn|A type of parcel-based land recording system containing a comprehensive record of interests in individual units of land within a {{gli|country}} or other polity, usually including a geometric description of each parcel's physical location, dimensions, and {{gli|metes and bounds|boundaries}} that is linked to legal information detailing the nature of the interests (e.g. rights, restrictions, and responsibilities), the ownership or control of those interests, and the economic value of the land and its improvements. The cadastre is a fundamental source of data used in resolving disputes between landowners.}}

{{defn|A man-made stack or {{gli|mound}} of rocks, stones, or masonry, usually roughly conical or pyramidal in shape, constructed as a burial mound, to mark a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|surveyed}} point, or as a {{gli|landmark}} or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|waypoint}} to aid {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|routefinding}} on a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|route}} that is otherwise unmarked and difficult to distinguish from the surrounding environment.}}

{{defn|A narrow, steep-sided {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|valley}} surrounding an {{gli|inlet}} formed in {{gli|karstic}} regions along the Mediterranean coast, either by {{gli|fluvial}} erosion or the collapse of the roof of a {{gli|cave}} that has been subsequently partially submerged by a rise in {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|sea level}}.}}

{{defn|A very large cauldron-shaped {{gli|depression}} of volcanic origin which forms through the subsidence and collapse of the ground surface following the evacuation of an underlying magma chamber. See also {{gli|volcanic crater}}.}}

File:Ngorongoro topo.jpg in northern Tanzania, the world's largest inactive, intact, and unfilled volcanic {{gli|caldera}}, which formed when an immense volcano erupted and collapsed on itself 2–3 million years ago. The floor of the caldera is {{convert|600|metres|feet}} below its rim and covers more than {{convert|260|km2|mi2}}.]]

{{defn|no=1|In the Spanish-speaking world, the rural countryside or the {{gli|bush}}.}}

{{defn|no=2|In Brazil, an area of level, open {{gli|grassland}} with scattered trees, comparable to a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|savanna}}.}}

{{defn|A navigable artificial water {{gli|channel}}, usually built as a conduit for human activity.}}

{{defn|A dense thicket of giant cane grasses, often lining a {{gli|bank|riverbank}} or other body of water. The term is used primarily in the southeastern United States.}}

{{defn|A deep cleft between {{gli|cliffs}} or {{gli|escarpments}}, or a rift between two mountain peaks, resulting from {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|weathering}} and the erosive activity of a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|river}} over long periods of geologic time.}}

{{defn|A large {{gli|headland}} or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|promontory}} extending into a body of water, usually a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|sea}} or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|ocean}}.}}

{{defn|The soil layer lying immediately above the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|water table}}, in which water is drawn up and held within pore spaces by capillarity.}}

{{defn|no=1|A primary {{gli|city}} or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|town}} of a country, state, province, or other subnational polity, especially one that is a seat of government for the entire polity, either by law or by virtue of being the physical location of the government's offices and meeting places, or both. A capital is often but not always the largest or most economically or historically important city of its constituent. A polity may have one or more capitals, or none.}}

{{defn|no=2|Any place considered to have informal primacy or importance with respect to some characteristic or association, e.g. Milan, Italy is sometimes unofficially called the "Fashion Capital of the World".}}

{{defn|A stratum of erosion-resistant {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|sedimentary rock}} (usually limestone) found in arid areas. Caprock forms the top layer of most {{gli|mesas}} and {{gli|buttes}}.}}

{{defn|The set of four primary directions used in {{gli|cartography}} and {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|navigation}}: north (N), south (S), east (E), and west (W). Together they form the primary divisions of the {{gli|compass rose}}. They can be further subdivided into the {{gli|intercardinal directions}} and {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|secondary-intercardinal directions}}.}}

{{defn|The total number of human beings that an area can support given the quality of the natural environment and the level of technology of the population.}}

{{defn|The study and practice of making {{gli|maps}} and {{gli|charts}}. A person who draws or makes maps or charts is called a cartographer.}}

{{defn|A map in which some thematic mapping variable, such as travel time, population, or gross national product, is substituted for traditional measures of land area or distance such that the geometry or space of the map is distorted in order to convey and emphasize the information of the alternate variable.}}

{{defn|A decorative panel or emblem on a {{gli|map}} or a {{gli|globe}}, enclosing the title, {{gli|legend}}, {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|scale}}, or any other information.{{cite book |title=Glossary of the Mapping Sciences |date=1994 |publisher=American Society of Civil Engineers, American Congress on Surveying and Mapping, and American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing |location=New York, NY |isbn=0-7844-0050-4 |url=https://openlibrary.org/works/OL19347572W/The_Glossary_of_the_Mapping_Sciences}}}}

{{defn|See {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|tor}}.}}

{{defn|A large {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|waterfall}}, or a long series of {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|rapids}} in a river, of the type occurring in the river Nile.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|drainage basin}}.}}

{{defn|A track, road, or railway raised above a body of water or a low-lying place by virtue of being built upon a man-made embankment, typically constructed of earth, masonry, wood, or concrete. Compare {{gli|bridge}}.}}

{{defn|Any naturally hollow underground space large enough for a person to enter.}}

{{defn|A type of solutional {{gli|cave}} that is formed in soluble rock with the ability to grow speleothems.}}

{{defn|A small, sandy, low-elevation {{gli|island}} on the surface of an otherwise submerged {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|reef|coral reef}}; a type of coral island. Compare {{gli|atoll}}.}}

{{defn|Either of the two imaginary points in the sky at which an indefinitely extended projection of the Earth's axis of rotation intersects the celestial sphere. As the Earth rotates upon its axis, the north and south celestial poles remain permanently fixed in the sky (directly overhead to observers at the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|North Geographic Pole|North Pole}} and {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|South Geographic Pole|South Pole}}, respectively), and all other points appear to rotate around them.}}

{{defn|A natural pit or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|sinkhole}} resulting from the collapse of limestone {{gli|bedrock}} which exposes {{gli|groundwater}} underneath.}}

{{defn|A concentration of population identified by the United States Census Bureau for statistical purposes.}}

{{defn|A centrally located commercial business {{gli|district}} in an {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|urban}} area, typically containing a concentration of office and retail activities.}}

{{defn|The point in a geometric figure for which the coordinates are the average values of the coordinates of all other points in the figure, i.e. the arithmetic mean position of all points in the figure; or the point with the smallest possible average distance from all other points of the figure. In geography, the {{gli|geographical center}} of a region of the Earth's surface is the centroid of the two-dimensional shape of that region, as projected radially to {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|sea level}} or onto a {{gli|geoid}}.}}

{{defn|A unit of length equal to {{convert|66|ft|m|sigfig=5}}, used especially in public land {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|surveys}} in the United States; 10 square chains is equal to {{convert|1|acre|hectare}}. Though the literal chains used to measure this distance have long been superseded, surveying tapes are often still called "chains", and measuring with a tape may be called "chaining".{{cite book |last1=Thompson |first1=Morris M. |title=Maps for America: Cartographic products of the U.S. Geological Survey and others |date=1988 |publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office |location=Washington, D.C. |edition=3rd |url=https://pubs.usgs.gov/unnumbered/70178836/report.pdf}}}}

{{defn|no=1|A {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|waterway}} separating two relatively close landmasses.}}

{{defn|no=2|Any narrow {{gli|body of water}} that connects two larger bodies of water.}}

{{defn|no=3|The deepest part of a shallow body of water, often used as a passageway for large ships.}}

{{defn|A class of terrestrial vegetation characterized by dense, impenetrable thickets of thorny shrubs or dwarf broadleaved trees, commonly found in northern Mexico and the southwestern United States.}}

{{defn|A special-purpose {{gli|map}} designed for {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|navigation}}, especially nautical and aeronautical navigation, or to present specific data or technical information.{{cite book |last1=Thompson |first1=Morris M. |title=Maps for America: Cartographic products of the U.S. Geological Survey and others |date=1988 |publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office |location=Washington, D.C. |edition=3rd |url=https://pubs.usgs.gov/unnumbered/70178836/report.pdf}}}}

{{defn|A triangular or V-shaped erosional microform which characteristically develops on the shallow flanks of cuestas in arid regions.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|salient}}.}}

{{defn|A steep-sided {{gli|coastal}} {{gli|gorge}}, typically of soft eroding {{gli|cliffs}} of sandstone or clay, through which a river or stream flows to the sea. The term is used primarily in southern England.}}

{{defn|A warm, dry wind experienced along the eastern side of the Rocky Mountains in the United States and Canada. Most common in winter and spring, it can result in a rise in temperature of {{convert|20|C-change|F-change}} in a quarter of an hour.}}

{{defn|The art of establishing, describing, or mapping a geographic {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|region}} or {{gli|district}}, or more broadly, the representation of space or place.}}

{{defn|The study of the causal relations of the phenomena present in a region; a comprehensive explanatory study of a region.}}

{{defn|A {{gli|map}} showing the distribution of a phenomenon by graded shading which indicates the density per unit area of that phenomenon; the darker the shading, the greater the density.{{cite book |last1=Mayhew |first1=Susan |title=A Dictionary of Geography |date=1997 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=0-19-280034-5 |edition=2nd |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofgeog0000mayh }}}}

{{defn|An ephemeral, often highly {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|saline lake}} that forms seasonally with fluctuations in the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|water table}}, usually in the winter, in the {{gli|desert}} basins of Northwest Africa.{{cite book |editor1-last=Goudie |editor1-first=Andrew |editor2-last=Atkinson |editor2-first=B. W. |editor3-last=Gregory |editor3-first=K. J. |editor4-last=Simmons |editor4-first=I. E. |editor5-last=Stoddart |editor5-first=D. R. |editor6-last=Sugden |editor6-first=David |title=The Encyclopedic Dictionary of Physical Geography |date=1994 |publisher=Basil Blackwell Ltd |location=Oxford, UK |isbn=0631186077 |ol=1419551M |edition=2nd |url=https://openlibrary.org/books/OL1419551M/The_Encyclopedic_dictionary_of_physical_geography}}}}

{{defn|A steep-sided {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|volcano}} formed by the explosive eruption of cinders that form around a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|volcanic vent|vent}}. Cinders are {{gli|lava}} fragments about {{convert|1|cm|in}} in diameter.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|parallel}}.}}

{{defn|An amphitheatre-shaped {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|valley}} surrounded on three or more sides by steep, {{gli|cliff}}-like slopes and formed by glacial or fluvial erosion.}}

{{defn|A large human {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|settlement}}, generally with extensive systems constructed for housing, transportation, sanitation, utilities, and communication.}}

{{defn|The commercial, cultural, political, or historical focal point of a {{gli|city}} or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (M–Z)|urban}} area, where a significant proportion of its population, workforce, business, traffic, administration, and/or other activity is concentrated, often though not necessarily located near its geographic center. The city center may include or overlap with a {{gli|central business district}} or {{gli|downtown}} area, and the terms are commonly used interchangeably.}}

{{defn|A sovereign {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|state}} or small independent {{gli|country}} that usually consists of a single {{gli|city}} and its dependent territories.}}

{{defn|no=1|The practice of permanently removing vegetation, especially trees and bushes, from a {{gli|forest}} or woodland in order to use the space for another purpose, such as agriculture, civic development, or paths for roads, railways, or power lines.}}

{{defn|no=2|Another name for a {{gli|glade}}.}}

{{defn|Any vertical or nearly vertical rock exposure, usually formed by the processes of {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|weathering}} and {{gli|erosion}}.}}

{{defn|A {{gli|coastline}} where the repeated action of ocean waves has formed steep and often precipitous {{gli|cliffs}}, as opposed to a flat or gently sloping {{gli|alluvial coast}}.}}

{{defn|The vegetation that would exist in an area if growth had proceeded undisturbed for an extended period. This would be the "final" collection of plant types that presumably would remain forever, or until the stable conditions were somehow disturbed.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|inclinometer}}.}}

{{ghat|Also coastline, seashore, and {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|seaboard}}.}}

{{defn|The area where {{gli|land}} meets a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|sea}} or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|ocean}}. Compare {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|shore}}.}}

{{defn|Of, on, or pertaining to a {{gli|coast}} or coastline, i.e. a boundary or transition between {{gli|land}} and {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|sea}}. Coastal areas are regions defined by interactions between terrestrial and marine processes.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|wave-cut platform}}.}}

{{defn|A measure of the degree of {{gli|localization}} or spatial concentration of a given phenomenon, e.g. residential housing or industrial activity, within a particular space or spaces. Values for this variable, often mathematically symbolized as {{math|L}}, range from 0 (where the phenomenon is evenly distributed across all spaces) and 1 (where it is densely concentrated in one space and completely absent elsewhere).}}

{{defn|The lowest point on a {{gli|mountain}} {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|ridge}} between two peaks.}}

{{defn|The complementary angle of a given {{gli|latitude}}; i.e. the arithmetic difference between 90 degrees and the given latitude. For example, the colatitude of {{deg2DMS|{{decdeg|36|22|49|N}}}} is {{deg2DMS|{{decdeg|53|37|11}}}}.{{cite book |last1=Clark |first1=Audrey N. |title=The Penguin Dictionary of Geography |date=2003 |publisher=Penguin Books |location=London, England |isbn=0140515054 |ol=3706101M |edition=3rd |url=https://openlibrary.org/books/OL3706101M/The_Penguin_dictionary_of_geography}}}}

{{defn|A {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|territory}} under the immediate complete political control of a sovereign {{gli|metropolitan state}} but otherwise distinct, often geographically, from the state's home territory. Colonies have no international representation independent of the metropolitan state and its ruling country controls its trade for its benefit. Compare {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|satellite state}}.}}

{{defn|Loose, unconsolidated sediment that has been transported and {{gli|deposited}} at the base of a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|slope|hillslope}} by any of various wash or {{gli|mass wasting|mass movement}} processes, such as {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|surface runoff}}, {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|sheet erosion}}, or {{gli|landslides}}. Typically a heterogeneous mixture of rock types and sizes ranging from silt to {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|talus}} boulders, colluvium is often derived from {{gli|eluvium}}, and differs from {{gli|alluvium}}, which is deposited primarily by {{gli|fluvial}} activity.}}

{{ghat|Variously comb, coomb, coombe, and cumb.}}

{{defn|A steep, narrow {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|valley}} or a large hollow on the side of a {{gli|hill}} or {{gli|coastline}}, especially one enclosed on all but one side. The term is used primarily in southern England, where it often implies a dry {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|ravine}} in a limestone or chalk {{gli|escarpment}}. See also {{gli|cwm}}.}}

{{defn|no=1|Traditionally, a political community founded for the benefit of all or most of the members of the community, i.e. for the public welfare or the common good; or a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|state}} or other polity in which the supreme power of government is vested in the people being governed; a republic or a democracy.{{cite book|last=Barclay|first=James|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zo87PD4-pCUC&pg=PP242|title=Barclay's English Dictionary|date=1791|publisher=Nicholson & Company|language=en}}}}

{{defn|no=2|A free association of otherwise individual, autonomous, self-governing territories organized as a {{gli|federation}} or confederation, with a jointly operated government being charged with responsibility for certain matters in the common interest, such as defense.}}

{{defn|An instrument used for {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|navigation}} and orientation that indicates direction relative to the geographic {{gli|cardinal directions}} by measuring the orientation of the Earth's magnetic field with respect to the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|North Magnetic Pole}}. Compasses often display markings for angles or {{gli|degrees}}, which allow them to show {{gli|azimuths}} and {{gli|bearings}}, in addition to a {{gli|compass rose}}.}}

{{ghat|Also compass star, wind rose, or rose of the winds.}}

{{defn|A figure on a {{gli|compass}}, {{gli|map}}, nautical chart, or monument used to display the orientation of the four {{gli|cardinal directions}} — North, East, South, and West — and their intermediate points.}}

File:Compass rose browns 00.svg

{{defn|A {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|traverse}} which relies on the indications of a magnetic {{gli|compass}} for orienting the traverse as a whole or for determining the directions of individual lines.}}

{{defn|The place at which two or more {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|rivers}} or other {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|watercourses}} flow together to form one larger river or watercourse.}}

{{defn|The characteristic of a group of neighboring political or geographical divisions not being interrupted by politically unaffiliated land or water. Such divisions are said to be contiguous.}}

{{defn|One of several very large, contiguous {{gli|landmasses}} into which the Earth's land area is divided, generally by geographical or political convention rather than any strict criteria. Geologically, continents correspond largely to areas of continental crust on {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|plate tectonics|continental plates}}.}}

{{defn|The type of climate found in the interior of the major continents in the middle or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|temperate zone|temperate}} latitudes. The climate is characterized by a great seasonal variation in temperatures, four distinct seasons, and a relatively small annual precipitation.}}

{{defn|The line of high ground that separates the different oceanic {{gli|drainage basins}} of a particular {{gli|continent}}. The river systems of a continent on opposite sides of a continental divide flow toward different oceans. See {{gli|drainage divide}}.}}

{{defn|A portion of a {{gli|continent}} that is submerged beneath an area of relatively shallow water known as a shelf sea. Though continental shelves are usually treated as physiographic provinces of the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|ocean}}, they are not part of the deep ocean basin proper but the flooded margins of the continent.}}

{{defn|The quality of being located on a {{gli|continent}}.}}

{{defn|A line marked on a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|topographic map}} which connects points of equal {{gli|elevation}} above or below a specified reference {{gli|geodetic datum|datum}}. Multiple contour lines, each representing a different elevation, are depicted together to show the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|topography|shape}} of the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|terrain}} within the map area.}}

{{defn|The difference in {{gli|elevation}} between any two adjacent {{gli|contour lines}} as depicted on a particular topographic map.}}

{{defn|An extensive urban area formed when two or more initially separate {{gli|cities}} coalesce to form a continuous {{gli|metropolitan area}}.}}

{{defn|A long chain of {{gli|mountain ranges}} or {{gli|highlands}}, especially those formed by the same orogeny and spanning the length of a {{gli|continent}} along {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|tectonic plate|tectonic}} boundaries. The term is used in particular to refer to the American Cordillera, an almost continuous system of parallel ranges lining the west coasts of North, Central, and South America.}}

{{defn|The portion of a country or territory that contains its economic, political, intellectual, and cultural focus. It is often the center of creativity and change. See also {{gli|hearth}}.}}

{{defn|An accumulation of ice and wind-blown snow overhanging the edge of a ridge or cliff face, usually on the {{gli|lee}} side of a steep mountain.}}

{{defn|The process of mechanical {{gli|erosion}} of the Earth's surface by the impact or grinding action of particles being transported across it, either by moving water, waves, glaciers, wind, or gravity.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|tarn}}.}}

{{defn|Occurring worldwide; belonging to all parts of the world and free of geographical or political limitations. See also {{gli|global}}.}}

{{defn|A dry {{gli|canyon}} eroded by Pleistocene floods that cut into the lava beds of the Columbia Plateau in the western United States.}}

{{defn|A narrow {{gli|gully}} with a steep gradient in a mountainous terrain, often enclosed by sheer {{gli|cliffs}} and filled with snow or ice even during the summer months.}}

{{defn|A {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|region}} identified as a distinct national entity in {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|political geography}}. Compare {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|state}}.}}

{{defn|A type of subnational division of a {{gli|country}} or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|state|federal state}} used for administrative or other purposes.}}

{{defn|The {{gli|cardinal direction}} in which a vessel or aircraft is moving, or in which it is steered. This is not necessarily the same as the {{gli|heading}}, the direction in which the craft's bow or nose is pointed; any difference between heading and course is due to the motion of the air or water through which the vessel is moving, or other aerodynamic effects such as skidding or slipping. See also {{gli|bearing}}.}}

{{defn|no=1|A walled, rounded, {{gli|cirque}}-like opening at the head of a small {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|valley}}.}}

{{defn|no=2|A small, narrow, sheltered {{gli|bay}}, {{gli|inlet}}, {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|tidal creek}}, or recess in an {{gli|estuary}}, often within a larger embayment.}}

{{defn|no=3|A small, often approximately circular, wave-cut indentation or recess in a {{gli|cliff}} on a large body of water, especially one with a relatively narrow or secluded entrance.}}

{{defn|no=4|A shallow tidal river, or the {{gli|backwater}} near the {{gli|mouth}} of a tidal river.}}

{{defn|Any large, roughly circular {{gli|depression}}, pit, or hole in the Earth's surface. Craters are classified into different types based on their ultimate causes; see {{gli|impact crater}}, {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|volcanic crater}}, and {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|pit crater}}.}}

{{defn|A {{gli|lake}} that forms in a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|volcanic crater}} or {{gli|caldera}} (such as a {{gli|maar}}), an {{gli|impact crater}} left by a meteorite, or a crater resulting from a man-made explosion.}}

{{defn|An old and stable region of {{gli|continent|continental}} {{gli|lithosphere}}, characterized by a thick {{gli|crust}} composed of ancient crystalline basement rock. Cratons are generally found in the interiors of {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|tectonic plates}}, having remained relatively unaffected by orogenic and tectonic activity for very long periods of time.}}

{{defn|A small, intermittent {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|stream}} that is larger than a {{gli|brook}} but smaller than a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|river}}. The term is used primarily in the United States, Canada, and Australia.{{cite book |author=National Soil Survey Center |date=2018-02-01 |chapter=Part 629 – Glossary of Landform and Geologic Terms |chapter-url=https://directives.sc.egov.usda.gov/OpenNonWebContent.aspx?content=41992.wba |title=Title 430 – National Soil Survey Handbook |location= Washington, DC |publisher=Natural Resources Conservation Service |id={{OCLC|851204093|681768549}} |access-date=2018-10-07}}}}

{{defn|no=1|A deep crack, {{gli|fissure}}, or chasm in the ice of a {{gli|glacier}} or {{gli|ice sheet}}, or more generally in any ground surface.}}

{{defn|no=2|A break in the natural {{gli|levee}} or {{gli|bank}} of a river.}}

{{defn|A place where many roads or routes of travel intersect or meet; a junction.}}

{{defn|The thin shell of solid material that is the Earth's outermost layer and the outermost component of the {{gli|lithosphere}}. The Earth's crust is generally divided into two distinct types, {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|oceanic crust}} and {{gli|continental crust}}, both of which "float" on top of the {{gli|mantle}}.}}

{{defn|The totality of water in the solid phase on the Earth's surface, including {{gli|glaciers}}; sea, lake, and river ice; snow; and permafrost. The cryosphere is sometimes considered a subset of the {{gli|hydrosphere}}.}}

{{defn|The mixing of materials from various horizons of the soil down to the {{gli|bedrock}} due to freezing and thawing.}}

{{defn|A long, low {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|ridge}} with a steep scarp slope and a gentle {{gli|backslope}} (dip slope).}}

{{defn|A branch of {{gli|human geography}} which studies the patterns and interactions of human {{gli|culture}} in relation to the natural environment and the human organization of space.}}

{{defn|The physical setting created by humans that reflects the identity and culture of the area.}}

{{defn|The accumulated habits, attitudes, and beliefs of a group of people that define for them their general behavior and way of life; the total set of learned activities of a people.}}

{{defn|The area from which the {{gli|culture}} of a particular group or population diffused. See also {{gli|hearth}}.}}

{{defn|A tunnel or conduit that channels water through or beneath an obstacle (e.g. through a man-made crossing of a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|ravine}} that would otherwise block the natural flow of water), or any artificially buried {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|watercourse}}.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|opisometer}}.}}

{{defn|An arc-shaped, {{gli|dune}}-like mound of sediment on a {{gli|beach}} or {{gli|foreshore}}. Cusps tend to be uniformly spaced in repeating patterns close to the shoreline, with the embayment of each arc made of fine-grained sand or gravel and the "horns" made of coarser sediment.}}

{{defn|A continually {{gli|erosion|eroding}} {{gli|bank}} along a meandering {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|river}} or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|stream}} {{gli|channel}}, especially a bank that has been eroded into a nearly vertical {{gli|cliff}}. Cut banks generally form on the outside bend of a deep {{gli|meander}}, opposite the depositional {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|point bar}} that forms on the inside bend.}}

{{defn|The new channel formed when a {{gli|meander|meandering}} {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|stream}} erodes through a narrow strip of land and thereby shortens the length of the main channel.{{cite book |author=National Soil Survey Center |date=2018-02-01 |chapter=Part 629 – Glossary of Landform and Geologic Terms |chapter-url=https://directives.sc.egov.usda.gov/OpenNonWebContent.aspx?content=41992.wba |title=Title 430 – National Soil Survey Handbook |location= Washington, DC |publisher=Natural Resources Conservation Service |id={{OCLC|851204093|681768549}} |access-date=2018-10-07}}}}

{{defn|See {{gli|cirque}}.}}

{{defn|A large air mass that rotates around a strong center of low atmospheric pressure. It can rotate clockwise or counter clockwise depending on which hemisphere it is in.}}

{{defn|A term referring to the longitudinal profile of some {{gli|glaciated}} {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|valleys}} which have been eroded into a series of consecutive {{gli|hanging valley|hanging valleys}} resembling stairs.}}

{{Compact ToC|side=yes|center=yes|top=yes|extlinks=yes|seealso=yes|refs=yes|nobreak=yes|n=N|o=O|p=P|q=Q|r=R|s=S|t=T|u=U|v=V|w=W|x=X|y=Y|z=Z}}

D

{{defn|Another name for a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|valley}}.}}

{{defn|Any barrier, either natural or artificial, that stops or restricts the flow of water, either on the surface or underground. Man-made dams are most commonly built to impound rivers or streams, generally to retain water for purposes such as human consumption, irrigation, aquaculture, or power generation (whereas related structures such as floodgates and {{gli|levee|levees}} are more specifically designed to manage or prevent water flow into particular areas).}}

{{defn|A type of thematic {{gli|map}} that uses areal symbols to visualize a {{gli|field|spatially dependent variable}} (e.g. population density) by refining a {{gli|choropleth map}} with ancillary information about the distribution of the variable. The dasymetric method attempts to improve the resolution of maps based on average or per-capita figures calculated for discrete administrative units, which tend to show sharp contrasts between adjacent areas, by supplementing these figures with additional geographic data that allow more precise categories to be constructed. Dasymetric maps are a hybrid of choropleth and {{gli|isarithmic map|isarithmic maps}}, combining their strengths and weaknesses in order to more accurately depict quantities that vary continuously across space.}}

{{defn|The zero-elevation baseline or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|vertical datum}} to which a measurement of {{gli|elevation}} or {{gli|altitude}} is relative, e.g. the {{gli|mean sea level}} calculated for a given location over a given period of time. See also {{gli|geodetic datum}}.}}

{{defn|The spatial and social separation of populations that occurs without legal sanction.}}

{{defn|The spatial and social separation of populations that occurs because of legal measures.}}

{{defn|A place where water runoff from a relatively small, confined space emerges into a much larger, broader space, or where a {{gli|body of water}} pours forth from a narrow opening, such as where a stream or river enters a lake or ocean.}}

{{defn|A forest composed of trees which lose their leaves each year.}}

{{defn|The process of ending the colonization of a region or a state.}}

{{defn|A trough-like {{gli|depression}} or trench in the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|ocean floor}}, of limited extent but great depth, generally more than {{convert|5500|m|ft}} below sea level.}}

{{defn|A {{gli|confluence}} of two {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|watercourses}} in which a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|tributary}} stream is prevented by {{gli|levees}}, natural or artificial, from immediately joining another stream or river and consequently is forced to flow parallel beside it, usually within a large {{gli|floodplain}}, for a considerable distance before the channels eventually merge, often at the convex bend of a large {{gli|meander}}.}}

{{defn|A narrow {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|pass}} or {{gli|gorge}} between {{gli|mountains}} or {{gli|hills}}.}}

{{defn|The destruction of {{gli|forests}} by any means, whether naturally or by human activity.}}

{{defn|A unit of angular measure, represented by the º symbol. A circle is divided into 360 degrees; subdivisions of the degree include the {{gli|minute}} ({{frac|60}} of one degree) and the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|second}} ({{frac|3600}} of one degree). Degrees are commonly used to divide the roughly spherical shape of the Earth for geographic and cartographic purposes, e.g. when reporting {{gli|latitudes}} and {{gli|longitudes}}.}}

{{defn|Deviation of one-degree temperature for one day from an arbitrary standard, usually the long-term average temperature for a place.}}

{{defn|A small, secluded hollow, usually within a grassy, park-like, partially wooded {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|valley}}.}}

{{defn|A landform at the {{gli|mouth}} of a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|river}} where the {{gli|main stem}} splits up into several {{gli|distributary|distributaries}}. It is formed from the deposition of the sediment carried by the river as the flow leaves the mouth of the river. It is often affected by incoming tides. Compare {{gli|estuary}}.}}

File:Skokomish River Delta 07773.JPG {{gli|delta}} in the northwestern United States, where the river flows into Puget Sound]]

{{defn|A politically neutral area or buffer zone in which treaties or agreements between polities or other competing factions forbid military installations, activities, or personnel. These zones are usually situated along an established {{gli|boundary}} or {{gli|frontier}} separating territories controlled by adjacent military powers or alliances.}}

{{defn|The study and systematic analysis of {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|population}}, particularly human population.}}

{{defn|A pillar of rock weathered from volcanic breccia or similar material and capped by a large boulder which has protected the material underneath.}}

{{defn|A word identifying a person or a group of people in relation to a particular place, usually derived from the name of the place (which may be any kind of place, formal or informal, of any size or scale, from a town or city to a region, province, country, or continent) and used to describe all residents or natives of that place, regardless of any ethnic, linguistic, religious, or cultural differences which may exist within the local population. Examples include "Vietnamese", describing a person from Vietnam; "Detroiter" for a person from the city of Detroit, Michigan; and "Macedonian" for a person from North Macedonia or the wider historical region of Macedonia.}}

{{defn|The uncovering of deeper layers of rock by any natural process, e.g. {{gli|erosion}}, {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|weathering}}, or {{gli|mass movement}}.}}

{{term|dependency}}{{anchor|dependencies|dependent territory|dependent territories}}

{{defn|A {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|territory}} relying on or subject to the control of another {{gli|country}}, neither possessing full political independence nor forming an integral part of the controlling country's political or economic interests.}}

{{defn|Any natural process by which material such as soil and rocks is added to a {{gli|landform}} or {{gli|landmass}}, e.g. by the action of wind, water, ice, or gravity in transporting previously {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|weathering|weathered}} surface material, which comes to rest when sufficient kinetic energy is lost and accumulates in layers of sediment. See also {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|sedimentation}}.}}

{{defn|Any {{gli|landform}} that is sunken or depressed below the surrounding area. Depressions include an enormous variety of landforms and can form by a number of different mechanisms, including {{gli|erosion}}, {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|subsidence|ground collapse}}, {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|plate tectonics|tectonic activity}}, {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|volcano|volcanism}}, and {{gli|impact crater|meteorite impacts}}.}}

{{defn|An area of land which has been damaged or devalued by some process, either natural or man-made (e.g. extractive industry), and/or simply neglected, causing it to be abandoned by human interests (and often other organisms) and leaving it incapable of being used productively in its present condition. See also {{gli|brownfield land}}.}}

{{defn|An arid, barren area of land where little precipitation occurs and living conditions are consequently unfavorable for most plant and animal life. Deserts are characterized by exposure of the unprotected ground surface to processes of {{gli|denudation}} as well as large variations in temperature between night and day. They are often classified by the amount of precipitation they receive, by their average temperature, by the causes of their {{gli|desertification}}, or by their geographical location.}}

{{ghat|Also reg, serir, gibber, saï, and desert mosaic.}}

{{defn|A ground surface, often found in arid environments, covered with interlocking rock fragments of pebble and cobble size, closely packed after the removal of finer rock material and smoothed or polished by blown sand so that eventually their upper surfaces are more or less uniformly flat.}}

{{ghat|Also desert patina, rock varnish, and rock rust.}}

{{defn|A conspicuous orange-yellow to black coating often present on exposed rock surfaces in arid environments, consisting of thin, hard, polished layers of metal oxides, especially iron and manganese, which form when minute quantities of matter migrate to the surface of the rock by capillary action and are then precipitated by evaporation.}}

{{defn|The process by which a previously fertile area becomes increasingly arid, infertile, or {{gli|desert}}-like; a type of land degradation in which biological productivity is lost due either to natural or man-made processes, e.g. climate change or overexploitation of soils for agriculture.}}

{{defn|A straight line drawn on a {{gli|map}} between the point of origin and the destination of a trip, i.e. the shortest distance between these two points, indicating the route a person would like or desire to follow if it were possible.}}

{{defn|Any path or trail, often a footpath, created as a consequence of erosion caused by repeated human or animal traffic, usually because it is the shortest or easiest {{gli|route}} to navigate between an origin and a destination. Desire paths often emerge as shortcuts where constructed paths or roads are circuitous, have gaps, or are non-existent.}}

{{defn|A shallow artificial {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|pond}} built to capture and hold rainwater or sea mist in order to provide water for livestock, made especially in areas where natural supplies of surface water are not readily available, such as on the chalk downlands of southern England.}}

{{defn|A type of {{gli|igneous intrusion}} in which a more mobile, ductile, or deformable rock or other material is forced to intrude into relatively brittle overlying rocks.}}

{{defn|The scattered dispersion of a human population from its original homeland; or the members of a dispersed population, now residing in various locations to which they are not indigenous.}}

{{defn|A three-dimensional computer graphics representation of a geographic {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|terrain}} surface created from {{gli|elevation}} data. DEMs are the most common basis for digitally produced relief maps.}}

{{defn|no=1|A ditch, wall, embankment, or ridge, natural or man-made, that is an obstacle to something else; another name for a {{gli|levee}}.}}

{{defn|no=2|In {{gli|geology}}, an intrusion in which molten rock has ascended through an approximately vertical {{gli|fissure}} and solidified into a wall of rock that is often harder or less permeable than the rocks of the surrounding strata.}}

{{defn|A type of administrative division used by certain Christian churches for religious purposes.}}

{{defn|The {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|position}} of one point relative to another without reference to the distance between them, usually expressed as the angular distance in {{gli|degrees}} between a line connecting the two points and a reference direction. In {{gli|cartography}}, {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|navigation}}, and {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|orienteering}}, direction is often considered only with respect to a two-dimensional plane (see {{gli|compass rose}}), but it is also commonly interpreted in three dimensions.}}

{{defn|In {{gli|hydrology}}, the volumetric flow rate of water through a particular cross-sectional area, i.e. the volume of water that passes a particular point along a waterway (e.g. a cross-section of a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|stream}} {{gli|channel}}) per unit time. The measure includes the volumes of any suspended solids, dissolved chemicals, or organic matter in addition to the water itself. Discharge is commonly measured for both natural and man-made hydrological systems, where it may be referred to by various names including streamflow and outflow.}}

{{defn|A {{gli|coastline}} which cuts transversely across the predominant orientation of the local geological strata, i.e. not parallel to them, as with a {{gli|concordant coastline}}.}}

{{defn|A landscape produced by significant {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|stream}} erosion and incision of a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|plateau}} such that only a small part of the plateau surface is at or near the original elevation of the summit; much of the area instead occurs as eroded {{gli|hills}} or {{gli|badlands}}.}}

{{defn|The decrease in cultural or spatial interactions between two places as the distance between them increases. This effect may be noticeable in {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|towns}} and {{gli|cities}}, where certain characteristics such as pedestrian traffic, building height, and land value tend to decline with greater distance from the {{gli|city center}}.}}

{{defn|A {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|stream}} or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|river}} that branches off and flows away from a {{gli|main stem|main channel}} and does not return to it. Distributaries are common near {{gli|delta|river deltas}}. Contrast {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|tributary}}.}}

{{defn|A type of {{gli|administrative subdivision}} used by governments and institutions worldwide, typically at regional or local levels. Districts are commonly drawn to define the jurisdictions of special local government services, such as law enforcement and education, and often function more or less independently of the {{gli|municipality|municipal}} or {{gli|county}} governments that designate them. The term can refer to a wide variety of official and colloquial subdivisions, including electoral districts, school districts, and shopping districts.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|drainage divide}}.}}

{{defn|In parts of South Asia, the low {{gli|alluvial plain}} lying between and reaching to the {{gli|confluence}} of two rivers or streams. See also {{gli|interfluve}}.}}

{{defn|A shallow enclosed {{gli|basin}} or funnel-shaped {{gli|depression}} typical of {{gli|karst}} landscapes, usually with a flat floor and linked to the underlying drainage system by a vertical shaft. See also {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|sinkhole}}.}}

{{defn|no=1|A steep-sided {{gli|mound}} that forms when very viscous lava is extruded from a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|volcanic vent}}.}}

{{defn|no=2|An uplifted area of sedimentary rock with a downward dip in all directions, often caused by molten rock material pushing upward from below. The sediments have often eroded away, exposing the rocks that resulted when the molten material cooled.}}

{{defn|In southern Africa, another name for a {{gli|gully}} or {{gli|badland}} carved by extreme erosion.}}

{{defn|An active {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|volcano}} that is in repose (quiescence) but is expected to erupt in the future.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|commuter town}}.}}

{{defn|An open, treeless expanse of gently undulating, elevated {{gli|grassland}}, usually of chalk and supporting grazing for livestock. The term is used primarily in southern England, Australia, and New Zealand.}}

{{defn|In English-speaking North America, the commercial, cultural, and often historical and/or geographical {{gli|city center|center}} of a {{gli|city}} or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|town}}, especially a large city within a major {{gli|metropolitan area}}, often synonymous with its {{gli|central business district}}.}}

{{defn|The natural or artificial removal of surface and/or sub-surface water from an area with excess water, e.g. via {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|surface runoff|runoff}} facilitated by {{gli|channels}} such as {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|streams}} and {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|rivers}}, into which water collects and is transported to {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|sea level}} by gravity. The patterns, hierarchies, and evolution of drainage networks are widely studied in {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|physical geography}} disciplines.}}

{{ghat|Also catchment, drainage area, river basin, water basin, or watershed.}}

{{defn|Any area of land where precipitation collects and drains into a common outlet, such as into a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|river}}, {{gli|lake}}, {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|ocean}}, or any other {{gli|body of water}}. The drainage system includes all of the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|surface water}} from precipitation {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|surface runoff|runoff}} and snowmelt, as well as all of the {{gli|groundwater}} beneath the Earth's surface. Each drainage basin is separated topographically from adjacent basins by a {{gli|drainage divide}}.}}

{{ghat|Also ridgeline, watershed, water parting, water divide, or simply divide.}}

{{defn|The topographical barrier that separates neighboring {{gli|drainage basins}}. Divides are often, though not always, located along conspicuous elevated {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|ridges}} or {{gli|mountain ranges}}.}}

{{defn|no=1|A terrain feature formed by two parallel {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|ridges}} or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|spurs}} with low ground in between them.}}

{{defn|no=2|Another name for an {{gli|arroyo}}, {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|ravine}}, or {{gli|gulch}}, especially one with a broad floor and gently sloping sides.}}

{{defn|The maximum extent to which the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|water table}} is reduced in {{gli|elevation}} as a result of pumping water from a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|well}} that penetrates an {{gli|aquifer}}. The amount of draw down diminishes logarithmically with distance from the site of the well, a fact which determines the shape of the subsurface {{gli|cone of depression}} in the area surrounding the well.}}

{{defn|All sediment transported by a {{gli|glacier}}, sorted or {{gli|glacial till|unsorted}}, whether deposited directly by the ice or by glacial {{gli|meltwater}}.}}

{{defn|A type of {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|sea ice}} consisting of multiple {{gli|ice floe|ice floes}} that are not attached to the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|shoreline}} or any other fixed object such as a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|shoal}}, and which are therefore free to "drift" under the influence of winds and {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|ocean current|ocean currents}}. Contrast {{gli|fast ice}}.}}

{{defn|A {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|valley}} which was originally formed on land but later partially or entirely submerged beneath the sea due to a rise in sea level. See also {{gli|fjord}}, {{gli|calanque}}, and {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|ria}}.}}

{{defn|An elongated {{gli|hill}} in the shape of an inverted spoon or half-buried egg which is formed by {{gli|glacial}} ice acting on underlying unconsolidated {{gli|glacial till|till}} or ground {{gli|moraine}}.}}

{{defn|A type of farming practiced in semi-arid or dry grassland areas without irrigation, instead using such approaches as fallowing, maintaining a finely broken surface, and growing drought-tolerant crops.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|wind gap}}.}}

{{defn|An area of firm or dry ground in a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|wetland}}, {{gli|marsh}}, or {{gli|floodplain}}, often capable of supporting a human {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|settlement}}.}}

{{defn|An {{gli|ecoregion}} or more generally any land area defined by a relative scarcity of water, where precipitation is evenly balanced or exceeded by evaporation from surfaces and evapotranspiration by plants. Drylands encompass all sub-humid and arid environments, from tropical {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|savannas}} to hyper-arid extremes such as {{gli|deserts}}.}}

{{defn|A hill of loose sand built by the movements and erosional and {{gli|depositional}} processes of wind or water, often occurring in {{gli|deserts}} and {{gli|coastal}} areas.}}

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E

{{defn|no=1|A collective term for the various fields of natural science related to the planet Earth.}}

{{defn|no=2|The branch of science that studies the physical constitution and characteristics of the Earth and its atmosphere, using methods and tools from {{gli|geography}}, geology, physics, chemistry, biology, and mathematics to build a quantitative understanding of how the Earth works and changes over time.}}

{{defn|A sudden and intense shaking of the ground due to {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|plate tectonics|tectonic}} activity.}}

{{defn|The {{gli|hemisphere|half sphere}} of the Earth that is east of the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|Prime Meridian}} and west of the {{gli|antimeridian}}. It is opposite the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|Western Hemisphere}}.}}

{{defn|The physical distance a commodity may travel before its value is exceeded by the costs of transporting it.}}

{{defn|A sub-discipline of geography which studies the location, distribution, and spatial organization of economic activities across the world.}}

{{defn|A country with rapid economic growth due to cheap labor, quickly advancing technology, and/or policies favoring aggressive exports.}}

{{defn|The economic advantages that accrue to an activity by locating close to other activities; benefits that follow from complementarity or shared public services.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|oeconym}}.}}

{{defn|A type of {{gli|biogeography|biogeographic}} province that is smaller than a {{gli|bioregion}} and which contains characteristic, ecologically and geographically distinct, and relatively uniform assemblages of biological communities and species. Ecoregion boundaries often overlap within {{gli|ecotones}} and mosaic habitats, and most ecoregions contain habitats that differ from those described for their assigned biome.}}

{{defn|A transition area between two biological communities, where different communities meet and integrate. It may manifest as a gradual blending of the communities across a broad area, or as an abrupt boundary line.}}

{{defn|no=1|The habitable world according to the ancient Greeks; the part of the Earth's surface that is suitable for permanent human settlement, e.g. because it is climatically tolerable and physically occupiable.}}

{{defn|A concentration of businesses, commercial buildings, or retail and entertainment venues situated outside of a traditional {{gli|downtown}} or central business district in what was previously a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|suburban}} residential or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|rural}} area.}}

{{defn|The transitional areas of "fringe" space at the boundaries of a {{gli|country}}, {{gli|city}}, or other artificial geographical entity, often distinguished by a partly man-made, partly natural landscape that is in the earliest stages of human management and organization. Compare {{gli|hinterland}}.}}

{{defn|The extent to which a place or service is actually accessible, governed not only by the distance to be traveled but also by whether or not the means of transport, the time available, and social circumstances make access possible.}}

{{defn|The scientific study of human {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|settlements}} of all types, incorporating concepts such as regional, metropolitan, and community planning and dwelling design with the goal of achieving harmony between the inhabitants of a settlement and their physical, social, and cultural environments.}}

{{defn|A branch of {{gli|human geography}} concerned with analysis of the organization, methods, results, and consequences of political elections in the context of geographic space and using geographical techniques.}}

{{defn|no=1|The height of a geographic location above or below a fixed reference point; in particular, the height of a point on the Earth's surface with respect to {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|sea level}} (or at least to a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|reference ellipsoid|reference}} {{gli|geoid}} used as an approximation of the Earth's mean sea level). Compare {{gli|altitude}}, {{gli|geopotential height}}, and {{gli|depth}}.}}

{{defn|no=2|The vertical angle between the horizontal and a high point, e.g. between the {{gli|horizon}} and a star in the night sky, or between the base of a mountain and its {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|summit}}.}}

{{defn|no=3|In architecture, a view of one of the sides of a building, or a drawing of this view.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|reference ellipsoid}}.}}

{{defn|no=1|The rise of the level of a land surface with respect to the sea, so that land formerly under the sea becomes dry.}}

{{defn|no=2|The location at which an {{gli|groundwater|underground stream}} or {{gli|aquifer}} comes to the surface.}}

{{defn|A {{gli|coast}} or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|shore|shoreline}} resulting from a rise in land surface elevation relative to sea level.}}

{{defn|To {{gli|land reclamation|reclaim}} by the creation of a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|polder}}.}}

{{defn|A tract or territory completely surrounded by and enclosed within the territory of exactly one other state, country, or other political entity. Unlike enclaves, {{gli|exclaves}} can be surrounded by more than one other state.}}

File:Base Map of South Africa.png is completely {{gli|enclave|enclaved}} by the country of South Africa. The country of Eswatini, to the east, is not an enclave because it borders two countries: South Africa and Mozambique.]]

{{defn|Restricted or exclusive to a certain place, {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|region}}, or people, having originated there, and existing nowhere else.}}

{{ghat|Also endoreic basin, closed basin, or terminal basin.}}

{{defn|A closed {{gli|drainage basin}} that allows little or no outflow to external bodies of water but converges instead into internal {{gli|lakes}} or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|swamps}} which equilibrate through evaporation.}}

{{defn|Embedded within a {{gli|glacier}}. Contrast {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|subglacial}} and {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|superglacial}}.}}

{{defn|A place (e.g. a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|port}}, city, or trading post) to which physical goods or merchandise are brought to be stored temporarily while awaiting export to another country, and where they are not liable to customs duties. Though the term once described important commercial centers situated along long-distance trade routes, modern customs areas have largely made such entrepôts obsolete, and the term is now more commonly used to refer to duty-free ports with a high volume of re-export trade.}}

{{defn|Everything on and around the Earth's surface and atmosphere; the complex of physical, chemical, and biological elements which comprise the natural world, especially as contrasted with {{gli|built environment|man-made objects or spaces}}.}}

{{defn|The area surrounding a particular geographical place, i.e. its surroundings or {{gli|environment}}.}}

{{defn|A large, shallow body of {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|salt water}} on a {{gli|continental shelf}} which is connected to the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|ocean}}; an {{gli|inland sea}}. See also {{gli|marginal sea}}.}}

{{defn|The point on the Earth's surface directly above the {{gli|focus}} of an {{gli|earthquake}}, near which the seismic waves produced by the earthquake are usually most noticeable.}}

{{defn|no=1|An imaginary line dividing a spheroid such as a planet into northern and southern {{gli|hemispheres}}, defined by the intersection of the spheroid's surface and the plane perpendicular to its axis of rotation, which results in a {{gli|great circle}} exactly midway between and hence equidistant from the planet's {{gli|geographic poles}} and is therefore defined as zero degrees {{gli|latitude}}.}}

{{defn|no=2|The Earth's equator in particular (often capitalized as the Equator): the imaginary circle of latitude halfway between the geographic poles which is assigned a latitude of zero degrees (0°) and therefore used as a reference point from which all other {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|parallel|lines of latitude}} are measured. At {{convert|40074|km|mi}} in circumference, is the largest great circle of the Earth. Places located on or near the Equator experience approximately the same amount of daylight year-round, which causes local daytime temperatures and climate patterns to be relatively stable throughout the year.}}

File:Robinson projection with major circles of latitude and prime meridian labeled.png

{{defn|See {{gli|Mercator projection}}.}}

{{defn|Equally distant from a point, object, or location; e.g. a given location {{math|A}} is said to be equidistant from two other locations {{math|B}} and {{math|C}} if {{math|B}} and {{math|C}} each have the same distance from {{math|A}}.}}

{{defn|A broad, flat {{gli|desert}} area covered by wind-swept sand and having little or no vegetative cover.}}

{{defn|The wearing away of the Earth's surface caused by the movement of water, ice, or wind.}}

{{defn|A boulder that has been carried from its source by a {{gli|glacier}} and deposited as the glacier melted. Such boulders are often conspicuous because they differ geologically from the surrounding rock.}}

{{defn|A long {{gli|cliff}} or steep slope separating two comparatively level or more gently sloping surfaces and resulting from erosion or faulting.}}

{{defn|A long, winding ridge of stratified sand and gravel, usually occurring in {{gli|glaciated}} or formerly glaciated areas.}}

{{defn|A {{gli|karstic}} {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|sinkhole}} or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|ponor}} which, depending on the season and weather conditions, can serve as either a sink or a source of {{gli|freshwater}}.}}

{{defn|The broad lower course of a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|river}} where it enters the ocean and is affected by the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|tides}}. Compare {{gli|delta}}.}}

{{defn|A shallow pool or {{gli|lake}} caused by the ponding of {{gli|backwash}} draining from a {{gli|beach}} by material brought ashore by the sea.}}

{{defn|A {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|plain}} beneath which the {{gli|bedrock}} has been subjected to considerable subsurface weathering, known as "etching". Erosion of the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|regolith}} overlying an etchplain often exposes topographical irregularities such as {{gli|inselbergs}}.}}

{{defn|A group of people in a country who share a unique culture and identity.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|pothole}}.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|plucking}}.}}

{{defn|A portion of a state or territory that is geographically separated from the main part by surrounding foreign territory of one or more other states or political entities. Many exclaves are also {{gli|enclaves}}.}}

{{defn|A {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|stream}} found in an area that is too dry to have spawned such a flow. The flow originates in some moister section.}}

{{defn|A {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|volcano}} that is not expected to erupt again.}}

{{defn|An adjective describing a region or district that lies outside a {{gli|city}} and usually beyond its {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|suburbs}}; a place of this type is called an exurb. Compare {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|rural}}.}}

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F

{{defn|The part of a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|navigable waterway}} containing the navigable {{gli|channel}}, in particular the central, deepest, widest, or most commonly used channel.}}

{{defn|A {{gli|geomorphologic}} unconformity between an {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|upland}} region of relatively hard crystalline basement rock and a {{gli|coastal plain}} of softer sedimentary rock.}}

{{defn|Agricultural land that is plowed or tilled but left unseeded during a {{gli|growing season}}. Fallowing is usually done to conserve moisture and soil nutrients.}}

{{defn|A selected point in a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|projected coordinate system}} from which the position of any place can be expressed in terms of its coordinates with respect to the selected point. The false origin differs from the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|true origin}} in order to exclude negative values.}}

{{defn|{{gli|sea ice|Sea ice}} that is more or less securely "fastened" to a {{gli|coastline}}, {{gli|anchor ice|to the sea floor}}, or to grounded {{gli|icebergs}}, and which therefore does not move with currents and winds (unlike {{gli|drift ice}}). The formation of fast ice is usually seasonal and its properties vary with water depth, {{gli|topography}} of the sea floor, {{gli|tides}}, and pressure from adjacent drift ice.}}

{{defn|A fracture in the Earth's {{gli|crust}} accompanied by a displacement of one side of the fracture.}}

{{defn|A mountain mass created by either the uplift of land between {{gli|faults}} or the subsidence of land outside the faults.}}

{{defn|An area of numerous {{gli|fault|fractures}} in the Earth's crust along which movement has occurred. The movement may be in any direction and involve material on either or both sides of the fractures.}}

{{defn|A form of government in which powers and functions are divided between a central government and a number of political subdivisions that have a significant degree of political autonomy.}}

{{defn|A wild, barren, high-altitude {{gli|moor}} or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|upland}}, or a treeless {{gli|alpine}} {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|tundra}}, often studded with boulders or rock {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|outcrops}}; or a broad, isolated mountain {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|summit}}. The term is used primarily in northern England, Scotland, and Fennoscandia.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|blockfield}}.}}

{{defn|An area of spongy, waterlogged ground containing decaying vegetation that accumulates over time into peat, and which is supplied with an input of mineral-rich {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|surface water|surface}} or {{gli|groundwater}} and thereby directly connected to a larger hydrological system. This external input typically results in higher mineral concentrations and a more alkaline pH than other peat-forming ecosystems such as {{gli|bogs}}. Fens are one of four main types of {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|wetland}}, along with bogs, {{gli|marshes}}, and {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|swamps}}.}}

{{defn|no=1|Any large, open, outdoor space, natural or man-made, especially one with a natural surface covering such as grass or soil and having few trees and structures, permitting long {{gli|line of sight|sightlines}}.}}

{{defn|no=2|(variable) A property, quantity, or observation (e.g. temperature, soil moisture, population density, etc.) that can be theoretically assigned to any point of space and which varies across space. Both scalar and vector fields are found in {{gli|GIS}} applications, although the former is more common. Also spatially dependent variable.}}

{{defn|The size and shape of the Earth as studied in {{gli|geodesy}}. Applications requiring varying levels of precision have led to the development of many different models of the Earth, ranging from simple spheres to much more accurate approximations such as {{gli|geoids}}.}}

{{defn|A type of ice that is at an intermediate stage between snow and {{gli|glacial}} ice. More specifically, firn is partially compacted {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|névé}} left over from past seasons which has subsequently recrystallized into a form that is harder and denser than névé.}}

{{defn|A colloquial term loosely applied to the topographically lowest step of a {{gli|floodplain}} that experiences regular flooding (though the frequency considered "regular" is inconsistently specified), i.e. the first part to be inundated when a flood occurs. The term is used primarily in the Midwestern United States.}}

{{defn|A fundamental assumption of {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|spatial analysis}} articulated by the Swiss-American geographer Waldo Tobler as "Everything is related to everything else, but near things are more related than distant things." This principle is considered foundational to the concepts of {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|spatially dependent variable|spatial dependence}} and {{gli|autocorrelation}}, and is expressed mathematically in the inverse distance weighting method of spatial {{gli|interpolation}} and in {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|regionalized variable theory}} as the basis for {{gli|kriging}}.}}

{{defn|Another name for a coastal {{gli|inlet}}, {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|strait}}, or {{gli|bay}} associated with the {{gli|mouth}} of a large {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|river}}, where the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|tidal}} effects of {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|salt water|seawater}} passing upriver have widened the riverbed into an {{gli|estuary}}. The term is used primarily in Scotland.}}

{{defn|A series of shallow steps down which water is allowed to flow, designed to permit salmon or other anadromous fish to circumvent artificial barriers such as {{gli|dams}} as they swim upstream to spawn.}}

{{defn|A long, narrow opening or line of breakage made by cracking or splitting, especially in rock or earth.}}

{{defn|A large, open, {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|navigable}} {{gli|body of water}} between the {{gli|islands}} of an {{gli|archipelago}} or between an island and the {{gli|mainland}}, either on the sea coast or in freshwater lakes or rivers.}}

{{defn|A long, narrow, {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|navigable}} marine {{gli|inlet}} with steep sides or {{gli|cliffs}} created by {{gli|glacial}} erosion.}}

File:View to Tafjorden, Fjord, Norway, 2019 July.jpg

{{defn|A {{gli|hollow}} or {{gli|depression}} within a {{gli|bog}}, often water-filled and usually occurring as part of a repeated series of such depressions which are elongated and parallel to each other and separated by intervening ridges known as strings.}}

{{defn|A primarily vertical artificial barrier designed to temporarily contain the waters of a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|river}} or other {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|waterway}} which may rise to high levels during flooding events. Flood walls are narrower and typically easier to build than {{gli|dikes}} or {{gli|levees}}, so they are mainly used in locations where space is limited or where building more traditional flood-control structures would interfere with other interests.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|levee}}.}}

{{defn|A broad, flat area of land adjacent to a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|river}} or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|stream}} which is leveled by annual flooding and by the lateral and downstream movement of {{gli|meanders}}.}}

{{defn|no=1|Another name for a {{gli|flood bypass}}.}}

{{defn|no=2|A large-capacity {{gli|channel}} or {{gli|culvert}} designed to capture and divert floodwaters or excess streamflow from populous or flood-prone areas and eventually drain it into a river or other body of water, e.g. an artificial drainage canal bounded by {{gli|levee|levees}}. They often run below street level in larger cities.}}

{{defn|no=3|A road crossing of a flood-prone channel, built at or close to the natural ground level. It is similar to a {{gli|causeway}} but crosses a shallow and often dry {{gli|depression}} that is subject to flooding, rather than a continuously flooded waterway.}}

{{defn|no=4|A part of a {{gli|floodplain}} kept clear of encumbrances and reserved for emergency diversion of floodwaters.}}

{{defn|The level or nearly level lower part of a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|valley}} or {{gli|basin}}, or the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|streambed|bed}} of any {{gli|body of water}}, such as a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|stream}}, {{gli|lake}}, or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|ocean}}.}}

{{defn|A {{gli|glacial}} landform created by the movement of a glacier around a boulder, consisting of a lineation or streamlined furrow or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|ridge}} parallel to the direction of ice movement. They generally form in newly deposited {{gli|glacial till|till}} or older {{gli|drift}} and can reach heights of {{convert|25|m|ft}} and lengths of {{convert|20|km|mi}}.}}

{{defn|Of or pertaining to {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|rivers}} or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|streams}}; produced by the action of a river or stream.}}

{{defn|The characteristic of a place that follows from its interconnections with more than one other place. When interaction within a region comes together at a single place (i.e. when the movement focuses on that location), the place is said to possess focality.}}

{{defn|The point inside the Earth's crust from which an {{gli|earthquake}} originates.}}

{{defn|A geographic transition zone defined by gradual increases in elevation between {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|plains}} or low-relief {{gli|hills}} and adjacent topographically higher hills, {{gli|mountains}}, or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|uplands}}.}}

{{defn|The part of the profile of a {{gli|grade|hillslope}} that forms the concave surface at the base of the slope. It is a transition area between sites of erosion and transport higher up the slope (e.g. the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|shoulder}} and {{gli|backslope}}) and sites of deposition further down the slope (the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|toeslope}}).}}

{{defn|A place, natural or man-made, where a river or stream is shallow enough to be crossed by wading, or by getting a vehicle's wheels wet (as opposed to crossing a permanently dry {{gli|bridge}}). Fords may be seasonal or temporary, becoming impassable during high water.}}

{{defn|A relatively narrow, deep, elongated, and steep-sided trough in the {{gli|floor|ocean floor}}, usually near or parallel to a mountainous land area or associated with an {{gli|archipelago}}, or such a trough when infilled with sediment. See also {{gli|foreland basin}}.}}

{{defn|no=1|Any land area or territory located in front of something else.}}

{{defn|no=2|A landform projecting into the sea, e.g. a {{gli|cape}} or {{gli|headland}}.}}

{{defn|no=3|The seaward trading area associated with a particular {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|port}} or {{gli|harbor}}.}}

{{defn|no=4|(glaciology) The area between the current leading edge of a {{gli|glacier}} and the {{gli|moraines}} of the most recent maximum.}}

{{defn|A type of structural {{gli|endmember basin}} that develops adjacent and parallel to a {{gli|mountain range}} as a result of lithospheric flexure during its orogeny. Topographic loading and downflexure creates space in the basin that is filled by sediment eroded from the range. Compare {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|rift basin}}.}}

{{defn|The part of a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|shore|seashore}} located between the lowest {{gli|mean low water|low water line}} and the {{gli|mean high water|mean high water line}}. See also {{gli|intertidal zone}}; contrast {{gli|backshore}}.}}

{{defn|A {{gli|contour line}} whose precise position on a map has not been accurately surveyed but rather {{gli|interpolated}} from surrounding contours.}}

{{defn|Any naturally occurring water characterized by low concentrations (typically less than 0.05% by volume) of dissolved salts and other solids relative to either {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|salt water}} or brackish water. Sources of fresh water on Earth include {{gli|glaciers}}, {{gli|ice caps}}, {{gli|icebergs}}, {{gli|bogs}}, {{gli|lakes}}, {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|rivers}}, {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|streams}}, and most {{gli|groundwater}}.}}

{{defn|The influence and restraining effect of distance on all forms of movement, based on the fundamental geographical principle that movement necessarily incurs one or more costs, in the form of physical effort, energy, time, and/or other resources, and that these costs are directly proportional to the distance traveled. Such costs effectively resist the propensity for movement, akin to the friction of classical mechanics, and hence the concept of physical distance is a critical factor in determining whether or not a given movement, event, or process occurs.}}

{{defn|Someone who lives in one country and works in a neighboring country, commuting across the international {{gli|border}} each workday and returning to their country of residence on a nightly or weekly basis;{{cite web |title=Working Across Borders |url=https://www.remaininfrance.fr/workingacrossbordersnew |website=Remain in France Together (RIFT)}} someone who lives and works across political or geographical {{gli|frontiers}}.}}

{{defn|no=1|The area near or beyond a political or geographical {{gli|border|boundary}}; a {{gli|march}} or borderland.}}

{{defn|no=2|The area near or beyond the edge of a settled or civilized area, consisting of sparsely populated or uninhabited wilderness. See also {{gli|hinterland}} and {{gli|edgeland}}.}}

{{defn|The characteristic of a place where a variety of different activities (economic, political, or social) occur, most often associated with {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|urban}} places.}}

{{defn|An area of the Earth's surface that is defined by its interaction with or connectivity to other regions.}}

{{Compact ToC|side=yes|center=yes|top=yes|extlinks=yes|seealso=yes|refs=yes|nobreak=yes|n=N|o=O|p=P|q=Q|r=R|s=S|t=T|u=U|v=V|w=W|x=X|y=Y|z=Z}}

G

{{defn|A narrow strip of trees or shrubs lining both {{gli|banks}} of a river or stream in otherwise treeless, open country. Above very narrow streams, the foliage on each side may meet in the canopy.}}

{{defn|A geographical dictionary or directory used in conjunction with a {{gli|map}} or {{gli|atlas}} and containing information concerning the geographical make-up, social statistics, and physical features of a {{gli|country}}, {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|region}}, or {{gli|continent}}.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|demonym}}.}}

{{defn|A narrow {{gli|inlet}} within a deep cleft in a rocky {{gli|coastline}}, sheltered by tall, near-vertical cliffs created by wave-driven erosion along faults and bedding planes in the rock. The term is primarily used in the islands of northern Scotland.}}

{{defn|A technology that restricts access to online content according to an Internet user's geographical location, which may be determined by any of various geolocation techniques, including checking the user's IP address against a blacklist, triangulating {{gli|GPS}} queries, and measuring the latency of a signal traveling between the user's computer and another endpoint in the network.}}

{{defn|A concise, human-readable series of letters, numbers, and/or other symbols which represents and uniquely identifies a particular geographic entity so as to distinguish it from other geographic entities in a finite set or database.}}

{{defn|The conversion of a text-based description of a physical location, such as the name of a place or a street address, into {{gli|geographic coordinates}}, e.g. {{gli|latitude}} and {{gli|longitude}}, which can then be plotted in a spatial {{gli|coordinate system}} and represented on a {{gli|map}} to locate and uniquely identify its position on the Earth's surface. The reverse process, where geographic coordinates are converted into a text-based description, is known as reverse geocoding.}}

{{defn|In many {{gli|geographic information systems}}, an imaginary polygon on the surface of the Earth with dimensions 1 {{gli|degree}} of {{gli|latitude}} by 1 degree of {{gli|longitude}}, or approximately {{convert|111|x|111|km|mi|abbr=off}} at the {{gli|Equator}}, representing an area equal to about {{convert|12321|sqkm|sqmi|abbr=off}}. The east-west distance equal to 1 degree of longitude gradually decreases as one approaches the poles, such that the shape of a geocell becomes increasingly trapezoidal at higher latitudes.}}

{{ghat|Also geospatial data, georeferenced information, and geoinformation.}}

{{defn|Any data or information having an implicit or explicit association with one or more locations on the Earth, especially that used for {{gli|georeferencing}} in {{gli|geographic information system|GIS}} databases.}}

{{ghat|Also orthodrome, geodesic line, and geodetic line.}}

{{defn|In {{gli|geodesy}}, the shortest line on a specific surface between two particular points on that surface. The geodesic between a given two points on a flat plane is a segment of a straight line drawn between those points; the geodesic between two points on a sphere is a shorter arc of the {{gli|great circle}} which connects both points. Geodesics may also be plotted on the surface of an ellipsoid, such as an idealized {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|reference ellipsoid}} used to model the {{gli|figure of the Earth|shape of the Earth}}.}}

{{defn|The science of accurately measuring and understanding the Earth's {{gli|figure of the Earth|geometric shape}}, orientation in space, and gravitational field and how these properties change over time.}}

{{ghat|Also geodetic network, reference network, or control point network.}}

{{ghat|Also geodetic system, geodetic reference datum, or geodetic reference system.}}

{{defn|A {{gli|geographic coordinate system|coordinate system}} and set of reference points used for locating places on the Earth, which defines {{gli|horizontal datum|horizontal}} and {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|vertical datum|vertical}} coordinates upon a particular {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|reference ellipsoid}} that approximates the {{gli|figure of the Earth}}. Geodetic datums are used in {{gli|geodesy}}, {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|navigation}}, and {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|surveying}} applications to translate positions indicated on paper or digital {{gli|maps}} to their actual positions on the Earth; because the Earth is an imperfect ellipsoid, localized datums such as the ED50 covering only specific countries or regions are often more accurate representations of their area of coverage than global standards such as the WGS 84 of the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|World Geodetic System}}.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|true north}}.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|geodesy}}.}}

{{defn|A subfield of geophysics and {{gli|Earth science}} that studies the physical dynamics of the Earth by applying physics, chemistry, and mathematics to the understanding of how mantle convection and other internal processes lead to {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|plate tectonics}} and geological phenomena such as mountain formation, volcanism, earthquakes, and {{gli|fault|faulting}}, among others.}}

{{defn|A virtual boundary or perimeter drawn around a real-world geographic area in a GIS software application, allowing distinctions between the properties of adjacent places which cannot be physically made on the ground to be made and stored digitally in an electronic database.}}

{{defn|A coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters, or symbols. Geographic coordinates are often chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position such as {{gli|elevation}} and two or three other numbers represent a horizontal position such as {{gli|latitude}} and {{gli|longitude}}.}}

{{defn|Physical and human conditions that impact the environments of places and regions.}}

{{defn|The scientific study of data structures and computational techniques for capturing, representing, processing, and analyzing {{gli|geodata|geographic information}}.}}

{{defn|Any system of computer software tools designed to allow users to record, store, manipulate, analyze, manage, and present large sets of spatial or {{gli|geodata|geographic data}}.}}

{{defn|A digital public-domain database developed by the U.S. Geological Survey and the U.S. Board on Geographic Names which contains name and locative information about more than two million physical and cultural features located throughout the United States and its territories. Each feature recorded in the database receives a unique feature {{gli|geocode|record identifier}} called a GNIS identifier.}}

{{defn|Any observable model, style, or trend in some element of {{gli|geography}}, generally observed on {{gli|maps}}.}}

{{defn|The tendency of a place with established installations and services to maintain its size and its importance as a focus of economic or industrial activity after the conditions originally influencing its development have appreciably altered, ceased to be relevant, or disappeared.}}

{{defn|A unit of length defined as the distance equal to one minute of arc along the Earth's {{gli|Equator}}: approximately {{convert|1,855.3|m|mi km}}. The precise length varies with the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|reference ellipsoid}} used to approximate the {{gli|figure of the Earth|shape of the Earth}}. Regardless of the particular ellipsoid, the length of one {{gli|degree}} of {{gli|longitude}} at the Equator is equal to exactly 60 geographical miles.}}

{{defn|The scientific study of the lands, features, inhabitants, and phenomena of Earth.}}

{{defn|The shape that the surface of the Earth's {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|oceans}} would take under the influence of Earth's gravity and rotational acceleration alone, in the absence of other influences such as winds and {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|tides}}. It is often characterized as the precise mathematical {{gli|figure of the Earth}}: a smooth but irregular gravitational equipotential surface at every point of which, by definition, the direction of the force of gravity is always perpendicular and {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|spirit levels}} are always parallel. Its shape results from anomalies in the Earth's gravitational field caused by the uneven distribution of mass within and on the Earth's surface. A {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|reference ellipsoid}} is an idealized approximation of the more complex and accurate geoid.}}

{{defn|The science and technology which develops and uses information science infrastructures to address problems and analyze data within {{gli|geography}}, {{gli|cartography}}, {{gli|Earth science|geoscience}}, and related branches of science and engineering.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|geodata}}.}}

{{defn|The identification or estimation of the real-world geographic {{gli|location}} of an object, involving the generation of a set of {{gli|geographic coordinate system|geographic coordinates}} in order to determine a more meaningful description of location, such as a street address.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|geoblocking}}.}}

{{defn|The scientific discipline that involves gathering, storing, processing, and delivering geographic or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|spatial reference system|spatially referenced}} information.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|surveyor}}.}}

{{defn|The study of the arrangement and form of the Earth's {{gli|crust}} and of the relationship between these physical features and the geologic structures beneath.}}

{{defn|no=1|defn=The potential of the Earth's gravitational field, expressed as the sum, {{math|U}}, of the gravitational potential {{math|V_g}} of the Earth at point {{math|P}} and the rotational potential {{math|V_c}} at the same point, i.e. {{math|U {{=}} V_g + V_c}}.}}

{{defn|no=2|defn=The negative of the sum of the gravitational potential {{math|V_g}} and the rotational potential {{math|V_c}}, i.e. {{math|U {{=}} −(V_g + V_c)}}. This alternative definition is often used by physicists.}}

{{defn|no=3|The potential energy of a unit mass relative to the {{gli|geoid}}, numerically equivalent to the work which would be done in lifting the mass from the geoid against the force of gravity to the elevation at which the mass is actually located.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|Earth science}}.}}

{{defn|The study of geographical knowledge from any and all points of view, past or present, true or false;John K. Wright (1947). "Terrae Incognitae: The Place of the Imagination in Geography", Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 37:1, 1–15, doi:10.1080/00045604709351940 the study of the nature and expression of geographical ideas.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|geomatics}}.}}

{{defn|The collective non-living parts of the Earth: the {{gli|lithosphere}}, the {{gli|atmosphere}}, the {{gli|cryosphere}}, and the {{gli|hydrosphere}}.}}

{{defn|A branch of statistics which involves the organization, management, and analysis of spatial and spatiotemporal datasets. Geostatistical algorithms are often incorporated in {{gli|geographic information system|GIS}} software applications.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|physical geography}}.}}

{{defn|A section of a city occupied by members of a minority group who live there because of social restrictions on their residential choices. Originally, the term referred specifically to a section of a European city to which Jews were confined.}}

{{defn|A deserted or abandoned village, town, or city, especially one in which remaining buildings and infrastructure such as roads are still visible. The term is also sometimes used to refer to settlements that are still populated, but significantly less so than in previous years.}}

{{defn|Of or pertaining to a {{gli|glacier}} or to the consequences of {{gli|glaciation}}; formed, deposited, caused, or affected by {{gli|glaciological}} processes.{{cite book |last1=Troeh |first1=Frederick R. |last2=Donahue |first2=Roy Luther |title=Dictionary of Agricultural and Environmental Science |date=2003 |publisher=Iowa State Press |location=Ames, Iowa |isbn=9780813802831 |ol=8026680M |edition=1st |url=https://openlibrary.org/books/OL8026680M/Dictionary_of_Agricultural_and_Environmental_Science}}}}

{{defn|See {{gli|drift}}.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|erratic}}.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|rock flour}}.}}

{{defn|A {{gli|lake}} or other enclosed {{gli|body of water}} created by historical or ongoing {{gli|glacial}} activity; e.g. the Great Lakes of North America.}}

{{defn|The mass of rocks and finely ground material carried by a {{gli|glacier}} and deposited when the ice melts. This creates an unstratified material of varying composition.}}

{{defn|no=1|The process or state of being covered with a {{gli|glacier}}.}}

{{defn|no=2|Another name for a glacial period, an interval of time that is marked by colder temperatures and advancing glaciers.}}

{{defn|A persistent mass of dense ice that moves slowly but constantly under its own weight, and which is composed largely of compacted snow that forms over very long periods of time wherever the annual accumulation of snow exceeds its rate of melting and sublimation. Glaciers slowly deform and abrade the land beneath them, causing many unique geomorphological processes and creating a huge variety of landforms including {{gli|cirques}}, {{gli|moraines}}, and {{gli|fjords}}. They form exclusively on land and are distinct from the much thinner ice that forms on bodies of water.}}

{{defn|The scientific study of {{gli|glaciers}}, including their formation, composition, behavior, causes, effects, and distribution; or more generally of ice or any natural phenomena involving ice.}}

{{defn|A smooth, gently sloping surface at the foot of a {{gli|hill}}, {{gli|mountain}}, or any other high {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|promontory}}, whether natural or artificial. In the latter case, the term is used in particular to describe a stone or earthen {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|slope}} constructed at the base of some historical military fortifications.}}

{{defn|Any large, open, mostly treeless area within a {{gli|forest}}.}}

{{defn|A long {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|valley}} bounded by gently sloping, concave sides, and typically narrower and deeper than a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|strath}}. The term is used primarily in Scotland.}}

{{defn|A steep {{gli|cliff}}, {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|terrace}}, or edge of a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|plateau}}.}}

{{defn|no=1|Of or concerning all parts of the world (i.e. worldwide); affecting or distributed across the whole of the Earth.}}

{{defn|no=2|Of or relating to a {{gli|globe}} or sphere; spherical or approximately so.}}

{{defn|no=3|Comprehensive; total; encompassing all or nearly all considerations, categories, items, etc.}}

{{defn|A {{gli|city}} which functions as an important or primary node in the global economy. Though criteria are not strictly defined, a global city typically is very large; dominates trade and economic interactions within a large surrounding area; supports a large and demographically diverse population; serves as a center of ideas and innovation in business, science, culture, and politics; and/or is a headquarters for major financial institutions, multinational corporations, or worldwide media and communications networks.}}

{{defn|A {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|satellite navigation|satellite}}-based {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|radionavigation}} {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|positioning system}} owned and operated by the United States Department of Defense and made available for use by both the military and the general public. It is one of several {{gli|GNSS}} standards that provides {{gli|geolocation}} and time information, transmitted via microwave signals, to enabled {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|satellite navigation device|satellite navigation devices}}, known as GPS receivers, anywhere on or near the Earth where there is an unobstructed line of sight to at least four GPS satellites. Modern state-of-the-art GPS receivers can accurately pinpoint locations to within {{convert|30|cm|ft}}.}}

{{defn|The process of interaction and integration among people, companies, governments, and cultures across the world. A complex and multifaceted phenomenon, globalization is considered largely the result of economically motivated advances in transportation and communication technologies in the past several centuries which have dramatically increased interactions between otherwise isolated groups of people.}}

{{defn|A true-to-scale {{gli|map}} of the Earth that duplicates its round shape and correctly represents relative areas, sizes, and shapes of physical features, distances, and directions.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|panhole}}.}}

{{defn|A desert located in northern China and southeast Mongolia, and a prime area for finding dinosaur fossils.}}

{{defn|no=1|An irregularly shaped {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|parcel}} of land of any size, often approximately triangular, that is left between two adjoining {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|surveyed}} parcels as the result of incomplete or inaccurate {{gli|boundary}} surveys.}}

{{defn|no=2|A lune-shaped {{gli|map}} which may be fitted to the surface of a {{gli|globe}} with a negligible amount of distortion.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|canyon}}.}}

{{defn|A {{gli|depression}} or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|valley}} bounded on either side by distinct, parallel {{gli|escarpment|escarpments}} or {{gli|fault|faults}} and formed by the downward displacement of a block of the Earth's {{gli|crust}}. Grabens often occur side-by-side with {{gli|horst|horsts}}, their uplifted or non-displaced counterparts, in a repeated series of vertical displacements.}}

{{ghat|Also {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|slope}}, incline, gradient, pitch, rise, or mainfall.}}

{{defn|A physical surface that is inclined with respect to the horizontal, or the angle between that surface and the horizontal, typically expressed in degrees, or calculated as a ratio of "rise" (vertical distance) to "run" (horizontal distance) and expressed as a fraction or percentage; a larger number indicates a steeper incline. The term "grade" is often used to describe the incline of man-made surfaces such as roads and the roofs of buildings, whereas the term "slope" is more commonly used to describe natural surfaces such as the sides of {{gli|hills}} or {{gli|mountains}} or the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|streambed|beds}} and {{gli|banks}} of {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|watercourses}}.}}

{{defn|Any land area where the vegetation is dominated by grasses (i.e. plants of the botanical family Poaceae), sometimes also inclusive of grass-like plants of other families. A large and important {{gli|biome}} occurring worldwide, grasslands may be natural or created for agricultural purposes.}}

{{defn|A network of lines on a {{gli|map}} or {{gli|chart}} (or imagined on the surface of the Earth) representing geodetic {{gli|circle of latitude|parallels}} of {{gli|latitude}} and {{gli|meridian|meridians}} of {{gli|longitude}}.}}

{{defn|The measurement of the strength of a gravitational field, especially the Earth's gravitational field, typically by calculating the acceleration due to gravity at a particular point on the Earth's surface. Because it can vary widely across the surface, knowing the local magnitude of the gravitational force is often necessary in order to produce accurate geographical data.}}

{{defn|Any circle on the surface of a sphere created by the intersection of the sphere and a plane that passes through its center. A great circle divides the sphere into two equal hemispheres, and all of a sphere's great circles have the same center and circumference, which by definition is the largest possible circumference of the sphere. The mathematical properties of great circles make them useful in {{gli|geodesy}}, where they are often visualized upon the surface of the Earth (despite the fact that the Earth is {{gli|figure of the Earth|not a perfect sphere}}): for example, the {{gli|Equator}} of the idealized Earth is a great circle, and any {{gli|longitude|meridian}} with its {{gli|antimeridian}} forms a great circle. Because the shortest path between any two points on the surface of a sphere follows the arc of a great circle, {{gli|great-circle distance|great-circle distances}} are often used as approximations of {{gli|geodesics}} for the purposes of air and sea navigation. See also {{gli|small circle}}.}}

File:Great circle passing through two points.svg

{{defn|The horizontal direction or {{gli|bearing}} followed by the arc of a {{gli|great circle}} through a given pair of terrestrial points, expressed as the angular distance from a reference direction.}}

{{defn|The length of a line between two points which follows the arc of a {{gli|great circle}} as defined by the intersection of the Earth's surface with an imaginary plane passing through the Earth's center. It is the shortest route between those two points on the Earth's surface.}}

{{defn|A special land-use {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|zone}} designated in some cities to prevent development of wild, undeveloped, or agricultural land surrounding or adjacent to {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|urban}} areas, in order to conserve natural ecosystems, to allow the return and establishment of wildlife, and/or to create {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|urban green space}} for aesthetic or recreational purposes. The term may also refer more specifically to the boundary between developed and undeveloped areas rather than to the undeveloped area itself.}}

{{defn|A previously undeveloped plot of land for which development is proposed or on which it is in progress, or which is intentionally not being developed so as to permit it to evolve naturally. Compare {{gli|brownfield}}.}}

{{defn|A pattern of lines on a {{gli|chart}} or {{gli|map}}, such as those representing {{gli|latitude}} and {{gli|longitude}}, which helps determine {{gli|absolute location}}.}}

{{defn|The angular difference in direction between {{gli|grid north}} and {{gli|magnetic north}}, typically expressed in degrees east or west of grid north.}}

{{defn|The direction northwards as indicated by the {{gli|grid|grid lines}} of a {{gli|map projection}}, which may or may not be aligned with {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|true north|geodetic north}} and {{gli|magnetic north}}.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|grid magnetic angle}}.}}

{{defn|The water present beneath the Earth's surface in soil pore spaces and in fractures and voids within geological {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|stratum|strata}}. Contrast {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|surface water}}.}}

{{defn|A small group of trees growing close together and generally surrounded by little or no undergrowth.}}

{{defn|The part of the year during which local weather conditions (i.e. temperature and precipitation) permit the normal growth of plants in a given location. What defines a "growing season" is often informal and colloquial, and may vary widely by location and from year to year; in many places, the local growing season is defined as the period of time between the average date of the last frost (in temperate parts of the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|Northern Hemisphere}}, this typically occurs in the spring) to the average date of the first frost (in the autumn).}}

{{defn|A rigid, man-made hydraulic structure extending from an ocean {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|shore}} or river {{gli|bank}}, constructed to interrupt water flow and limit the movement of sediment by {{gli|longshore drift}}.}}

{{defn|A deep, V-shaped {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|valley}} formed by erosion, often containing a small stream or a dry {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|streambed}}, especially one in arid regions.}}

{{defn|A large arm or {{gli|inlet}} of an {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|ocean}} or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|sea}} that lies within a curved coastline, similar to a {{gli|bay}} but usually larger and often with a narrower opening.}}

{{defn|A landform resembling a large ditch or a small {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|ravine}} created by the action of swift running water eroding deeply and sharply into soil, typically on a hillside.}}

{{defn|Any very fine, clayey soil which rapidly turns to sticky mud when wet. The term is used primarily in the United States and Canada.}}

{{defn|An isolated underwater {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|seamount}} with a flat top that is at least {{convert|200|m|ft}} below the water's surface.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|winterbourne}}.}}

{{defn|Any large system of circulating {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|ocean currents}}, particularly those related to large-scale wind movements. Gyres are caused by the {{gli|Coriolis effect}} and play a fundamental role in the global {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|thermohaline circulation}}.}}

File:Currents.svg, North Atlantic, South Pacific, South Atlantic, and Indian Ocean Gyres – as well as many smaller accessory {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|ocean current|currents}}, depicted here on a map projection with a south polar aspect.]]

{{defn|A device consisting of a spinning disc or rotor mounted in such a way as to preserve the orientation and angular velocity of its axis of rotation with respect to an inertial reference frame, irrespective of perturbations to the mounting itself, which makes it possible to measure and maintain an unbiased equilibrium in the {{gli|attitude}} and/or {{gli|course}} of a moving object such as an airborne or waterborne vehicle or camera. Modern digital gyroscopes and their associated readouts are widely used in {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|navigation}} and {{gli|geodesy}} as the basic sensor in {{gli|direction}}-seeking, direction-keeping, and attitude stabilization systems.}}

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H

{{defn|An individual's sense of "home", or of their place in the world, comprising socially ingrained habits, beliefs, skills, and dispositions based on their geographical environment, cultural origin, inheritance, experiences, and the social networks they develop throughout their life, all of which may be subject to refashioning with passing time or increasing distance.}}

{{defn|Any of a series of non-numerical lines used on a {{gli|map}} to indicate the general orientation and steepness of {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|topographical}} {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|terrain}}. Such lines vary in length, thickness, and spacing, with steeper slopes indicated by shorter, heavier, and more closely spaced lines.}}

{{defn|A coastal {{gli|lagoon}} of {{gli|fresh water|fresh}} or {{gli|brackish water}} on the south coast of the Baltic Sea, fed by a stream which is blocked by a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|nehrung}}, through which it is linked to the sea by a {{gli|channel}}.}}

{{defn|In the context of geography, the detrimental effect of a {{gli|border}} or other boundary on locations close to it, making those locations unattractive to people intending to visit or settle there; e.g. a political boundary in disputed territory, where immigration across the boundary occurs frequently. There may also be beneficial effects on such locations.}}

{{defn|In southern England, a plot of meadow land, especially a tract of rich pasture near a river; or a small settlement, ranging in size from a single {{gli|homestead}} to a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|town}}.}}

{{defn|A {{gli|desert}} landscape consisting of high, largely barren, rocky {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|plateaus}} where most of the sand has been removed by {{gli|deflation}}, and thus lacking most surficial materials other than boulders and exposed {{gli|bedrock}}.}}

{{defn|A small human settlement, variably defined as one the size of a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|town}}, {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|village}}, or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|parish}} or as a smaller subdivision of or satellite entity to a larger settlement.}}

{{defn|A {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|tributary}} {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|valley}} that is higher in elevation than the main valley into which it drains, such that it appears to be "hanging" above the lower valley. Hanging valleys are commonly the result of differential {{gli|glacial}} erosion, when adjacent areas beneath a glacier are subjected to different rates of erosion.}}

{{defn|One of a series of continuous rhythmic {{gli|earthquake|earthquakes}} in the Earth's upper {{gli|lithosphere}} that can be detected by {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|seismographs}}. Harmonic tremors often precede or accompany {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|volcano|volcanic eruptions}}.}}

{{defn|The farthest point above the {{gli|mouth}} of a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|river}} that can be navigated by watercraft, whether because of natural or man-made obstacles.}}

{{defn|The {{gli|compass}} {{gli|cardinal directions|direction}} in which the bow or nose of a moving vessel or aircraft is pointed. This is not necessarily the same direction in which the vessel is actually traveling, known as its {{gli|course}}; any difference between heading and course is due to the motion of the air or water through which the vessel is moving, or other aerodynamic effects such as skidding or slipping. See also {{gli|bearing}}.}}

{{defn|A high coastal {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|promontory}} that extends out into a body of water, often surrounded by steep {{gli|cliffs}}. A very large headland is often called a {{gli|cape}}.}}

{{defn|A steep slope or sheer cliff face at the upper end of a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|valley}} (e.g. at the back of a {{gli|cirque}}), or at the active face of a mine, pit, or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|quarry}}.}}

{{defn|no=1|Another name for the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|source}} of a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|river}}, {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|stream}}, or other {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|watercourse}}, i.e. the point or points furthest from the {{gli|mouth}} of a particular {{gli|channel}} at which precipitation, {{gli|meltwater}}, or {{gli|groundwater}} first accumulates into a persistent, identifiable, and/or named {{gli|body of water}} whose contents ultimately empty into that particular channel; or all of the uppermost {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|tributaries}} of a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|watershed}} considered collectively (of which there may be thousands), typically including all streams identified as first-order through third-order in conventional {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|stream order}} systems.}}

{{defn|no=2|The entire {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|region}}, inclusive of land, surrounding these sources, often abutting the boundary of a {{gli|drainage divide}} that separates distinct watersheds.}}

{{defn|The source area of any innovation; the place from which an idea, crop, artifact, or good is diffused to other areas.}}

{{defn|no=1|The central or interior part of a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|region}}.}}

{{defn|no=2|A part of a region considered essential to the viability and survival of the whole.}}

{{defn|A shrubland habitat found mainly on free-draining, infertile, acidic soils and characterized by open, low-growing, woody vegetation.}}

{{defn|A metric unit of area defined by a square with sides of 100 metres, equal to 10,000 m² or 2.471 {{gli|acres}}. There are 100 hectares in 1 square kilometre (km²).}}

{{defn|A line of closely spaced shrubs or trees, planted and trained so as to form a barrier, to mark the boundary between two neighboring areas, or to serve as a windbreak for crops in adjacent fields.}}

{{defn|A device used in {{gli|geodetic}} {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|surveying}} to reflect sunlight onto a distant point so as to aid long-distance observations.{{cite book |title=Glossary of mapping, charting, and geodetic terms |date=1973 |edition=3rd |publisher=United States Defense Mapping Agency Topographic Center |location=Washington, DC |url=https://archive.org/details/glossaryofmappin0000unit}}}}

{{defn|One half of the Earth, usually conceived as resulting from the division of the globe into two equal parts of either {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|Northern Hemisphere|north}} and {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|Southern Hemisphere|south}} or {{gli|Eastern Hemisphere|east}} and {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|Western Hemisphere|west}}.}}

{{defn|A geological {{gli|fold}} of which one side is sloped at an angle steeper than that of the other side.}}

{{defn|A {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|plain}} lying at a high {{gli|elevation}}, generally above {{convert|600|m|ft}}.}}

{{defn|A natural or man-made demarcation that indicates the maximum rise of a {{gli|body of water}} over land. Though not necessarily an actual physical mark, river or sea waters rising to a high point often leave a lasting physical impression such as a noticeable discoloration or deposition of debris; such a mark is often the result of a flood or storm surge. High water marks may reflect an all-time high, an annual high, or the high point for some other division of time (e.g. a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|tidal}} cycle). A natural delineation created by debris deposited by a high tide is called a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|strandline}}. See also {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|wash margin}} and {{gli|mean high water}}.}}

{{ghat|Sometimes used interchangeably with {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|upland}}.}}

{{defn|no=1|Any elevated region of land, often one that is {{gli|mountain|mountainous}} or situated atop a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|plateau}}. The term is sometimes reserved for relatively low-elevation {{gli|mountain ranges}} or {{gli|foothills}}.}}

{{defn|no=2|Any area of land (mountainous or otherwise) that is higher in {{gli|elevation}} relative to another area. In this sense, the term is often used as a conditional descriptor to distinguish related habitats or ecosystems, especially freshwater {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|riparian area|riparian areas}}, on the basis of elevation above sea level.}}

{{defn|Any major public or private road or other thoroughfare on land, especially one that is paved and capable of supporting high-capacity, rapid transit between {{gli|populated places}}.}}

{{defn|Any landform that extends above the surrounding {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|terrain}}. A hill is generally considered less steep than a {{gli|mountain}}.}}

{{defn|A small {{gli|hill}}.}}

{{defn|no=1|An area that is tributary to a place and linked to that place through lines of exchange or interaction.}}

{{defn|no=2|The area, not necessarily settled itself, that is nonetheless influenced by a particular {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|settlement}} or establishment, i.e. its {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|sphere of influence}}.}}

{{defn|A branch of {{gli|human geography}} that studies the ways in which geographic phenomena have changed over time, especially (though not necessarily limited to) geographic change as it relates to human activity; the geography of the past, whether real, perceived, or theoretical.}}

{{defn|A projecting {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|ridge}} or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|outcropping}} of land, its height ending abruptly or steeply. The term is used primarily in {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|placenames}} in Great Britain.}}

{{defn|A long, narrow {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|ridge}} or series of {{gli|hills}} with a narrow crest and steep, symmetrical slopes of nearly equal inclination on both flanks, especially one created by the differential erosion of an {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|outcropping}} which exposes homoclinal sedimentary rock strata. Compare {{gli|esker}}, {{gli|drumlin}}, and {{gli|cuesta}}.}}

File:Hogback NM.jpg

{{defn|Land owned or occupied by legal right for the purpose of agriculture.}}

{{defn|no=1|(dwelling) A house or home, especially an isolated farmhouse with its associated outbuildings on a large agricultural holding such as a ranch; or a small {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|rural}} settlement of dispersed farms.}}

{{defn|no=2|(legal concept) In the United States, a plot of land given legal meaning by a series of federal laws granting applicants ownership of land in the public domain upon the condition that they live on it and {{gli|improved land|improve}} it. Homesteaders were initially granted plots of {{convert|160|acre|sqkm}}, which was considered adequate to support a single family, but later as much as {{convert|640|acre|sqkm}}.}}

{{defn|The apparent line that separates the ground from the sky, dividing all visible directions into two categories: those that intersect the Earth's surface and those that do not. When not obscured by buildings, trees, or mountains, the true horizon can be useful in navigation and determining positional orientation. In perfect visibility, to an observer on Earth standing at an elevation of {{convert|3|m|ft|sigfig=1}} from the horizontal, the horizon in any direction is approximately {{convert|6.5|km|mi|sigfig=1}} distant; at {{convert|30|m|ft|sigfig=1}}, it is {{convert|21|km|mi}} away.}}

{{defn|The distance between two points on a land surface when projected on to a perfectly horizontal (i.e. flat) plane, e.g. on a {{gli|map}}, as opposed to measuring the actual physical length along the real-world surface, which can be greatly increased by {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|slopes}} and other topographic variations. The distance between the start and end points of any route, even if at the same elevation, will often appear to be much shorter on a map than the shortest route that could actually be walked between them, because of the influence of real-world changes in vertical displacement along the path followed by the route.}}

{{defn|A {{gli|mountain}} formed by the back-to-back abutment of three or four adjacent {{gli|cirques}}, leaving a distinctly pyramidal peak.}}

{{defn|A raised block of the Earth's {{gli|crust}}, bounded by parallel {{gli|escarpment|escarpments}} or {{gli|fault|faults}}, that has been displaced upward or has remained stationary while adjacent blocks on either side, known as {{gli|graben|grabens}}, have been displaced downward. Horsts and grabens often occur side-by-side in a repeated series of vertical displacements.}}

{{defn|An area in the middle of a {{gli|lithospheric plate}} where {{gli|magma}} rises from the {{gli|mantle}} and erupts at the Earth's surface, despite being far from the plate's {{gli|tectonic}} boundaries. {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|volcano|Volcanoes}} often occur above a hotspot.}}

{{defn|A residual hill in limestone country, resembling a haystack, left standing when the surrounding land surface is eroded.}}

{{defn|The branch of geography that studies humans and their communities, cultures, economies, and interactions with the environment by examining their relations with and across space and place. Along with {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|physical geography}}, it is one of the two major sub-fields of geography.}}

{{defn|The interdependent relationship between humans and the environment.}}

{{defn|An approach in {{gli|human geography}} which emphasizes the subjective as distinct from the objective in that it stresses the importance of perception, creativity, thinking, and beliefs as well as human experience and values in the formation of the attitudes of people toward their environment and in affecting their relationships with it.}}

{{defn|A small {{gli|knoll}} or {{gli|mound}}, typically less than {{convert|15|m|ft}} in height and situated above an otherwise level ground surface.}}

{{defn|In England, Scandinavia, and many other parts of the world, an administrative subdivision of a larger region, often a {{gli|county}} or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|shire}}, with its own judicial authority.}}

{{defn|A graph showing the rate of flow (i.e. the {{gli|discharge}}) of water past a specific point of measurement in a river or other channel over time, typically expressed in cubic metres or cubic feet per second (m³ or ft³/s).}}

{{defn|The totality of the water found on, under, and above the Earth's surface in liquid, solid, and gaseous forms, including all {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|oceans}}, {{gli|lakes}}, {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|rivers}}, and {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|streams}}, as well as all ice and {{gli|glaciers}} and subsurface {{gli|groundwater}}. Some definitions restrict the hydrosphere to liquid water only, instead placing solid forms in the {{gli|cryosphere}} and gaseous forms in the {{gli|atmosphere}}.}}

{{defn|The geographic representation on a {{gli|map}} of features related to {{gli|elevation}}, {{gli|altitude}}, and other measures of height above a reference surface (and sometimes inclusive of depths below the reference surface as well).}}

{{defn|Any instrument used to measure the height or {{gli|elevation}} of an object above a reference surface, either by trigonometry or by measuring changes in atmospheric pressure or boiling point. Trigonometric principles are applied when viewing the measured object from a distance, e.g. when determining the heights of trees or buildings, or when {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|surveying}} the elevations of distant landforms; whereas the principle that atmospheric pressure decreases predictably with elevation above {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|sea level}} is applied in instruments that measure their own height (i.e. the elevation of the instrument's location).}}

{{defn|The study or measurement of the {{gli|elevation}} or depth of features of the Earth's surface relative to mean {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|sea level}}. In a narrower sense, hypsometry may refer to land elevations only, and therefore is sometimes viewed as the terrestrial equivalent of {{gli|bathymetry}}.}}

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I

{{defn|Any very long period of Earth's history during which surface and atmospheric temperatures are greatly reduced, resulting in the development or expansion of continental and {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|polar ice cap|polar ice sheets}} and widespread {{gli|glaciation}}. The most recent such period was the Pleistocene Epoch, which ended approximately 12,000 years ago.}}

{{defn|A flattened, often dome-shaped mass of ice that covers less than {{convert|50000|sqkm|sqmi}} of land area and is not constrained by topographical features such as mountains; larger masses of ice are termed {{gli|ice sheet|ice sheets}}. Contrast {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|polar ice cap}}.}}

{{defn|A large piece of floating {{gli|drift ice}}, typically with a flat surface and at least {{convert|20|m|ft}} across at its widest point.}}

File:Walruses on ice floes.jpg

{{defn|A mass of {{gli|glacial}} ice that covers more than {{convert|50000|sqkm|sqmi}} of land area; smaller masses of ice may be termed {{gli|ice caps}} or {{gli|ice shelves}}. The two {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|polar ice cap|polar ice sheets}} are the only ice sheets that currently exist on Earth.}}

{{defn|A large floating platform of ice formed when a {{gli|glacier}} or {{gli|ice sheet}} in a {{gli|coastal}} area flows onto the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|ocean}} surface. By contrast, {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|sea ice}} is formed directly over the water and is typically much thinner.}}

{{defn|A region of relatively fast-moving ice within an {{gli|ice sheet}} that flows like a stream under its own weight (making it essentially equivalent to a {{gli|glacier}}) and empties into the ocean. Ice streams are responsible for the majority of the mass lost from both the Antarctic and Greenland ice sheets.}}

{{defn|A large chunk of {{gli|fresh water}} ice which has broken away from a larger body of ice (such as a {{gli|glacier}} or {{gli|ice shelf}}) and is floating freely in open water.}}

{{defn|A portion of a {{gli|glacier}} where a steepening or narrowing of the underlying bed causes the ice to move more rapidly than elsewhere, resulting in a chaotic, highly fractured surface characterized by numerous {{gli|crevasses}} and {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|seracs}}.}}

{{defn|To move to another country. People that move to another country are called immigrants.}}

{{defn|A type of {{gli|crater}} formed by the hypervelocity collision of a solid astronomical body, such as a meteor, with the Earth's surface. Unlike {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|volcanic crater|volcanic craters}}, impact craters typically have raised rims higher in elevation and depressed floors lower in elevation than the surrounding terrain.}}

{{defn|no=1|Another name for a {{gli|dam}} that impounds a {{gli|body of water}}.}}

{{defn|no=2|The {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|reservoir}} created by such a dam.}}

{{defn|Any land area which has been intentionally altered from its natural condition by human activity, such as ploughing, clearing, cultivation, or some other form of management, and thereby made more valuable or productive for human purposes (not necessarily to the benefit of any other organism or the environment in general). Legal definitions vary with location, but in most countries the term refers primarily to certain types of agricultural land or to property which has been developed for residential or commercial use.}}

{{ghat|Also clinometer, declinometer, tilt meter, gradient meter, slope gauge, and level gauge.}}

{{defn|An instrument used to measure angles of {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|slope}}, {{gli|elevation}}, or {{gli|depression}} with respect to the direction of the gravitational force, i.e. in the vertical plane, including both inclines and declines. The measure may be expressed in degrees, percentage points, or topos.}}

{{defn|A {{gli|contour line}} drawn with a heavier line weight to distinguish it from intermediate contours. Depending on the {{gli|contour interval}}, index contours are usually indicated every fourth or fifth contour, along with their assigned numerical values, in order to facilitate ease of interpretation.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|map index}}.}}

{{defn|Originating in or native to a particular place or region, usually used of a living organism.}}

{{defn|Costs borne by an activity because it remains located at its original site, even though the distributions of supply and demand have changed.}}

{{defn|(of a stream, river, or any natural water flow) Flowing into a larger watercourse or body of water.}}

{{defn|The broad set of facilities and interrelated systems that serve a {{gli|city}}, {{gli|country}}, or any other inhabited area, encompassing the structures and services necessary for its industries, economies, and residential spaces to function, i.e. for the human population occupying these spaces to get what they want or need when they want or need it. Infrastructure may include public and private physical structures such as roads, railways, bridges, tunnels, {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|reservoir|water reservoirs}}, {{gli|canals}}, sewers, and electrical and telecommunications networks, among other things. A well-developed infrastructure is essential to enable, sustain, and improve living and working conditions in any society or organization.}}

{{defn|A generally flat {{gli|coastline}} whose shape has been largely defined by the penetration of the sea into relatively low-lying areas of the land surface, often as a result of {{gli|crustal}} movements or a rise in {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|sea level}}, such that the boundary between land and water closely matches the topographic contours of the land prior to its being covered by seawater.}}

{{defn|Of, relating to, within, or towards the interior of a {{gli|landmass}}, i.e. distant from the {{gli|coast}}.}}

{{defn|A very large, isolated expanse of open water in the interior of a {{gli|landmass}}, either completely surrounded by dry land or connected to the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|ocean}} by a river, {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|strait}}, or other narrow {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|waterway}}.}}

{{defn|Any surface {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|watercourse}} or {{gli|body of water}} surrounded entirely by land, including {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|ponds}}, {{gli|lakes}}, {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|reservoirs}}, and {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|rivers}}, or all such waters within a polity considered collectively. See also {{gli|internal waters}}.}}

{{defn|An indentation of a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|shore|shoreline}}, usually long and narrow, which leads to an enclosed body of {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|salt water}}, such as a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|sound}}, {{gli|bay}}, {{gli|lagoon}}, or {{gli|marsh}}.}}

{{defn|An isolated rocky {{gli|hill}}, knob, {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|ridge}}, or small {{gli|mountain}} that rises abruptly from a virtually level surrounding {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|plain}}. Compare {{gli|mogote}}.}}

{{defn|A subsection of a {{gli|map}} that is reserved for depicting another map of the same place at a different {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|scale}}, often a smaller scale to show relative {{gli|location}} within a larger geographic area (e.g. a country's location on the {{gli|globe}}) or a larger scale to show increased detail (e.g. of public transit routes in a {{gli|downtown|downtown area}}), or with different features or overlays in order to provide additional information that would be difficult to interpret if presented in the main map area. Insets are usually outlined with an obvious boundary to prevent confusion, and may include their own set of cartographic elements such as a scale, {{gli|graticule}}, and {{gli|legend}}.{{cite book|title= Getting started with geographic information systems |author-first= Keith C. |author-last= Clarke |date= 1999 |publisher= Prentice Hall |location= Upper Saddle River, N.J. |isbn= 9780139238895}}}}

{{defn|(relative to a position on a body of water) Near to or moving towards the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|shore}}; shorewards of a position as opposed to seawards of it. See also {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|onshore}} and {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|offshore}}.}}

{{defn|Of or relating to an {{gli|island}}, or suggestive of the isolated condition of an island.}}

{{defn|A drainage pattern in which {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|stream}} systems have developed to the point that all parts of the landscape drain into some part of a stream and to a common base level, the initial or original surfaces having essentially eroded away entirely, such that few or no {{gli|endorheic basin|closed}} {{gli|drainage basin|drainage systems}} are present.}}

{{ghat|Also integrative geography, environmental geography, or human–environment geography.}}

{{defn|The branch of geography that describes and explains the spatial aspects of interactions between human individuals or societies and their natural environment.}}

{{ghat|Also intermediate directions or ordinal directions.}}

{{defn|The set of four intermediate directions used in {{gli|cartography}} and {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|navigation}}, each of which is located halfway between a pair of {{gli|cardinal directions}}: northeast (NE), southeast (SE), southwest (SW), and northwest (NW). They are often included in the {{gli|compass rose}} and are used to define further subdivisions such as the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|secondary-intercardinal directions}}.}}

{{defn|A narrow, elongated, and {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|plateau}}-like or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|ridge}}-like landform between two {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|valleys}}, or an area of higher ground between two rivers in the same {{gli|drainage basin}}.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|intercardinal directions}}.}}

{{defn|A {{gli|stream}} or other {{gli|watercourse}} in which water does not flow continuously but dries up occasionally, often predictably with the seasons, as opposed to a {{gli|perennial stream}} which flows year-round. See also {{gli|bourne}}.}}

{{defn|Situated between {{gli|mountains}} or {{gli|mountain ranges}}, e.g. the high {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|plateaus}} lying between the eastern and western ranges of the Andes.}}

{{defn|A line of {{gli|longitude}} generally 180 degrees east and west of the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|Prime Meridian}}. The date is one day earlier to the east of the line.}}

{{defn|In {{gli|geographic information science}}, the estimation of the values of {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|spatially dependent variables}} at unsampled points based on known values of surrounding points, under the assumption that any unknown quantity can be calculated based on its distance to each surrounding quantity. Interpolation techniques such as spline and {{gli|kriging}} are commonly {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|raster}} operations, but can also be applied in {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|vector}} environments using a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|triangulated irregular network}} to model a surface.}}

{{defn|Any place where the contiguous geographic area represented in a {{gli|map projection}} has been split, separating to distant parts of the projection certain features and locations which are in reality much closer to each other, in order to permit the representation of a three-dimensional space on a two-dimensional map. All {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|world maps}}, for example, have at least one interruption, conventionally along the length of a single {{gli|meridian}}, thus forming an east–west boundary despite that the approximately spherical {{gli|figure of the Earth|shape of the Earth}} is continuous, with no such boundaries; features on either side of the interruption, though very close to each other on the actual Earth, are depicted on opposite edges of the map, appearing to be separated by thousands of miles. Some world map projections attempt to reduce distortion of scale by having more than one interruption, which divide the projected area into multiple {{gli|gores}}, each with its own central meridian.}}

{{defn|The existence of a closer, less expensive opportunity for obtaining a good or service, or for a migration destination. Such opportunities lessen the attractiveness of more distant places.}}

{{defn|A system of navigable inland {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|waterway}} channels, maintained through dredging and sheltered for the most part by a series of linear offshore islands, that follows the Atlantic and Gulf Coasts of the United States more than {{convert|4800|km|mi}} from Boston, Massachusetts, around the southern tip of Florida, to Brownsville, Texas.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|estavelle}}.}}

{{defn|Any piece of sub-continental land that is entirely surrounded by water; or more generally, any isolated habitat that is surrounded by a different habitat, including different types of land.}}

{{defn|A {{gli|country}} or polity whose territory consists primarily or entirely of one or more {{gli|islands}} or parts of islands.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|island}}.}}

{{defn|A very small {{gli|island}}.}}

{{defn|Any line on a {{gli|map}} connecting places of equal value of some specified variable. The variable may be a physical or natural quantity, such as elevation above sea level (as with {{gli|contour lines}}) or temperature (as with isotherms), or a quantity related to social or economic statistics, such as population, wealth, or transport costs.}}

{{defn|The state of gravitational equilibrium between the Earth's {{gli|crust}} and its {{gli|mantle}}, such that the crust "floats" at an {{gli|elevation}} that depends on its thickness and density. This concept is invoked to explain how different {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|topographic}} heights can exist at Earth's surface. Isostatic theory maintains that where equilibrium exists at the surface, equal mass must underlie equal surface area, and that the thickness of crustal features and the depth of the world's {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|oceans}} tend to change over time in order to compensate for the uneven distribution of mass in the {{gli|lithosphere}}. For example, the instability of {{gli|continental margin|continental margins}} where high mountains are found adjacent to deep oceanic trenches is explained by the subterranean movement of magma to effect a return to regional equilibrium, a process known as isostatic adjustment.}}

File:Isostasy.jpg

{{defn|A narrow piece of land {{gli|land bridge|connecting}} two larger land areas across an expanse of water by which they are otherwise separated.}}

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J

{{defn|Any man-made structure that projects from land out into a body of water, serving as a {{gli|breakwater}}, a walkway, or a landing stage for watercraft, or, in pairs, as a means of constricting a {{gli|channel}}.}}

{{ghat|Also jhoom cultivation or slash-and-burn agriculture.}}

{{defn|Clear-cutting and/or setting fire to an area of land so it can be used for farm cultivation.}}

{{defn|A meeting or intersection of two or more {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|routes}} of travel, as of roads, rivers, or lines on a map, or a place at which a single route diverges into two or more different routes.}}

{{defn|An area covered with dense vegetation dominated by large trees, often tropical.}}

{{defn|no=1|The right and power to apply the law in a particular place or within a defined field of responsibility.}}

{{defn|no=2|The geographical area to which such authority applies.}}

{{defn|Water present within or derived from the {{gli|magma}} of the Earth's {{gli|mantle}} and which when brought to the surface by {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|volcanism|volcanic eruptions}} is entering the water cycle for the first time (or at least for the first time in millions of years, having previously circulated in the oceans or the atmosphere but becoming subducted beneath the surface and returned to the mantle).{{cite web |title=EarthWord – Juvenile Water |url=https://www.usgs.gov/news/earthword-juvenile-water |website=www.usgs.gov |publisher=U.S. Geological Survey |language=en |date=November 2, 2015}}}}

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K

{{defn|An irregularly shaped {{gli|hill}} or {{gli|mound}} composed of sand, gravel, and {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|till|glacial till}} which accumulates in a depression on a retreating {{gli|glacier}} and is subsequently deposited on the land surface with further melting of the glacier. Kames are often associated with {{gli|kettle|kettles}}.}}

File:Receding glacier-en.svg

{{defn|A furrow or {{gli|channel}} varying in depth from a few millimetres to more than a metre, and separated from others by {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|ridges}}, caused by solution on limestone surfaces.}}

{{defn|An area possessing surface {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|topography}} resulting from the underground solution of subsurface limestone or dolomite.}}

{{ghat|Also kettle hole or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|pothole}}.}}

{{defn|A shallow, sediment-filled body of water formed by blocks of ice calving from a retreating {{gli|glacier}}, or by draining floodwaters.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|cay}}.}}

{{defn|A river, stream, {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|strait}}, or tidal {{gli|inlet}}. The term is used primarily in areas of Dutch influence in the northeastern United States.}}

{{defn|no=1|A point of abrupt inflection in the longitudinal profile of a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|river}} or its {{gli|channel}} or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|valley}}, such as occurs at a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|waterfall}}.}}

{{defn|no=2|Any interruption or break in the character of a {{gli|grade|slope}}.}}

{{defn|A peak or projection from the top of a {{gli|hill}} or {{gli|mountain}}, or any rounded protrusion of land, especially a small but {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|topographic prominence|prominent}} or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|topographic isolation|isolated}} hill with steep sides; a boulder or an area of {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|outcrop|resistant rock}} protruding from the side of a hill or mountain. The term is used primarily in the southern United States.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|hillock}}.}}

{{defn|no=1|A violently rotating underwater vortex capable of {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|plucking}} and scouring {{gli|depressions}} in {{gli|bedrock}}, which may leave behind distinct pits or lakes known as {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|rock-cut basin|rock-cut basins}} or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|potholes}}.}}

{{defn|no=2|Another name for a {{gli|bog pond}}.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|tor}}.}}

{{defn|In Russia and other Slavic countries, a generic term for a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|region}}, historically and politically reserved for {{gli|border}} regions in particular, and variously translated as {{gli|march}}, {{gli|frontier}}, or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|territory}}. The term is cognate with the name of Ukraine.}}

{{ghat|Also Gaussian process regression and Wiener–Kolmogorov prediction.}}

{{defn|In {{gli|geostatistics}}, an {{gli|interpolation}} technique in which, for a given {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|spatially dependent variable}}, a predicted value for an unmeasured location is derived by weighting the surrounding measured values based on the distance between them and to the unmeasured location, as well as the overall spatial arrangement of the measured points. Widely used in {{gli|GIS}} applications, kriging is based on regionalized variable theory, which assumes that the spatial variation in the data being modeled is homogeneous across the surface.}}

{{defn|A sandy {{gli|desert}} of Central Asia, roughly equivalent to the Saharan {{gli|erg}}.}}

{{defn|In Scotland, a narrow {{gli|channel}} or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|strait}} between two {{gli|islands}}, or between an island and the {{gli|mainland}}.}}

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L

{{defn|Of or pertaining to a {{gli|lake}}; formed by or deposited in a lake.}}

{{defn|A nearly level land area formed by the infilling of a {{gli|lake}} with sediment and the complete drainage or evaporation of water from the lake, leaving the deposited sediments behind.}}

{{defn|A small area of water connected to the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|ocean}} but otherwise blockaded by one or more {{gli|islands}}.}}

{{defn|A flowing mixture of water and debris (intermediate between a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|volcanic avalanche}} and a water flood) that forms on the slopes of a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|volcano}}.}}

{{defn|A {{gli|body of water}} localized in a {{gli|depression|basin}} and surrounded entirely by land. Lakes are often defined as separate from any {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|river}} or stream that serves to feed or drain them.}}

{{defn|Any piece of land connecting larger land areas that are otherwise separated by water, especially one over which living organisms, such as terrestrial animals and plants, are able to cross and thereby colonize previously inaccessible lands. Land bridges may be created by falling sea levels, {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|plate tectonics|tectonic activity}}, or post-glacial rebound. Compare {{gli|isthmus}}.}}

File:Beringia-Map Bathymetry web72 final.png {{gli|land bridge}} thought to have connected Asia and North America about 21,000 years ago, during the Last Glacial Maximum]]

{{defn|The physical material present on the surface of the Earth, including categories such as vegetation (grasslands, shrubs, forests, etc.), bare ground, water, asphalt and artificial surfaces, and many others.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|fast ice}}.}}

{{defn|A natural feature of the solid surface of the Earth. A combined set of landforms makes up the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|terrain}} of a given area, and their arrangement in a landscape is known as {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|topography}}.}}

{{defn|no=1|(of a country or other polity, or a geographical region) Completely surrounded by land and thus lacking a marine {{gli|coastline}}; having no territory directly connected to or bordering the {{gli|ocean}}.}}

{{defn|no=2|(of a property or parcel of land) Completely surrounded by privately owned property and having no access to a public road.}}

{{defn|Any natural or artificial feature that is recognizable enough to be used for {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|navigation}}; a feature that stands out enough from its environment to be visible across long distances.}}

{{defn|Any large contiguous area of {{gli|land}} typically surrounded by an {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|ocean}} or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|sea}}. Compare {{gli|continent}}.}}

{{defn|no=1|A broad or distinct area of land consisting of a collection of {{gli|landforms}} which define a general {{gli|geomorphologic}} form or setting, e.g. a {{gli|mountain range}}, {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|valley}}, {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|plain}}, {{gli|coast}}, etc. Landforms within a landscape are spatially associated but may vary in formation processes and age.}}

{{defn|no=2|The visible features of an area of land, its landforms, and how they integrate with natural or man-made features. In the broadest sense, landscapes may include geophysical landforms such as hills and mountains; {{gli|bodies of water}} such as rivers, lakes, and the sea; living elements of {{gli|land cover}} such as vegetation; human elements such as buildings, structures, and various forms of {{gli|land use}}; and transitory elements such as lighting and weather conditions. They reflect both physical origins and the {{gli|cultural landscape|cultural overlay}} of human presence in a living synthesis of people and place.}}

{{defn|A branch of geography which examines the structure and organization of {{gli|landscapes}}, focusing on landscapes as the settings for cultural and ecological patterns, processes, and histories, as well as on the social and cultural evolution of landscapes, including the ways in which they shape and are shaped by human societies and the interrelationships between {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|place-making}} and personal and social memory.}}

{{defn|A sudden {{gli|mass movement}} of earth from a hill, mountain, or cliff, in which displaced material slides, flows, falls, or collapses under the force of gravity yet often retains form as it moves; or the visible evidence of this movement after the displaced material has come to rest. Landslides may have many causes, though they are commonly associated with heavy precipitation, underground {{gli|aquifers}}, wave action, and earthquakes.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|tied island}}.}}

{{defn|A sideways-directed explosion from the side or summit of a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|volcano}}.}}

{{defn|A measure of distance north or south of the {{gli|Equator}}. One degree of latitude equals approximately {{convert|111|km|mi|sp=us}}. Lines of latitude, also called {{gli|circle of latitude|circles of latitude}} or parallels, are the imaginary lines that cross the surface of the Earth in an east-west direction (parallel to the Equator) and measure how far north or south of the Equator a place is located.}}

{{defn|The term used for {{gli|magma}} once it has erupted onto the Earth's surface.}}

{{defn|In {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|oceanography}}, a hypothetical layer at some depth in the ocean within which the water is assumed to be at rest, implying that the isobaric surfaces within that layer are level and hence that such surfaces can be used as points of reference when calculating absolute-gradient {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|ocean current|currents}}.}}

{{defn|A pasture, {{gli|meadow}}, or grassy {{gli|field}}.}}

{{defn|A process of soil nutrient removal through the erosive movement and chemical action of water.}}

{{defn|The side or {{gli|grade|slope}} of a physical feature (such as a {{gli|hill}} or {{gli|mountain}}) which faces downwind, i.e. away from the direction in which the wind is blowing, or which faces away from an advancing {{gli|glacier}} or {{gli|ice sheet}}. The lee side is often sheltered by the topography from exposure to the wind and any moisture it brings.}}

{{defn|Toward the {{gli|lee}} side; sheltered from the wind; the direction downwind from a point of reference. Contrast {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|windward}}.}}

{{defn|A key for understanding the meanings of the symbols or pictures on a {{gli|map}}.}}

{{ghat|Also dike, embankment, floodbank, and stopbank.}}

{{defn|An elongated naturally occurring {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|ridge}} or an artificially constructed wall or barrier which regulates water levels in areas prone to flooding. It is usually earthen and often parallel to the course of a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|river}} or a {{gli|coast|coastline}}.}}

{{defn|The Earth's hard, outermost shell. It comprises the crust and the upper part of the mantle. It is divided into a mosaic of 16 major slabs or plates, which are known as {{gli|lithospheric plates}} or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|tectonic plates}}.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|tectonic plates}}.}}

{{defn|A type of easily worked, highly fertile soil composed of clay, silt, and sand in an approximate ratio of 20:40:40. Loams generally heat rapidly, are well-aerated, and drain neither too quickly nor too slowly.}}

{{defn|A movement or philosophy that prioritizes local or small-scale politics, issues, and values over {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|regional}} or broader concerns, rejecting things like centralized government and economic outsourcing in favor of local production and consumption of goods, local control of government, and the promotion of local history, local culture, and local identity.}}

{{defn|The set of processes by which social, cultural, economic, or other activities become embedded in specific places or {{gli|locations}}, rather than in alternative places or across many places, either in contrast to or as a related aspect of {{gli|globalization}}. In the former sense localization may be deliberately practiced as a form of resistance to globalization through the promotion of increased local control, self-government, and economic self-sufficiency.{{cite book |last1=Castree |first1=Noel |last2=Kitchin |first2=Rob |last3=Rogers |first3=Alisdair |title=A Dictionary of Human Geography |date=2013 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford, England |isbn=9780199599868 |edition=1st}} See also {{gli|deglobalization}}.}}

{{defn|A particular point or place in physical space. Compare {{gli|absolute location}}.}}

{{defn|A group of theories which seek to explain the siting of economic activities in particular {{gli|locations}}.}}

{{defn|A soil made up of small particles that were transported by the wind to their present location.}}

{{defn|A measure of distance east or west of the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|Prime Meridian}}, a line drawn between the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|North Geographic Pole|North}} and {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|South Geographic Pole|South Poles}} and passing through the Royal Observatory at Greenwich, England. Lines of longitude, also called {{gli|meridians}}, are the imaginary lines that cross the surface of the Earth in a north-south direction (parallel to the Prime Meridian) and measure how far east or west of the Prime Meridian a place is located.}}

{{defn|A geological process by which sediment is transported along a {{gli|coast}} parallel to the {{gli|shoreline}} due to incoming wind-driven waves meeting the shore at an oblique angle; this generates a water current which moves unidirectionally along the shore within the {{gli|surf zone}}. A well-known example occurs on sandy {{gli|beaches}} when {{gli|breaking waves}} send swash up the beach at an angle but gravity drains the {{gli|backwash}} straight downslope, perpendicular to the shoreline, causing the same sand particles to gradually move down the beach over multiple cycles. The same process occurs at many different scales and affects all sediment sizes, and can vary with the wind direction even at the same location.}}

File:Longshore drift.svg

{{defn|Any area of land that is lower in {{gli|elevation}} relative to another area. The term is often used as a conditional descriptor to distinguish related habitats or ecosystems, especially freshwater {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|riparian area|riparian areas}}, on the basis of elevation above sea level. Lowland areas are usually relatively flat and characterized by slow-flowing waterways and {{gli|alluvial plains}}. Contrast {{gli|highland}} and {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|upland}}.}}

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M

{{defn|A broad, shallow, flat-bottomed {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|volcanic crater}} created by an eruption involving {{gli|groundwater}} coming into contact with {{gli|magma}}. Maars commonly have low rims and subtle {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|terrain|relief}} and characteristically fill with water to form {{gli|crater lake|crater lakes}}.}}

{{defn|A fertile, low-lying, grassy {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|plain}} on the northwest {{gli|coasts}} of Ireland and Scotland.}}

{{defn|Molten rock containing liquids, crystals, and dissolved gases that forms within the upper part of the Earth's {{gli|mantle}} and {{gli|crust}}. When erupted onto the Earth's surface, it is called {{gli|lava}}.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|juvenile water}}.}}

{{defn|A local deviation from the predicted value of the {{gli|Earth's magnetic field}}, due either to the presence of rocks formed in past geological eras which have preserved internal magnetizations that differ from modern magnetic alignments, or to local abundances or deficiencies of ferromagnetic minerals.}}

{{defn|The angle on the horizontal plane between {{gli|magnetic north}} and {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|true north}}. Because {{gli|compass}} needles always point to magnetic north, and because the {{gli|Magnetic North Pole}} and the {{gli|Geographic North Pole}} are not in precisely the same location, the north direction indicated by a compass may be slightly different from the direction of geographic north, depending on the user's location on the Earth. The user can compensate for this discrepancy by adding the known declination angle for their location to the magnetic {{gli|bearing}} reported by their compass, yielding the true bearing with respect to true north.}}

{{defn|The angle made with the horizontal by the {{gli|Earth's magnetic field|Earth's magnetic field lines}}. Locations in the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|Northern Hemisphere}} usually have positive values of inclination, indicating that the magnetic field is angled downward, into the Earth; the angle increases as one approaches the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|North Magnetic Pole}}, where the field lines point vertically downward, perpendicular to the horizontal. Locations in the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|Southern Hemisphere}} usually have negative inclination, indicating that the field lines are angled upward, away from the Earth, with the maximum angle located at the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|South Magnetic Pole}}. Dip angle is in principle the angle made by the needle of a vertically held {{gli|compass}}, though in practice ordinary compass needles may be deliberately weighted against dip, or may be unable to move freely in the correct plane. Magnetic dip can be measured more reliably with a {{gli|dip circle}}.}}

{{defn|The direction a {{gli|compass}} points, towards the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|North Magnetic Pole|Magnetic North Pole}}. Magnetic north differs from {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|true north}} and {{gli|grid north}}.}}

{{defn|Either of the two poles of the Earth's true {{gli|Earth's magnetic field|magnetic field}} – the {{gli|Magnetic North Pole}} or the {{gli|Magnetic South Pole}}.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|magnetic declination}}.}}

{{defn|The primary downstream {{gli|channel}} of a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|river}}, as contrasted with its {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|tributaries}}. Virtually all of the water in a river's {{gli|drainage basin}} eventually flows through the main stem.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|grade}}.}}

{{defn|A term used to denote a {{gli|contiguous}} {{gli|landmass}} or political territory relative to its politically associated but geographically remote {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|outlying territory|outlying territories}}. It is variously used to refer to the {{gli|continent|continental}} (i.e. non-{{gli|insular}}) part of a polity relative to its {{gli|exclaves}} or oceanic islands; or to the largest or most politically, economically, and/or demographically significant island within an {{gli|island nation}}. For example, continental Europe is often considered "the mainland" relative to the British Isles, while the island of Great Britain is considered "the mainland" relative to Northern Ireland and the many smaller islands that constitute the United Kingdom.}}

{{defn|A deep, closed {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|valley}} (usually drained by a single {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|wadi}}) surrounded by steep walls of resistant rock and superficially resembling a {{gli|crater}}. The term is used primarily in the deserts of Israel and Egypt.}}

{{defn|Smooth and rounded in appearance, used of various landforms of different sizes from individual rocks to entire landscapes.}}

{{defn|The layer of the Earth's interior between the {{gli|crust}} and the {{gli|core}}, consisting of ultrabasic rock which is predominantly solid under the immense pressure of overlying rock but behaves as a viscous fluid over geological time scales or if this pressure is relieved (as with {{gli|magma}} penetrating the crust). The mantle is about {{convert|2,900|km|mi|sp=us}} thick, making up 84% of the Earth's volume and 67% of its mass. The uppermost sub-layer is known as the {{gli|asthenosphere}}; the {{gli|lithosphere}} is composed of the topmost {{convert|65|–|70|km|mi}} of the mantle and the crust.}}

{{defn|A picture of a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|place}} drawn at an established {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|scale}} on a two-dimensional plane surface, often depicting natural and manmade features on or under the surface of the Earth or other planetary body, typically with the features positioned as accurately as possible relative to a {{gli|coordinate reference system}}. More generally, a map is any graphical representation of locative information about the relative {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|positions}} of particular features within a space or place.}}

{{defn|A graphical key identifying the relationships between the individual {{gli|maps}} of a {{gli|map series}}, their coverage areas, and/or their production status or availability. Index maps enable users to find a map or set of maps covering a particular region of interest by overlaying a grid or a set of rectangles on a map of a larger geographical area. Each grid unit or rectangle is labeled with a name or number corresponding to a specific {{gli|map sheet}} which depicts the indicated area in greater detail.}}

{{term|map projection}}{{anchor|map projections|projection|projections|project|projects|projected|projecting}}

{{defn|A systematic transformation of the {{gli|latitudes}} and {{gli|longitudes}} of locations from the surface of a three-dimensional shape, such as a sphere or an ellipsoid, into locations on a two-dimensional plane. {{gli|map|Maps}} of locations on the Earth require map projections to represent features in a convenient format that is easy to view and interpret, though all map projections necessarily distort the true properties of the Earth's surface to some degree.}}

{{defn|A group of topographic or thematic {{gli|map sheets}} usually having the same {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|scale}} and {{gli|cartographic}} specifications and collectively identified by the publisher or producing agency as belonging to the same group.}}

{{defn|An individual {{gli|map}} or {{gli|chart}} printed on a single page or sheet of paper, either complete in itself or part of a {{gli|map series}}.}}

{{defn|The process of designing, drawing, or creating a {{gli|map}}. The term is used in particular to refer to the application of {{gli|cartographic}} techniques in order to make {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|planimetric}} or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|topographic maps}}, but may also be used for any map, and in the broadest sense may refer to the gathering of geographical data of any kind.}}

{{ghat|Also marche or mark; (pl.) marches or marchlands.}}

{{defn|A {{gli|boundary}}, {{gli|frontier}}, or {{gli|border|borderland}}, as opposed to an interior {{gli|heartland}}. In medieval Europe, a march was the land surrounding a border between realms, or a neutral {{gli|buffer zone}} under the joint control of two or more realms with conflicting laws or territorial claims.}}

{{defn|no=1|The line or edge along which the surface of a body of water meets the land.}}

{{defn|no=2|In property law, the {{gli|boundary}} of a piece of land which is bounded by a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|stream}} or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|watercourse}}, often with the center of the stream or the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|thalweg}} defining the legal boundary.}}

{{defn|no=3|The mostly blank, unused space lying beyond the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|neatline}} of a map and completely surrounding the map area. See also {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|surround}}.}}

{{defn|Land that is of low agricultural value because any crops produced from it would be worth the same or less than the costs paid to produce them, either because the rights or {{gli|land improvement|improvements}} required to cultivate it are very expensive, or the market prices for the crops are very low, or for any other reason. A change in economic conditions may allow formerly marginal lands to become profitable again.}}

{{defn|no=1|A {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|sea}} or other large area of the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|ocean}} that is partially enclosed by land and/or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|submarine ridges}} yet still adjacent to, widely open to, and connected to the larger ocean at the surface; e.g. the Yellow Sea and Hudson Bay.}}

{{defn|no=2|{{ghat|Also territorial sea, marine belt, and maritime belt.}}Those waters along a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|nation}}'s {{gli|coast}} within which the nation has exclusive jurisdiction except for the right of innocent passage of foreign vessels. See also {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|territorial waters}}.}}

{{defn|no=1|Of, relating to, found in, or produced by the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|sea}} or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|ocean}}.}}

{{defn|no=2|Of or relating to shipping or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|navigation}}, particularly by watercraft.}}

{{defn|A climate strongly influenced by an {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|ocean|oceanic}} environment, typically found on {{gli|islands}} and the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|windward}} shores of {{gli|continents}}. It is characterized by small daily and yearly temperature variation and high relative humidity.}}

{{defn|The tendency of a firm or industry to be located close to wherever demand for the commodities it produces is strongest.}}

{{defn|A type of {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|wetland}} dominated by herbaceous rather than woody plant species and often found at the edges of lakes and streams, where it forms a transition between aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems.}}

{{defn|no=1|Any section of the Earth's {{gli|crust}} which is demarcated by {{gli|faults}} or flexures and tends to retain its internal structure while being displaced as a whole.}}

{{defn|no=2|A single large {{gli|mountain}} mass or compact group of connected mountains forming an independent portion of a {{gli|mountain range}}.}}

{{defn|In Switzerland and the Central Alps, a large shelf or ledge, intermediate between high alpine meadows and valley floors, where cattle are allowed to rest briefly during their annual movements between summer and winter pasture.}}

{{defn|The average {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|sea level}} of one or more of the Earth's coastal bodies of water, such as {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|oceans}} and {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|seas}}, or at a particular location, from which heights such as {{gli|elevation}} and {{gli|altitude}} are measured.}}

{{defn|One of a series of regular sinuous curves, bends, loops, turns, or windings in the {{gli|main stem|main channel}} of a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|river}}, {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|stream}}, or other {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|watercourse}}. Meanders are produced by the repetitive upstream erosion and downstream deposition of sediments along the banks of a watercourse as the water flows back and forth across the axis of a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|valley}} or {{gli|floodplain}}.}}

{{defn|The process by which the {{gli|meander neck|strip of land}} separating the two closest parts of a {{gli|meandering}} river or stream {{gli|channel}} is breached by the river's flow, forming a new, shorter channel that effectively "shortcuts" the loop of the meander and causes it to be gradually abandoned until it is completely isolated from the main flow. The river's course suddenly becomes much straighter, and the abandoned meander often forms a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|slackwater}} or an {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|oxbow lake}}, or becomes loaded with sediment and dries up entirely, leaving {{gli|meander scar|visible traces}} of the former channel.}}

File:OxbowAnimation.gif

{{defn|The narrow strip of land separating the river on each side of a well-developed {{gli|meander}}. If this strip is completely eroded away, a {{gli|meander cutoff|cutoff}} occurs. See also {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|neck}}.}}

{{defn|A typically crescent-shaped incision in a {{gli|bluff}} or valley wall formed by the remnants of a dry, abandoned {{gli|meander}}.}}

{{defn|The {{gli|morainic}} debris lying centrally in a line across the surface of a {{gli|glacier}}, formed when the {{gli|lateral moraines}} of two {{gli|confluent}} glaciers meet.}}

{{defn|A branch of {{gli|human geography}} that studies the geographical aspects of health and the provision of healthcare, examining the spatial distribution of human diseases, mortality, morbidity, and the environmental factors conducive to human health and illness.}}

{{defn|Any climate characterized by mild, rainy winters and hot, dry summers, as experienced in the Mediterranean Basin.}}

{{defn|A very large {{gli|city}}, typically with a population of at least 10 million people. Precise definitions vary, but criteria are usually based on total population and/or population density.}}

{{defn|An exceptionally large {{gli|alluvial fan}}, variously defined as being more than {{convert|100|km|mi}} long from apex to toe or having a surface area of more than {{convert|10000|sqkm|sqmi}}.}}

{{defn|A chain of roughly adjacent {{gli|metropolitan area|metropolitan areas}} which have merged into a very large and heavily populated {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|urban|urban complex}}. See also {{gli|conurbation}} and {{gli|metropolitan coalescence}}.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|opisometer}}.}}

{{defn|Water (usually {{gli|freshwater}}) derived from the melting of snow or ice, including seasonal snowfall, {{gli|glacial}} ice, {{gli|icebergs}}, and {{gli|ice shelf|ice shelves}} over the ocean.}}

{{defn|The conception of an actual geographic space as it exists within a person's mind; an imagined "map" of the spatial relationships and orientations of physical objects and locations within the real-world environment, reflecting the knowledge and prejudices of the individual and characteristic of the way the individual acquires, classifies, stores, retrieves, and interprets geographic information.}}

{{ghat|Also equatorial cylindrical orthomorphic map projection.}}

{{defn|A {{gli|conformal map projection|conformal}} {{gli|cylindrical map projection|cylindrical}} {{gli|map projection}} in which the {{gli|equator}} is represented by a straight line true to scale and {{gli|meridians}} are represented by parallel straight lines perpendicular to the equator and uniformly spaced according to the distances between them at the equator. {{gli|circle of latitude|Lines of latitude}} are also represented by a system of straight lines which are perpendicular to all of the meridians and therefore parallel to the equator, though their spacing is not uniform but rather increases with increasing distance from the equator in order to conform with the expanding scale resulting from the parallel representations of the meridians. The standard Mercator projection has long been popular in {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|navigation}} because it represents north as up and south as down everywhere in the world while preserving local directions and shapes, though it also greatly inflates the size of objects near the geographic poles.}}

{{defn|A shallow {{gli|pond}}, {{gli|lake}}, or {{gli|wetland}}. The term is used primarily in Great Britain and other parts of Western Europe.}}

{{defn|A type of {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|surveying}} in which boundaries are established with respect to ground features present at the time of the survey, which may include natural features and may or may not remain unchanged over time, e.g. a {{gli|metes and bounds}} survey.{{cite book|title=A to Z GIS: An Illustrated Dictionary of Geographic Information Systems |editor-first=Tasha |editor-last=Wade |editor-first2= Shelly| editor-last2= Sommer| date=2006 |edition=2nd |publisher=ESRI Press |location=Redlands, California |isbn=978-1-58948-140-4}}}}

{{defn|A line of {{gli|longitude}}, i.e. any imaginary line connecting points of equal longitude and running perpendicular to all {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|parallel|lines of latitude}}, intersecting them at right angles. Unlike lines of latitude, meridians are all the same length, but are not parallel to each other, instead converging at the {{gli|geographic poles}}. Each meridian is half of a {{gli|great circle}} drawn on the Earth's surface; the other half, connecting all of the meridian's {{gli|antipodes}}, is termed an {{gli|antimeridian}}. Meridians are numbered according to their longitudinal measure in angular {{gli|degrees}} (further subdivided into {{gli|minutes}} and {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|seconds}}) up to 180 degrees east or west of an arbitrarily designated zero or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|prime meridian}}, by convention the {{gli|International Reference Meridian}}.}}

{{defn|Of, relating to, or characteristic of the south, especially of the inhabitants of a southern region or territory, in particular southern Europe. Contrast {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|septentrional}}.}}

{{defn|An isolated, relatively flat-topped natural elevation, usually more extensive than a {{gli|butte}} but less extensive than a {{gli||glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|plateau}}.}}

{{defn|Rock that has been physically altered by heat and/or pressure.}}

{{defn|A system of {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|surveying|land survey}} that defines parcels of land according to visible natural landscape features and distance. The resultant field pattern is usually very irregular in shape.}}

{{defn|The homeland or central territory from which a colonial empire governs, as opposed to its {{gli|colonies}} or overseas territories.}}

{{defn|A large {{gli|city}} or {{gli|conurbation}} which is considered a significant economic, political, or cultural center for a {{gli|country}} or geographic region and/or an important hub for regional or international connections and communications.}}

{{defn|A region consisting of one or more densely populated {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|urban}} cores (often a {{gli|metropolis}}) and its less populous surrounding territories, including satellite {{gli|cities}}, {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|towns}}, and intervening {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|rural}} areas, all of which are socioeconomically tied to the core as typically measured by commuting patterns. A metropolitan area usually comprises multiple {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|neighborhoods}}, {{gli|jurisdictions}}, and {{gli|municipalities}}, with its inhabitants sharing industry, housing, and many other forms of infrastructure.}}

{{defn|The merging of the urbanized parts of separate {{gli|metropolitan areas}}; a {{gli|megalopolis}} is a result of this process.}}

{{defn|The movement of people, animals, or other living organisms from one place to another.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|bog}}.}}

{{defn|An isolated, rounded, steep-sided {{gli|hill}} composed of either limestone, marble, or dolomite and surrounded by nearly flat {{gli|alluvial plains}}, especially as found in {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|tropical}} regions.}}

{{ghat|Also Moho discontinuity, Moho boundary, or simply Moho.}}

{{defn|The boundary between the Earth's {{gli|crust}} and the {{gli|mantle}}, as defined by the abrupt change in velocity of seismic P waves traveling across this boundary, which occurs as the waves pass through different densities of rock.}}

{{defn|A long, massive, man-made stone or earthen structure used as a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|pier}} or {{gli|breakwater}}, or as a {{gli|causeway}} between places separated by water, but designed to prevent the free movement of water underneath it (unlike a true pier).}}

{{defn|See {{gli|inselberg}}.}}

{{defn|Of or pertaining to a {{gli|mountain}} or mountains; mountainous; occurring at high {{gli|elevation}}. The term is used in particular to describe {{gli|biomes}} or ecological communities occupying cool, humid zones at or near {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|timberline}}. See also {{gli|alpine}}.}}

{{defn|A secondary {{gli|cinder cone|cone}} on the side of a larger {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|volcano}}, or any small mountain or large hill.}}

{{defn|An upland habitat and {{gli|ecoregion}} characterized by low-growing vegetation on acidic soils and generally referring to uncultivated {{gli|hills}} but also including low-lying {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|wetlands}}.}}

{{defn|The rocks and soil carried and deposited by a {{gli|glacier}}. A {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|terminal moraine}}, either a ridge or low hill running perpendicular to the direction of ice movement, is often visible near the end of a retreating glacier, indicating the glacier's maximum advance.}}

{{defn|A vertical, cylindrical shaft, up to {{convert|25|–|30|m|ft}} deep, by which surface {{gli|meltwater}} flows into a {{gli|glacier}}, usually formed at lines of structural weakness in the ice.}}

{{defn|Any heaped pile of earth, gravel, sand, rocks, or debris, typically with a rounded top and of topographically higher {{gli|elevation}} than its immediate surroundings.}}

{{defn|A large {{gli|landform}} that rises prominently above the surrounding land in a limited area, usually in the form of a rocky peak with great vertical {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|topographical relief|relief}}; a mountain is generally considered steeper than a {{gli|hill}}. Mountains are formed by {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|volcanic}} or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|plate tectonics|tectonic}} forces and erode slowly through the actions of rivers, glaciers, and {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|weathering}}. Most exist within extensive {{gli|mountain ranges}}.}}

{{defn|A navigable route through a {{gli|mountain range}} or over a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|ridge}}, often crossing a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|saddle}}.}}

{{defn|A series of neighboring {{gli|mountains}} or {{gli|hills}}, often closely arranged in a line and connected by high ground. Individual mountains within the same mountain range are usually the result of the same {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|orogeny}}, and often (though not always) share a common form, alignment, and geology.}}

{{defn|no=1|The place where a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|river}} or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|stream}} flows into another body of water, such as a {{gli|lake}} or another river but especially a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|sea}} or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|ocean}}. {{gli|delta|Deltas}} and {{gli|estuaries}} occur near the mouths of rivers.}}

{{defn|no=2|The lower or downstream end or the most accessible entrance of a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|valley}}, {{gli|canyon}}, {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|ravine}}, or {{gli|cave}}.}}

{{defn|A type of coastal {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|wetland}} consisting of exposed layers of bay mud formed by the deposition of silts, clays, and marine animal detritus by {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|tides}} or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|rivers}}. Mudflats usually form within the {{gli|intertidal zone}} of relatively sheltered areas such as {{gli|bays}} and {{gli|lagoons}}.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|lahar}}.}}

{{defn|Of, pertaining to, or including multiple distinct cultures.}}

{{defn|The ability to use more than one language when speaking or writing. This term often refers to the presence of more than two populations of significant size within a single political unit, each group speaking a different language as their primary language.}}

{{defn|The legal term for a government body at the local level, including but not necessarily limited to {{gli|cities}}, {{gli|counties}}, {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|towns}}, {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|townships}}, {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|villages}}, and {{gli|boroughs}}.{{cite journal|last=Voorn, Bart, Marieke L. Van Genugten, and Sandra Van Thiel (2017)|title=The efficiency and effectiveness of municipally owned corporations: A systematic review|journal=Local Government Studies|volume=43|issue=5|pages=820–841|doi=10.1080/03003930.2017.1319360|year=2017|hdl=2066/176125|url=https://repository.ubn.ru.nl/bitstream/2066/176125/1/176125.pdf|doi-access=free}}}}

{{defn|A type of general-purpose {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)|urban}} {{gli|administrative division|administrative subdivision}} having {{gli|municipal corporation|corporate}} status and powers of self-government or {{gli|jurisdiction}} as granted by national and/or state laws to which it is subordinate. Municipalities are often included within but usually distinguished from larger administrative divisions such as {{gli|counties}}, though the nature of their territorial boundaries and political jurisdictions can vary considerably in different parts of the world.}}

{{defn|Another name for a {{gli|bog}}, used primarily in Alaska and western Canada.}}

{{Compact ToC|side=yes|center=yes|top=yes|extlinks=yes|seealso=yes|refs=yes|nobreak=yes|n=N|o=O|p=P|q=Q|r=R|s=S|t=T|u=U|v=V|w=W|x=X|y=Y|z=Z}}

Notes

Much of this material was copied from U.S. government works which are in the public domain because they are not eligible for copyright protection.{{Citation |last=17USC105 |first=U.S. Copyright Office |author-link=United States Copyright Office |title=U.S. Copyright Office - Copyright Law: Chapter 1|url=http://www.copyright.gov/title17/92chap1.html |access-date=October 2, 2010 |series=Title 17 of the United States Code, Circular 92 |date=December 15, 2009 |publisher=U.S. Copyright Office |location=Washington, DC |chapter=§ 105. Subject matter of copyright |chapter-url=http://www.copyright.gov/title17/92chap1.html#105 |quote=United States Government works: Copyright protection under this title is not available for any work of the United States Government, but the United States Government is not precluded from receiving and holding copyrights transferred to it by assignment, bequest, or otherwise. }}

References

Category:Geography-related lists

Geography terms

Category:Wikipedia glossaries using description lists