Outline of geography

{{short description|Hierarchical outline list of articles related to geography}}

File:Map of the world by the US Gov as of 2016.svg

The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to geography:

Geography – study of Earth and its people.{{Cite web |title=Geography |work=The American Heritage Dictionary/ of the English Language, Fourth Edition |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Company |url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/geography |access-date=October 9, 2006}}

Nature of geography

= Geography as =

an academic discipline – a body of knowledge given to − or received by − a disciple (student); a branch or sphere of knowledge, or field of study, that an individual has chosen to specialize in. Modern geography is an all-encompassing discipline that seeks to understand the Earth and its human and natural complexities − not merely where objects are, but how they have changed and come to be. Geography has been called 'the world discipline'.{{cite book|last = Bonnett|first= Alastair |title = What is Geography?|location= London|publisher = Sage|date = 2008|isbn =9781412918688}}
a field of science – widely recognized category of specialized expertise within science, and typically embodies its own terminology and nomenclature. This field will usually be represented by one or more scientific journals, where peer-reviewed research is published. There are many geography-related scientific journals.
a natural science – field of academic scholarship that explores aspects of the natural environment (physical geography).
a social science – field of academic scholarship that explores aspects of human society (human geography).
an interdisciplinary field – a field that crosses traditional boundaries between academic disciplines or schools of thought, as new needs and professions have emerged. Many of the branches of physical geography are also branches of Earth science

Branches of geography

As "the bridge between the human and physical sciences," geography is divided into two main branches:

human geography
physical geography{{cite web|url = http://web.clas.ufl.edu/users/morgans/lecture_2.prn.pdf|title = Geography: The Mother of Sciences|url-status = dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030901102227/http://web.clas.ufl.edu/users/morgans/lecture_2.prn.pdf|archive-date = 1 September 2003}}{{Cite web|url=http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/1b.html |title=Elements of Geography|last= Pidwirny|first= M.|date=2006|work = Fundamentals of Physical Geography|edition = 2nd |publisher=Physicalgeography.net}}

Other branches include:

integrated geography
technical geography
regional geography

= Physical geography =

Physical geography – examines the natural environment and how the climate, vegetation and life, soil, water, and landforms are produced and interact.

== Fields of physical geography ==

Geomorphology – study of landforms and the processes that them, and more broadly, of the processes controlling the topography of any planet. It seeks to understand why landscapes look the way they do, to understand landform history and dynamics, and to predict future changes through field observation, physical experiments, and numerical modeling.
Hydrology – study water movement, distribution, and quality throughout the Earth, including the hydrologic cycle, water resources, and environmental watershed sustainability.
Glaciology – study of glaciers, or more generally ice and natural phenomena that involve ice.
Oceanography – studies a wide range of topics about oceans, including marine organisms and ecosystem dynamics; ocean currents, waves, and geophysical fluid dynamics; plate tectonics and the geology of the sea floor; and fluxes of various chemical substances and physical properties within the ocean and across its boundaries.
Biogeography – study of species distribution spatially and temporally. Over areal ecological changes, it is also tied to the concepts of species and their past, or present living 'refugium', their survival locales, or their interim living sites. It aims to reveal where organisms live and at what abundance.Martiny JBH et al. [http://alrlab.pdx.edu/media/HughesBiogeoNature.pdf Microbial biogeography: putting microorganisms on the map] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100621194350/http://alrlab.pdx.edu/media/HughesBiogeoNature.pdf |date=2010-06-21 }} Nature: FEBRUARY 2006 | VOLUME 4
Climatology – study of climate, scientifically defined as weather conditions averaged over a period of time.{{cite web|website =National Weather Service: Climate Prediction Center|url = http://www.cpc.noaa.gov/products/outreach/glossary.shtml#C |title= Climate Glossary|publisher = NOAA|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070208233912/http://www.cpc.noaa.gov/products/outreach/glossary.shtml|archive-date = 8 February 2007}}
Meteorology is the interdisciplinary scientific study of the atmosphere that focuses on weather processes and short-term forecasting (in contrast with climatology).
Pedology – study of soils in their natural environment{{cite web |url = http://natres.psu.ac.th/Link/SoilCongress/bdd/symp45/75-t.pdf | title = Soil Preservation and the Future of Pedology | author = Ronald Amundsen |access-date = 2006-06-08}} that deals with pedogenesis, soil morphology, and soil classification.
Palaeogeography – study of what geography was in times past, most often concerning the physical landscape and the human or cultural environment.
Coastal geography – study of the dynamic interface between the ocean and the land, incorporating both the physical geography (i.e., coastal geomorphology, geology, and oceanography) and the human geography (sociology and history) of the coast. It involves understanding coastal weathering processes, particularly wave action, sediment movement, and weather, as well as how humans interact with the coast.
Quaternary science – focuses on the Quaternary period, which encompasses the last 2.6 million years, including the last ice age and the Holocene period.
Landscape ecology – the relationship between spatial patterns of urban development and ecological processes on many landscape scales and organizational levels.Wu, J. 2006. Cross-disciplinarity, landscape ecology, and sustainability science. Landscape Ecology 21:1-4.Wu, J. and R. Hobbs (Eds). 2007. Key Topics in Landscape Ecology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Wu, J. 2008. Landscape ecology. In: S. E. Jorgensen (ed), Encyclopedia of Ecology. Elsevier, Oxford.

== Approaches of physical geography ==

Quantitative geography – Quantitative research tools and methods applied to geography. See also the quantitative revolution.
Systems approach –

= Human geography =

Human geography – one of the two main subfields of geography is the study of human use and understanding of the world and the processes that have affected it. Human geography broadly differs from physical geography in that it focuses on the built environment and how space is created, viewed, and managed by humans, as well as the influence humans have on the space they occupy.{{Cite web|title=What is geography? |work=AAG Career Guide: Jobs in Geography and related Geographical Sciences |publisher=Association of American Geographers |url=http://www.aag.org/Careers/What_is_geog.html |access-date=October 9, 2006 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20061006152742/http://www.aag.org/Careers/What_is_geog.html |archive-date=October 6, 2006}}

== Fields of human geography ==

Cultural geography – study of cultural products and norms and their variations across and relations to spaces and places. It focuses on describing and analyzing the ways language, religion, economy, government, and other cultural phenomena vary or remain constant from one place to another and on explaining how humans function spatially.{{Cite book |author1=Jordan-Bychkov, Terry G. |author2=Domosh, Mona |author3=Rowntree, Lester | title=The human mosaic: a thematic introduction to cultural geography | year=1994 | publisher=HarperCollinsCollegePublishers | location=New York | isbn=978-0-06-500731-2 }}
Children's geographies – study of places and spaces of children's lives, characterized experientially, politically and ethically. Children's geographies rest on the idea that children as a social group share certain characteristics that are experientially, politically, and ethically significant and worthy of study. The pluralization in the title is intended to imply that children's lives will be markedly different in differing times and places and in differing circumstances such as gender, family, and class. The range of foci within children's geographies includes:
Children and the city
Children and the countryside
Children and technology
Children and nature,
Children and globalization
Methodologies of researching children's worlds
Ethics of researching children's worlds
Otherness of childhood
Animal geographies – studies the spaces and places occupied by animals in human culture because social life and space are heavily populated by animals of many different kinds and in many differing ways (e.g., farm animals, pets, wild animals in the city). Another impetus that has influenced the development of the field is ecofeminist and other environmentalist viewpoints on nature-society relations (including questions of animal welfare and rights).
Language geography – studies the geographic distribution of language or its constituent elements. There are two principal fields of study within the geography of language:
# Geography of languages – deals with the distribution through history and space of languages,Delgado de Carvalho, C.M. (1962). The geography of languages. In Wagner, P.L.; Mikesell, M.W. Readings in cultural geography. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 75-93.
# Linguistic geography – deals with regional linguistic variations within languages.{{cite book|last = Pei|first = Mario |date =1966|title = Glossary of linguistic terminology|location= New York|publisher = Columbia University Press|isbn = 9780231030120}}Trudgill, P. (1974). Linguistic change and diffusion: description and explanation in sociolinguistic dialect geography. Language in Society 3:2, 215-46.Trudgill, P. (1983). On dialect: social and geographical perspectives. Oxford: Basil Blackwell; New York: New York University Press.Trudgill, P. (1975). Linguistic geography and geographical linguistics. Progress in Geography 7, 227-52Withers, Charles W.J. [1981] (1993). Johnson, R.J. The Dictionary of Human Geography, Gregory, Derek; Smith, David M., Second edition, Oxford: Blackwell, 252-3.
Sexuality and space – encompasses all relationships and interactions between human sexuality, space, and place, including the geographies of LGBT residence, public sex environments, sites of queer resistance, global sexualities, sex tourism,{{cite journal|title=Constructing tourism landscapes - gender, sexuality and space|first1=Annette|last1=Pritchard|first2=Nigel J.|last2=Morgan|date=1 January 2000|journal=Tourism Geographies|volume=2|issue=2|pages=115–139|doi=10.1080/14616680050027851|s2cid=145202919}} the geographies of prostitution and adult entertainment, use of sexualised locations in the arts,{{cite web|url=http://wings.buffalo.edu/epc/authors/howe/syllabi/sexuality.html|title=Syllabus Poetics: Sexuality and Space in 17th - 19th Century American Literature, University at Buffalo|website=buffalo.edu|access-date=2010-11-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170417135920/http://wings.buffalo.edu/epc/authors/howe/syllabi/sexuality.html|archive-date=2017-04-17|url-status=dead}}{{cite web|url=http://www.allacademic.com/meta/p_mla_apa_research_citation/0/1/4/9/2/p14928_index.html?phpsessid=43bac9979986e74e34d2496c52ebac62|title=Space and Modern (Homo)sexuality in Tsai Ming Liang's Films by Lyn Van Swol|website=allacademic.com}} and sexual citizenship.{{cite web|url=http://pages.towson.edu/dherman/sexspace/sexhome.htm|title=Sexuality and Space, Course Syllabus Towson University|website=towson.edu|access-date=2010-11-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080203071547/http://pages.towson.edu/dherman/sexspace/sexhome.htm|archive-date=2008-02-03|url-status=dead}}
Religion geography – study of the influence of geography, i.e., place and space, on religious belief.{{Cite book|last=Park|first=Chris|title=Routledge Companion to the Study of Religion|editor=Hinnells, J|publisher=Routledge|year=2004|chapter=Religion and geography}}
Development geography – study of the Earth's geography concerning its inhabitants' standard of living and quality of life. Measures development by looking at economic, political, and social factors and seeks to understand both the geographical causes and consequences of varying development, in part by comparing More Economically Developed Countries (MEDCs) with Less Economically Developed Countries (LEDCs).
Economic geography – study of the location, distribution, and spatial organization of economic activities worldwide. Subjects of interest include but are not limited to the location of industries, economies of agglomeration (also known as "linkages"), transportation, international trade and development, real estate, gentrification, ethnic economies, gendered economies, core-periphery theory, the economics of urban form, the relationship between the environment and the economy (tying into a long history of geographers studying culture-environment interaction), and globalization.
Marketing geography – a discipline within marketing analysis that uses geolocation (geographic information) in the process of planning and implementation of marketing activities.[http://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/~dq209/publications/recommending10quercia.pdf "Recommending Social Events from Mobile Phone Location Data"], Daniele Quercia, et al., ICDM 2010 It can be used in any aspect of the marketing mix – the product, price, promotion, or place (geo-targeting).
Transportation geography – branch of economic geography that investigates spatial interactions between people, freight, and information. It studies humans and their use of vehicles or other modes of traveling and how flows of finished goods and raw materials service markets.
Health geography – application of geographical information, perspectives, and methods to the study of health, disease, and health care, to provide a spatial understanding of a population's health, the distribution of disease in an area, and the environment's effect on health and disease. It also deals with accessibility to health care and spatial distribution of health care providers.
Time geography – study of the temporal factor on spatial human activities within the following constraints:

Authority - limits of accessibility to certain places or domains placed on individuals by owners or authorities
Capability - limitations on the movement of individuals based on their nature. For example, movement is restricted by biological factors, such as the need for food, drink, and sleep
Coupling - restraint of an individual, anchoring him or her to a location while interacting with other individuals to complete a task

Historical geography – the study of the human, physical, fictional, theoretical, and "real" geographies of the past. It seeks to determine how cultural features of various societies across the planet emerged and evolved by understanding how a place or region changes through time, including how people have interacted with their environment and created the cultural landscape.
Political geography – study of the spatially uneven outcomes of political processes and how political processes are themselves affected by spatial structures. The inter-relationships between people, state, and territory.
Electoral geography – study of the relationship between election results and the regions they affect (such as the environmental impact of voting decisions), and of the effects of regional factors upon voting behavior.
Geopolitics – analysis of geography, history, and social science concerning spatial politics and patterns at various scales, ranging from the level of the state to international.
Strategic geography – concerned with the control of, or access to, spatial areas that affect the security and prosperity of nations.
Military geography – applying geographic tools, information, and techniques to solve military problems in peacetime or war.
Population geography – study of how spatial variations in the distribution, composition, migration, and growth of populations are related to the nature of places.
Tourism geography – study of travel and tourism, as an industry and as a social and cultural activity, and their effect on places, including the environmental impact of tourism, the geographies of tourism and leisure economies, answering tourism industry and management concerns and the sociology of tourism and locations of tourism.
Urban geography – the study of urban areas, in terms of concentration, infrastructure, economy, and environmental impacts.

== Approaches of human geography ==

{{Annotated link|Behavioral geography}}
{{Annotated link|Cognitive geography}}
{{Annotated link|Critical geography}}
{{Annotated link|Feminist geography}}
{{Annotated link|Marxist geography}}
{{Annotated link|Non-representational theory}}
{{Annotated link|Postcolonialism}}
{{Annotated link|Post-structuralism}}Harrison, Paul; 2006; "Post-structuralist Theories"; pp122-135 in Aitken, S. and Valentine, G. (eds); 2006; Approaches to Human Geography; Sage, London –
Qualitative geography – qualitative research tools and methods applied to geography.

= Integrated geography =

Integrated geography – branch of geography that describes the spatial aspects of interactions between humans and the natural world. It requires an understanding of the dynamics of geology, meteorology, hydrology, biogeography, ecology, and geomorphology, as well as the ways in which human societies conceptualize the environment.

= Technical geography =

Technical geography – branch of geography and the discipline of studying, developing, and applying methods to gather, store, process, and deliver geographic or spatially referenced information. It is a widespread interdisciplinary field that includes the tools and techniques used in land surveying, remote sensing, cartography, Geographic Information Systems (GIS), Global Navigation Satellite Systems, photogrammetry, and related forms of earth mapping.
Cyber geography – study of the physical network of broadband cables

== Fields contributing to technical geography ==

{{Annotated link|Geomatics}}
{{Annotated link|Photogrammetry}}
{{Annotated link|Cartography}}
{{Annotated link|Digital terrain modelling}}
{{Annotated link|Geodesy}}
{{Annotated link|Geographic information system}}
{{Annotated link|Geospatial}}
Global navigation satellite systems represented by {{Annotated link|Satellite navigation}} – Any system that uses satellite radio signals to provide autonomous geo-spatial positioning
{{Annotated link|Global Positioning System}}
{{Annotated link|Hydrography}}
{{Annotated link|Mathematics}}
{{Annotated link|Navigation}}
{{Annotated link|Remote sensing}}
{{Annotated link|Surveying}}

= Regional geography =

Regional geography – study of world regions. Attention is paid to unique characteristics of a particular region such as its natural elements, human elements, and regionalization which covers the techniques of delineating space into regions. Regional geography breaks down into the study of specific regions.

Region – an area, defined by physical characteristics, human characteristics, or functional characteristics. The term is used in various ways among the different branches of geography. A region can be seen as a collection of smaller units, such as a country and its political divisions, or as one part of a larger whole, as in a country on a continent.

== Continents ==

Continent – one of several large landmasses on Earth. They are generally identified by convention rather than any specific criteria, but seven areas are commonly regarded as continents. They are:

::1. Africa (outline) –

::2. Antarctica –

::3. Australia (outline) –

: The Americas:

::4. North America (outline) –

::5. South America (outline) –

: Eurasia:

::6. Europe (outline) –

::7. Asia (outline) –

=== Subregions ===

Subregion (list)

== Biogeographic regions ==

[[File:Ecozones.png|thumb|300px|right|Map of six of the world's eight biogeographic realms

{{legend|#f9f9f9|Oceania and Antarctic realms not shown}}]]

=== Biogeographic realm ===

The World Wildlife Fund (WWF) developed a system of eight biogeographic realms (ecozones):

Nearctic 22.9 mil. km² (including most of North America)
Palearctic 54.1 mil. km² (including the bulk of Eurasia and North Africa)
Afrotropic 22.1 mil. km² (including Sub-Saharan Africa)
Indomalaya 7.5 mil. km² (including the South Asian subcontinent and Southeast Asia)
Australasia 7.7 mil. km² (including Australia, New Guinea, and neighboring islands). The northern boundary of this zone is known as the Wallace line.
Neotropic 19.0 mil. km² (including South America and the Caribbean)
Oceania 1.0 mil. km² (including Polynesia, Fiji and Micronesia)
Antarctic 0.3 mil. km² (including Antarctica).

=== Ecoregions ===

Ecoregion

Biogeographic realms are further divided into ecoregions. The World has over 800 terrestrial ecoregions. See Lists of ecoregions by country.

== Geography of the political divisions of the World ==

Geography of Africa (Outline)
West Africa#Geography and climate
Geography of Benin (Outline)
Geography of Burkina Faso (Outline)
Geography of Cape Verde (Outline)
Geography of Côte d'Ivoire (Outline)
Geography of Gambia (Outline)
Geography of Ghana (Outline)
Geography of Guinea (Outline)
Geography of Guinea-Bissau (Outline)
Geography of Liberia (Outline)
Geography of Mali (Outline)
Geography of Mauritania (Outline)
Geography of Niger (Outline)
Geography of Nigeria (Outline)
Geography of Senegal (Outline)
Geography of Sierra Leone (Outline)
Geography of Togo (Outline)
North Africa#Geography
Geography of Algeria (Outline)
Geography of Egypt (Outline)
Geography of Libya (Outline)
Geography of Mauritania (Outline)
Geography of Morocco (Outline)
Geography of Sudan (Outline)
Geography of Tunisia (Outline)
Geography of Western Sahara (Outline)
Central Africa
Geography of Angola (Outline)
Geography of Burundi (Outline)
Geography of Cameroon (Outline)
Geography of Central African Republic (Outline)
Geography of Chad (Outline)
Geography of Democratic Republic of the Congo (Outline)
Geography of Equatorial Guinea (Outline)
Geography of Gabon (Outline)
Geography of Republic of the Congo (Outline)
Geography of Rwanda (Outline)
Geography of São Tomé and Príncipe (Outline)
East Africa#Geography and climate
Geography of Burundi (Outline)
Geography of Comoros (Outline)
Geography of Djibouti (Outline)
Geography of Eritrea (Outline)
Geography of Ethiopia (Outline)
Geography of Kenya (Outline)
Geography of Madagascar (Outline)
Geography of Malawi (Outline)
Geography of Mauritius (Outline)
Geography of Mozambique (Outline)
Geography of Rwanda (Outline)
Geography of Seychelles (Outline)
Geography of Somalia (Outline)
Geography of Tanzania (Outline)
Geography of Uganda (Outline)
Southern Africa#Geography
Geography of Botswana (Outline)
Geography of Lesotho (Outline)
Geography of Namibia (Outline)
Geography of South Africa (Outline)
Geography of Swaziland (Outline)
Geography of Zambia (Outline)
Geography of Zimbabwe (Outline)
Dependencies in Africa
Geography of British Indian Ocean Territory (Outline) (UK)
Geography of Mayotte (Outline) (France)
Geography of Réunion (Outline) (France)
Geography of Saint Helena (Outline) (UK)
Canary Islands#Geography (Outline) (Spain)
Geography of Ceuta (Outline) (Spain)
Geography of Madeira (Outline) (Portugal)
Geography of Melilla (Outline) (Spain)
Geography of Socotra (Outline) (Yemen)
Geography of Puntland (Outline)
Geography of Somaliland (Outline)
Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (Outline)
Geography of Antarctica (Outline)
Geography of Asia (Outline)
Central Asia#Geography
Geography of Kazakhstan (Outline)
Geography of Kyrgyzstan (Outline)
Geography of Tajikistan (Outline)
Geography of Turkmenistan (Outline)
Geography of Uzbekistan (Outline)
East Asia
Geography of China (Outline)
Geography of Tibet (Outline)
Geography of Hong Kong (Outline)
Geography of Macau (Outline)
Geography of Japan (Outline)
Geography of North Korea (Outline)
Geography of South Korea (Outline)
Geography of Mongolia (Outline)
Geography of Taiwan (Outline)
North Asia#Geography
Geography of Russia (Outline)
Southeast Asia#Geography
Geography of Brunei (Outline)
Burma (Myanmar) - Outline)
Geography of Cambodia (Outline)
East Timor (Timor-Leste) - Outline)
Geography of Indonesia (Outline)
Geography of Laos (Outline)
Geography of Malaysia (Outline)
Geography of the Philippines (Outline)
Geography of Singapore (Outline)
Geography of Thailand (Outline)
Geography of Vietnam (Outline)
South Asia#Geography
Geography of Afghanistan (Outline)
Geography of Bangladesh (Outline)
Geography of Bhutan (Outline)
Geography of India (Outline)
Geography of Maldives (Outline)
Geography of Nepal (Outline)
Geography of Pakistan (Outline)
Geography of Sri Lanka (Outline)
Western Asia#Geography{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/wfbExt/region_mde.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110501100605/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/wfbExt/region_mde.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=May 1, 2011|title=West Asia/Middle East|access-date=6 May 2015}}
Armenia#Geography (Outline)
Geography of Azerbaijan (Outline)
Geography of Bahrain (Outline)
Geography of Cyprus (Outline), including:
Geography of Northern Cyprus (Outline) (disputed territory)
Georgia (Outline)
Geography of Iran (Outline)
Geography of Iraq (Outline)
Geography of Israel (Outline)
Geography of Jordan (Outline)
Geography of Kuwait (Outline)
Geography of Lebanon (Outline)
Geography of Oman (Outline)
Geography of the Palestinian territories (Outline)
Geography of Qatar (Outline)
Geography of Saudi Arabia (Outline)
Geography of Syria (Outline)
Geography of Turkey (Outline)
Geography of United Arab Emirates (Outline)
Geography of Yemen (Outline)
Caucasus#Geography and ecology (a region considered to be in both Asia and Europe, or between them)
North Caucasus
Geography of Russia (Outline) (the following parts of Russia are in the North Caucasus: Chechnya, Ingushetia, Dagestan, Adyghea, Kabardino-Balkaria, Karachay–Cherkessia, North Ossetia, Krasnodar Krai, Stavropol Krai)
South Caucasus
Georgia (Outline), including:
Geography of Abkhazia (Outline) (disputed territory)
Geography of South Ossetia (Outline) (disputed territory)
Armenia#Geography (Outline)
Geography of Azerbaijan (Outline), including:
Geography of Nagorno-Karabakh (Outline) (disputed territory)
Geography of Europe (Outline)
Geography of Akrotiri and Dhekelia (Outline)
Geography of Åland (Outline)
Geography of Albania (Outline)
Geography of Andorra (Outline)
Geography of Armenia (Outline)
Geography of Austria (Outline)
Geography of Azerbaijan (Outline)
Geography of Belarus (Outline)
Geography of Belgium (Outline)
Geography of Bosnia and Herzegovina (Outline)
Geography of Bulgaria (Outline)
Geography of Croatia (Outline)
Geography of Cyprus (Outline)
Geography of Czech Republic (Outline)
Geography of Denmark (Outline)
Geography of Estonia (Outline)
Faroe Islands#Geography (Outline)
Geography of Finland (Outline)
Geography of France (Outline)
Geography of Georgia (Outline)
Geography of Germany (Outline)
Geography of Gibraltar (Outline)
Geography of Greece (Outline)
Geography of Guernsey (Outline)
Geography of Hungary (Outline)
Geography of Iceland (Outline)
Republic of Ireland#Geography (Outline)
Geography of the Isle of Man (Outline)
Geography of Italy (Outline)
Geography of Jersey (Outline)
Geography of Kazakhstan (Outline)
Geography of Kosovo (Outline)
Geography of Latvia (Outline)
Geography of Liechtenstein (Outline)
Geography of Lithuania (Outline)

Geography of Luxembourg (Outline)
Geography of Malta (Outline)
Geography of Moldova (Outline), including:
Geography of Transnistria (Outline) (disputed territory)
Geography of Monaco (Outline)
Geography of Montenegro (Outline)
Geography of Netherlands (Outline)
Geography of North Macedonia (Outline)
Geography of Norway (Outline)
Geography of Poland (Outline)
Geography of Portugal (Outline)
Geography of Romania (Outline)
Geography of Russia (Outline)
Geography of San Marino (Outline)
Geography of Serbia (Outline)
Geography of Slovakia (Outline)
Geography of Slovenia (Outline)
Geography of Spain (Outline)
Geography of Svalbard (Outline)
Geography of Sweden (Outline)
Geography of Switzerland (Outline)
Geography of Turkey (Outline)
Geography of Ukraine (Outline)
Geography of United Kingdom (Outline)
Geography of England (Outline)
Geography of Northern Ireland (Outline)
Geography of Scotland (Outline)
Geography of Wales (Outline)
Geography of Vatican City (Outline)
Geography of North America (Outline)
Geography of Canada (Outline)
By province
Geography of Alberta
Geography of British Columbia (Outline)
Geography of Manitoba
Geography of New Brunswick
Geography of Newfoundland and Labrador
Geography of Nova Scotia
Geography of Ontario
Geography of Prince Edward Island
Geography of Quebec (Outline)
Geography of Saskatchewan (Outline)
By territory
Geography of the Northwest Territories
Geography of Nunavut
Geography of Yukon
Geography of Greenland (Outline)
Geography of Mexico (Outline)
Geography of Saint Pierre and Miquelon (Outline)
Geography of United States (Outline)
Geography of Alabama (Outline)
Geography of Alaska (Outline)
Geography of Arizona (Outline)
Geography of Arkansas (Outline)
Geography of California (Outline)
Geography of Colorado (Outline)
Geography of Connecticut (Outline)
Geography of Delaware (Outline)
Geography of Florida (Outline)
Geography of Georgia (Outline)
Geography of Hawaii (Outline)
Geography of Idaho (Outline)
Geography of Illinois (Outline)
Geography of Indiana (Outline)
Geography of Iowa (Outline)
Geography of Montana (Outline)
Geography of Kansas (Outline)
Geography of Kentucky (Outline)
Geography of Louisiana (Outline)
Geography of Maine (Outline)
Geography of Maryland (Outline)
Geography of Massachusetts (Outline)
Geography of Michigan (Outline)
Geography of Minnesota (Outline)
Geography of Mississippi (Outline)
Geography of Missouri (Outline)
Geography of Nebraska (Outline)
Geography of Nevada (Outline)
Geography of New Hampshire (Outline)
Geography of New Jersey (Outline)
Geography of New Mexico (Outline)
Geography of New York (Outline)
Geography of North Carolina (Outline)
Geography of North Dakota (Outline)
Geography of Ohio (Outline)
Geography of Oklahoma (Outline)
Geography of Oregon (Outline)
Geography of Pennsylvania (Outline)
Geography of Rhode Island (Outline)
Geography of South Carolina (Outline)
Geography of South Dakota (Outline)
Geography of Tennessee (Outline)
Geography of Texas (Outline)
Geography of Utah (Outline)
Geography of Vermont (Outline)
Geography of Virginia (Outline)
Geography of Washington (state) (Outline)
Geography of West Virginia (Outline)
Geography of Wisconsin (Outline)
Geography of Wyoming (Outline)
Geography of Washington, D.C. (Outline) (Washington, D.C.)
Central America#Geography (Outline)
Geography of Belize (Outline)
Geography of Costa Rica (Outline)
Geography of El Salvador (Outline)
Geography of Guatemala (Outline)
Geography of Honduras (Outline)
Geography of Nicaragua (Outline)
Geography of Panama (Outline)
Geography of the Caribbean (Outline)
Geography of Anguilla (Outline)
Geography of Antigua and Barbuda (Outline)
Geography of Aruba (Outline)
Geography of Bahamas (Outline)
Geography of Barbados (Outline)
Geography of Bermuda (Outline)
British Virgin Islands#Geography (Outline)
Cayman Islands#Geography (Outline)
Geography of Cuba (Outline)
Geography of Dominica (Outline)
Dominican Republic#Geography (Outline)
Geography of Grenada (Outline)
Geography of Haiti (Outline)
Geography of Jamaica (Outline)
Geography of Montserrat (Outline)
Netherlands Antilles#Geography (Outline)
Geography of Puerto Rico (Outline)
Geography of Saint Barthélemy (Outline)
Geography of Saint Kitts and Nevis (Outline)
Geography of Saint Lucia (Outline)
Saint Martin (Outline)
Geography of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines (Outline)
Geography of Trinidad and Tobago (Outline)
Turks and Caicos Islands#Geography (Outline)
United States Virgin Islands#Geography (Outline)
Geography of Oceania (includes the continent of Australia)
Australasia
Geography of Australia (Outline)
Dependencies and territories of Australia
Geography of Christmas Island (Outline)
Cocos (Keeling) Islands#Geography (Outline)
Geography of Norfolk Island (Outline)
Geography of New Zealand (Outline)
Geography of Melanesia
Geography of Fiji (Outline)
Geography of Indonesia (Outline) (Oceanian part only)
Geography of New Caledonia (Outline) (France)
Geography of Papua New Guinea (Outline)
Geography of the Solomon Islands (Outline)
Geography of Vanuatu (Outline)
Geography of Micronesia
Geography of Federated States of Micronesia (Outline)
Geography of Guam (Outline) (USA)
Geography of Kiribati (Outline)
Geography of Marshall Islands (Outline)
Geography of Nauru (Outline)
Northern Mariana Islands#Geography and climate (Outline) (USA)
Geography of Palau (Outline)
Geography of Wake Island (Outline) (USA)
Geography of Polynesia
Geography of American Samoa (Outline) (USA)
Chatham Islands#Geography (Outline) (NZ)
Cook Islands#Geography (Outline) (NZ)
Easter Island#Location and physical geography (Outline) (Chile)
Geography of French Polynesia (Outline) (France)
Geography of Hawaii (Outline) (USA)
Loyalty Islands#Geography (Outline) (France)
Geography of Niue (Outline) (NZ)
Pitcairn Islands#Geography (Outline) (UK)
Geography of Samoa (Outline)
Geography of Tokelau (Outline) (NZ)
Geography of Tonga (Outline)
Geography of Tuvalu (Outline)
Geography of Wallis and Futuna (Outline) (France)
Geography of South America (Outline)
Geography of Argentina (Outline)
Geography of Bolivia (Outline)
Geography of Brazil (Outline)
Geography of Chile (Outline)
Geography of Colombia (Outline)
Geography of Ecuador (Outline)
Geography of the Falkland Islands (Outline)
Geography of French Guiana (Outline)
Geography of Guyana (Outline)
Geography of Paraguay (Outline)
Geography of Peru (Outline)
Geography of Suriname (Outline)
Geography of Uruguay (Outline)
Geography of Venezuela (Outline)

== Other regions ==

History of geography

File:Hecataeus world map-en.svg]]

Topics pertaining to the geographical study of the World throughout history:

= By period =

= By region =

{{annotated link|Chinese geography}}
{{annotated link|History of human geography in China}}

= By subject =

Historical population of the world

== By field ==

History of human geography
{{annotated link|History of cartography}}
{{annotated link|History of longitude}}
{{annotated link|Longitude Prize}}

History of health geography

History of political geography

History of demography

History of physical geography

History of biogeography

History of climatology

History of meteorology

History of geomorphology

History of hydrology

History of oceanography

History of landscape ecology

History of regional geography

Elements of geography

Topics common to the various branches of geography include:

= Tasks and tools of geography =

File:Mollweide-projection.jpg]]

{{annotated link|Exploration}}
{{annotated link|Geocoding|Geocode|aka=Geospatial Entity Object Code}}
{{annotated link|Geographic information system|abbreviation=GIS}}
{{annotated link|Globe}}
{{annotated link|Map}}
{{annotated link|Atlas}}
{{annotated link|Cartography}}
{{annotated link|Outline of cartography}}
{{annotated link|Map projection}}
{{annotated link|Demographics}}
{{annotated link|Spatial analysis}}
{{annotated link|Surveying}}

= Types of geographic features =

Geographic feature – component of a planet that can be referred to as a location, place, site, area, or region, and therefore may show up on a map. A geographic feature may be natural or artificial.

==Location and place==

File:Countries by Population Density in 2015.svg by country, 2006]]

Location –
{{Annotated link|Absolute location}}
{{Annotated link|Latitude}}
{{Annotated link|Prime meridian}}
{{Annotated link|Longitude}}
{{Annotated link|Equator}}
{{Annotated link|Tropic of Cancer}}
{{Annotated link|Tropic of Capricorn}}
{{Annotated link|Arctic Circle}}
{{Annotated link|Antarctic Circle}}
{{Annotated link|North Pole}}
{{Annotated link|South Pole}}
{{Annotated link|Altitude}}
{{Annotated link|Elevation}}
Place
Aspects of a place or region
{{Annotated link|Climate}}
{{Annotated link|Population}}
{{Annotated link|Demographics}}
{{Annotated link|Population density}}
{{Annotated link|Human overpopulation}}
{{Annotated link|World population}}
{{Annotated link|Sense of place}}
{{Annotated link|Terrain}}
{{Annotated link|Topography}}
{{Annotated link|Tourist attraction}}
{{Annotated link|Lists of places}}

Geography is a worldwide study

== Natural geographic features ==

Natural geographic feature – an ecosystem or natural landform.

=== Ecosystems ===

Ecosystem – community of living organisms in conjunction with the nonliving components of their environment (things like air, water and mineral soil), interacting as a system. These biotic and abiotic components are regarded as linked together through nutrient cycles and energy flows.

{{Annotated link|Biodiversity hotspot}}
Realm – broadest biogeographic division of the Earth's land surface, based on distributional patterns of terrestrial organisms.
Ecoprovince – biogeographic unit smaller than a realm that contains one or more ecoregions.
{{Annotated link|Ecoregion}}
{{Annotated link|Ecodistrict}}
{{Annotated link|Ecosection}}
{{Annotated link|Ecosite}}
{{Annotated link|Ecotope}}
{{Annotated link|Ecoelement}}
{{Annotated link|Biome}}
{{Annotated link|Bioregion}}
{{Annotated link|Biotope}}
{{Annotated link|Bioelement}}

=== Natural landforms ===

File:Ganges River Delta, Bangladesh, India.jpg river delta in

India and Bangladesh is one of the most fertile regions in the world.]]

File:MSH82 st helens plume from harrys ridge 05-19-82.jpg Mount St. Helens in Washington, United States]]

Natural landform – terrain or body of water. Landforms are topographical elements, and are defined by their surface form and location in the landscape. Landforms are categorized by traits such as elevation, slope, orientation, stratification, rock exposure, and soil type. Some landforms are artificial, such as certain islands, but most landforms are natural.

== Natural terrain feature types ==

{{Annotated link|Continent}}
{{Annotated link|Island}}
{{Annotated link|Mainland}}
{{Annotated link|Mountain}}
{{Annotated link|Mountain range}}
Peninsula – Landform that extends from a mainland and is surrounded by water on most sides.
{{Annotated link|Subcontinent}}

== Natural body of water types ==

Natural {{Annotated link|body of water|bodies of water}}
Bodies of {{Annotated link|seawater}}
{{Annotated link|Channel (geography)|Channel}}
{{Annotated link|Firth}}
{{Annotated link|Harbor}}
{{Annotated link|Inlet}}
{{Annotated link|Bay|Bay}}
{{Annotated link|Bight (geography)|Bight}}
{{Annotated link|Gulf|Gulf}}
{{Annotated link|Cove}}
{{Annotated link|Creek (tidal)}}
{{Annotated link|Estuary}}
{{Annotated link|Fjord|alt=fiord}}
{{Annotated link|Kettle (landform)|Kettle}}
{{Annotated link|Kill (body of water)|Kill}}
{{Annotated link|Lagoon}}
{{Annotated link|Barachois}}
{{Annotated link|Loch}}
Arm of the sea –
{{Annotated link|Mere (lake)|Mere}}
{{Annotated link|Ocean}}
{{Annotated link|Phytotelma}}
{{Annotated link|Salt marsh}}
{{Annotated link|Sea}}
Types of sea:
{{Annotated link|Mediterranean sea (oceanography)|Mediterranean sea}}
{{Annotated link|Sound (geography)|Sound}}
Sea components or extensions:
{{Annotated link|Sea loch}}
{{Annotated link|Sea lough}}
{{Annotated link|Strait}}
Bodies of fresh water
{{Annotated link|Bayou}}
{{Annotated link|Lake}}
{{Annotated link|Lists of lakes}}
{{Annotated link|Oxbow lake}}
{{Annotated link|Subglacial lake}}
{{Annotated link|Tarn (lake)|Tarn}}
{{Annotated link|Stream pool|Pool}}
{{Annotated link|Pond}}
{{Annotated link|Billabong}}
{{Annotated link|Tide pool}}
{{Annotated link|Vernal pool}}
{{Annotated link|Puddle}}
{{Annotated link|River}}
{{Annotated link|Lists of rivers}}
Parts of a river:
{{Annotated link|Rapids}}
{{Annotated link|Source (river or stream)|Source}}
{{Annotated link|Waterfall}}
{{Annotated link|List of waterfalls}}
{{Annotated link|Roadstead}}
{{Annotated link|Spring (hydrosphere)|Spring}}
Boil -
{{Annotated link|Stream}}
{{Annotated link|stream|Beck}}
{{Annotated link|stream|Brook}}
{{Annotated link|Burn (stream)|Burn}}
{{Annotated link|stream|Creek}}
{{Annotated link|Arroyo (watercourse)}}
{{Annotated link|Arroyo (watercourse)|Wash}}
{{Annotated link|Arroyo (watercourse)|Draw}}
{{Annotated link|Stream|Run}}
{{Annotated link|Wetland}}
Freshwater {{Annotated link|marsh}}
{{Annotated link|Swamp|Slough (wetland)}}
{{Annotated link|Mangrove|Mangrove swamp}}

== Artificial geographic features ==

Artificial geographic feature – a thing that was made by humans that may be indicated on a map. It may be physical and exist in the real world (like a bridge or city), or it may be abstract and exist only on maps (such as the Equator, which has a defined location, but cannot be seen where it lies).

{{annotated link|Human settlement|Settlement}}
{{annotated link|Rural area}}
{{annotated link|Hamlet (place)}} – rural settlement which is too small to be considered a village. Historically, when a hamlet became large enough to justify building a church, it was then classified as a village. One example of a hamlet is a small cluster of houses surrounding a mill.
{{annotated link|Village}} – clustered human settlement or community, larger than a hamlet with the population ranging from a few hundred to a few thousand (sometimes tens of thousands).
{{annotated link|Town}} – human settlement larger than a village but smaller than a city. The size a settlement must be in order to be called a "town" varies considerably in different parts of the world, so that, for example, many American "small towns" seem to British people to be no more than villages, while many British "small towns" would qualify as cities in the United States.
{{annotated link|Urban hierarchy}} – ranks the structure of towns within an area.
{{annotated link|1st-order towns}} – bare minimum of essential services, such as bread and milk.
{{annotated link|2nd-order towns}}
{{annotated link|3rd-order towns}}
{{annotated link|4th-order towns}}
{{annotated link|City}} – relatively large and permanent settlement. In many regions, a city is distinguished from a town by attainment of designation according to law, for instance being required to obtain articles of incorporation or a royal charter.
{{annotated link|Financial centre}}
{{annotated link|Primate city}} – the leading city in its country or region, disproportionately larger than any others in the urban hierarchy.
{{annotated link|Metropolis}} – very large city or urban area which is a significant economic, political and cultural center for a country or region, and an important hub for regional or international connections and communications.
{{annotated link|Metropolitan area}} – region consisting of a densely populated urban core and its less-populated surrounding territories, sharing industry, infrastructure, and housing.Squires, G. Ed. Urban Sprawl: Causes, Consequences, & Policy Responses. The Urban Institute Press (2002)
{{annotated link|Global city}} – city that is deemed to be an important node in the global economic system. Globalization is largely created, facilitated and enacted in strategic geographic locales (including global cities) according to a hierarchy of importance to the operation of the global system of finance and trade.
{{annotated link|Megalopolis (city type)|Megalopolis}} – chain of roughly adjacent metropolitan areas. An example is the huge metropolitan area along the eastern seaboard of the U.S. extending from Boston, Massachusetts through New York City; Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; Baltimore, Maryland and ending in Washington, D.C..
{{annotated link|Eperopolis}} – theoretical "continent city". The world does not have one yet. Will Europe become the first one?
{{annotated link|Ecumenopolis}} – theoretical "world city". Will the world ever become so urbanized as to be called this?
Engineered construct – built feature of the landscape such as a highway, bridge, airport, railroad, building, dam, or reservoir. See also construction engineering and infrastructure.
Artificial landforms
{{annotated link|Artificial dwelling hill}}
{{annotated link|Artificial island}}
{{annotated link|Artificial reef}}
{{annotated link|Airport}} – place where airplanes can take off and land, including one or more runways and one or more passenger terminals.
{{annotated link|Aqueduct (watercourse)|Aqueduct}} – artificial channel that is constructed to convey water from one location to another.
{{annotated link|Breakwater (structure)|Breakwater}} – construction designed to break the force of the sea to provide calm water for boats or ships, or to prevent erosion of a coastal feature.
{{annotated link|Bridge}} – structure built to span a valley, road, body of water, or other physical obstacle such as a canyon, for the purpose of providing passage over the obstacle.
{{annotated link|Building}} – closed structure with walls and a roof.
{{annotated link|Canal}} – artificial waterway, often connecting one body of water with another.
{{annotated link|Causeway}}
{{annotated link|Dam}} – structure placed across a flowing body of water to stop the flow, usually to use the water for irrigation or to generate electricity.
{{annotated link|Dike (construction)|Dike}} – barrier of stone or earth used to hold back water and prevent flooding.
{{annotated link|Levee}} – artificial slope or wall to regulate water levels, usually earthen and often parallel to the course of a river or the coast.{{Cite journal | title=Levees and Other Raised Ground | author=Henry Petroski | publisher=American Scientist | year=2006 | volume=94 | issue=1 | pages=7–11}}
{{annotated link|Farm}} – place where agricultural activities take place, especially the growing of crops or the raising of livestock.
{{annotated link|Harbor|Manmade harbor}} – harbor that has deliberately constructed breakwaters, sea walls, or jetties, or which was constructed by dredging.
{{annotated link|Industrial region}}
{{annotated link|Marina}}
{{annotated link|Orchard}}
{{annotated link|Parking lot}}
{{annotated link|Pier}}
{{annotated link|Pipeline transport|Pipeline}}
{{annotated link|Port}}
{{annotated link|Railway}}
{{annotated link|Ranch}}
{{annotated link|Reservoir (water)|Reservoir}}
{{annotated link|Road}}
{{annotated link|Highway}}
{{annotated link|Race track}}
{{annotated link|Street}}
{{annotated link|Subsidence crater}}
{{annotated link|Ski resort}}
{{annotated link|Train station}}
{{annotated link|Tree farm}}
{{annotated link|Tunnel}}
{{annotated link|Viaduct}}
{{annotated link|Wharf}}

File:China administrative.gif and territorial disputes of the People's Republic of China]]

Abstract geographic feature – does not exist physically in the real world, yet has a location by definition and may be displayed on maps.
{{annotated link|Geographical zone}}
{{annotated link|Hardiness zone}}
{{annotated link|Time zone}}
{{annotated link|Political division}}
{{annotated link|Nation}}
{{annotated link|Administrative division}} – a designated territory created within a country for administrative or identification purposes. Examples of the types of administrative divisions:
{{annotated link|Bailiwick}}
{{annotated link|canton (administrative division)|Canton}}
{{annotated link|Commune (country subdivision)|Commune}}
{{annotated link|County}}
{{annotated link|Department (country subdivision)|Department}}
{{annotated link|District}}
{{annotated link|Duchy}}
{{annotated link|Emirate}}
{{annotated link|Federal state}}
{{annotated link|Parish}}
{{annotated link|Prefecture}}
{{annotated link|Province}}
{{annotated link|Region#Administrative regions|Region}}
{{annotated link|Rural district}}
{{annotated link|Human settlement|Settlement}}
{{annotated link|Municipality}}
{{annotated link|City}}
{{annotated link|Borough}}
{{annotated link|Township}}
{{annotated link|Village}}
{{annotated link|Shire}}
{{annotated link|Special Economic Zone}}
{{annotated link|State (administrative division)|State}}
{{annotated link|Subdistrict}}
{{annotated link|Subprefecture}}
{{annotated link|Voivodeship}}
{{annotated link|Wilayat}}
Cartographical feature – theoretical construct used specifically on maps that doesn't have any physical form apart from its location.
{{annotated link|Latitude|Latitude line}}
{{annotated link|Equator}}
{{annotated link|Longitude|Longitude line}}
{{annotated link|Prime Meridian}}
{{annotated link|Geographical pole}}
{{annotated link|North pole}}
{{annotated link|South pole}}

== Geographic features that include the natural and artificial ==

{{annotated link|Waterway}}
{{annotated link|List of waterways}}

Geography awards

File:Hubbard Gold Medal, Anne Morrow Lindbergh.JPG awarded to Anne Morrow Lindbergh, showing her flight route]]

Some awards and competitions in the field of geography:

{{annotated link|Geography Cup}}
{{annotated link|Founder's Medal}}
{{annotated link|Patron's Medal}}
{{annotated link|Hubbard Medal}}
{{annotated link|National Geographic World Championship}}
{{annotated link|Victoria Medal (geography)|Victoria Medal}}

Geographical organizations

: See: List of geographical societies

Geographical publications

= Geographical magazines =

Persons influential in geography

{{Main|Geographer|List of geographers|List of Graeco-Roman geographers}}

A geographer is a scientist who studies Earth's physical environment and human habitat. Geographers are historically known for making maps, the subdiscipline of geography known as cartography. They study the physical details of the environment and also its effect on human and wildlife ecologies, weather and climate patterns, economics, and culture. Geographers focus on the spatial relationships between these elements.

= Influential physical geographers =

File:Alexander von Humboldt-selfportrait.jpg, considered to be the founding father of physical geography]]

File:Richard Chorley.jpg, 20th-century geographer who progressed quantitative geography and who helped bring the systems approach to geography]]

Eratosthenes (276{{spaced ndash}}194 BC) – who made the first known reliable estimation of the Earth's size. He is considered the father of geodesy.Avraham Ariel, Nora Ariel Berger (2006)."[https://books.google.com/books?id=2xTJt3b3SHUC&pg=PA12 Plotting the globe: stories of meridians, parallels, and the international]". Greenwood Publishing Group. p.12.

{{ISBN|0-275-98895-3}}Jennifer Fandel (2006)."[https://books.google.com/books?id=kRp7R_WnAiEC&pg=PA4 The Metric System]". The Creative Company. p.4. {{ISBN|1-58341-430-4}}

Ptolemy ({{circa|90}}{{spaced ndash}}c. 168) – who compiled Greek and Roman knowledge to produce the book Geographia.
Abū Rayhān Bīrūnī (973{{spaced ndash}}1048 AD) – considered the father of geodesy.Akbar S. Ahmed (1984). "Al-Beruni: The First Anthropologist", RAIN 60, p. 9-10.H. Mowlana (2001). "Information in the Arab World", Cooperation South Journal 1.{{cite book |last1=Gupta |first1=Harsh |title=Encyclopedia of Solid Earth Geophysics |date=29 June 2011 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-90-481-8701-0 |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/Encyclopedia_of_Solid_Earth_Geophysics/BHgOwNCGbnAC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=Ab%C5%AB+Rayh%C4%81n+B%C4%ABr%C5%ABn%C4%AB+geodesy.&pg=PA313&printsec=frontcover |language=en}}
Ibn Sina (Avicenna, 980–1037) – whose observations in Kitab Al-Shifa contributed to later formulations of the law of superposition and concept of uniformitarianism.{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vMk4t21fOvoC&q=ibn%20sina%20uniformitarianism%20superposition&pg=PA817|title=Encyclopedia of Earth and Space Science|last1=Kusky|first1=Timothy M.|last2=Cullen|first2=Katherine E.|date=2010-01-01|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=9781438128597|pages=817|language=en}}
Muhammad al-Idrisi (Dreses, 1100{{spaced ndash}}c.1165) – who drew the Tabula Rogeriana, the most accurate world map in pre-modern times.{{cite book|first=S. P.|last = Scott|date= 1904|title = History of the Moorish Empire in Europe|page= [https://archive.org/details/cu31924082467113/page/n508 461] |quote =The compilation of Edrisi marks an era in the history of science. Not only is its historical information most interesting and valuable, but its descriptions of many parts of the earth are still authoritative. For three centuries geographers copied his maps without alteration. The relative position of the lakes which form the Nile, as delineated in his work, does not differ greatly from that established by Baker and Stanley more than seven hundred years afterwards, and their number is the same.|url = https://archive.org/details/cu31924082467113}}
Piri Reis (1465{{spaced ndash}}c.1554) – whose Piri Reis map is the oldest surviving world map to include the Americas and possibly Antarctica
Gerardus Mercator (1512–1594) – an innovative cartographer and originator of the Mercator projection.
Bernhardus Varenius (1622–1650) – Wrote his important work "General Geography" (1650) – first overview of the geography, the foundation of modern geography.
Mikhail Lomonosov (1711–1765) – father of Russian geography and founded the study of glaciology.
Alexander von Humboldt (1769–1859) – considered the father of modern geography. Published Kosmos and founded the study of biogeography.
Arnold Henry Guyot (1807–1884) – who noted the structure of glaciers and advanced the understanding of glacial motion, especially in fast ice flow.
Louis Agassiz (1807–1873) – the author of a glacial theory which disputed the notion of a steady-cooling Earth.
Alfred Russel Wallace (1823–1913) – founder of modern biogeography and the Wallace line.
Vasily Dokuchaev (1846–1903) – patriarch of Russian geography and founder of pedology.
Wladimir Peter Köppen (1846–1940) – developer of most important climate classification and founder of Paleoclimatology.
William Morris Davis (1850–1934) – father of American geography, founder of Geomorphology and developer of the geographical cycle theory.
Walther Penck (1888–1923) – proponent of the cycle of erosion and the simultaneous occurrence of uplift and denudation.
Sir Ernest Shackleton (1874–1922) – Antarctic explorer during the Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration.
Robert E. Horton (1875–1945) – founder of modern hydrology and concepts such as infiltration capacity and overland flow.
J Harlen Bretz (1882–1981) – pioneer of research into the shaping of landscapes by catastrophic floods, most notably the Bretz (Missoula) floods.
Willi Dansgaard (born 1922) – palaeoclimatologist and quaternary scientist, instrumental in the use of oxygen-isotope dating and co-identifier of Dansgaard–Oeschger events.
Hans Oeschger (1927–1998) – palaeoclimatologist and pioneer in ice core research, co-identifier of Dansgaard-Orschger events.
Richard Chorley (1927–2002) – a key contributor to the quantitative revolution and the use of systems theory in geography.
Sir Nicholas Shackleton (1937–2006) – who demonstrated that oscillations in climate over the past few million years could be correlated with variations in the orbital and positional relationship between the Earth and the Sun.
Stefan Rahmstorf (born 1960) – professor of abrupt climate changes and author on theories of thermohaline dynamics.

= Influential human geographers =

File:Carl ritter.jpg

File:David Harvey.jpg

Carl Ritter (1779–1859) – considered to be one of the founding fathers of modern geography and first chair in geography at the Humboldt University of Berlin, also noted for his use of organic analogy in his works.
Friedrich Ratzel (1844–1904) – environmental determinist, invented the term Lebensraum
Paul Vidal de la Blache (1845–1918) – founder of the French School of geopolitics and possibilism.
Sir Halford John Mackinder (1861–1947) – author of The Geographical Pivot of History, co-founder of the London School of Economics, along with the Geographical Association.
Carl O. Sauer (1889–1975) – critic of environmental determinism and proponent of cultural ecology.
Walter Christaller (1893–1969) – economic geographer and developer of the central place theory.
Richard Hartshorne (1899–1992) – scholar of the history and philosophy of geography.
Torsten Hägerstrand (1916–2004) – critic of the quantitative revolution and regional science, noted figure in critical geography.
Milton Santos (1926–2001) winner of the Vautrin Lud prize in 1994, one of the most important geographers in South America.
Waldo R. Tobler (born 1930) – developer of the First law of geography.
Yi-Fu Tuan (born 1930) A Chinese-American geographer.
David Harvey (born 1935) – world's most cited academic geographer and winner of the Lauréat Prix International de Géographie Vautrin Lud, also noted for his work in critical geography and critique of global capitalism.
Evelyn Stokes (1936–2005). Professor of geography at the University of Waikato in New Zealand. Known for recognizing inequality with marginalized groups, including women and Māori using geography.
Allen J. Scott (born 1938) – winner of Vautrin Lud Prize in 2003 and the Anders Retzius Gold medal 2009; author of numerous books and papers on economic and urban geography, known for his work on regional development, new industrial spaces, agglomeration theory, global city-regions and the cultural economy.
Edward Soja (born 1941) – noted for his work on regional development, planning, and governance, along with coining the terms synekism and postmetropolis.
Doreen Massey (born 1944) – key scholar in the space and places of globalization and its pluralities, winner of the Vautrin Lud Prize.
Michael Watts, Class of 1963 Professor of Geography and Development Studies, University of California, Berkeley
Nigel Thrift (born 1949) – developer of non-representational theory.
Derek Gregory (born 1951) – famous for writing on the Israeli, U.S. and UK actions in the Middle East after 9/11, influenced by Edward Said and has contributed work on imagined geographies.
Cindi Katz (born 1954) – who writes on social reproduction and the production of space. Writing on children's geographies, place and nature, everyday life and security.
Gillian Rose (born 1962) – most famous for her critique: Feminism & Geography: The Limits of Geographical Knowledge (1993) – which was one of the first moves towards development of feminist geography.

Geography educational frameworks

Educational frameworks upon which primary and secondary school curricula for geography are based include:

{{Annotated link|Five themes of geography}}Guidelines for Geographic Education—Elementary and Secondary Schools.

Joint Committee on Geographic Education of the National Council for Geographic Education and the Association of American Geographers, 1984.

# {{annotated link|Location (geography)|Location}} – a position or point that something occupies on the Earth's surface.
# {{annotated link|Place (geography)|Place}}
# {{annotated link|Environmental sociology|Human-environment interaction}}
# movement –
# {{annotated link|Region}}
The six "essential elements" identified by the Geography Education Standards Project,{{Cite web|title=The National Geography Standards |url=http://www.studentsfriend.com/onhist/ngs.html |access-date=November 6, 2010}} under which the National Geography Standards they developed are organized:{{Cite web |title=National Geography Standards |url=http://www.ncge.org/i4a/pages/index.cfm?pageid=3314 |access-date=November 6, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100825112339/http://www.ncge.org/i4a/pages/index.cfm?pageid=3314 |archive-date=August 25, 2010 |url-status=dead }}Richard G Boehm, Roger M Downs, Sarah W Bednarz. Geography for Life: National Geography Standards. National Council for Geographic Education, 1994
# The World in spatial terms
# Places and regions
# Physical systems
# Human systems
# Environment and society
# The uses of geography
The three content areas of geography from the 2010 National Assessment of Educational Progress[http://www.nagb.org/publications/frameworks/gframework2010.pdf Geography Framework for the 2010 National Assessment of Educational Progress.] National Assessment Governing Board, U.S. Department of Education, p. vii: {{blockquote|It focuses on what geography students should know to be competent and productive 21st century citizens, and uses three content areas for assessing the outcomes of geography education. These content areas are Space and Place, Environment and Society, and Spatial Dynamics and Connections.}} (U.S.):
# Space and place
# Environment and society
# Spatial dynamics and connections

References

External links

Pidwirny, Michael. (2014). Glossary of Terms for Physical Geography. Planet Earth Publishing, Kelowna, Canada. {{ISBN|9780987702906}}. Available on [https://play.google.com/store/books/details/Michael_Pidwirny_Glossary_of_Terms_for_Physical_Ge?id=jQoIBAAAQBAJ Google Play].
Pidwirny, Michael. (2014). Understanding Physical Geography. Planet Earth Publishing, Kelowna, Canada. {{ISBN|9780987702944}}. Available on [https://play.google.com/store/search?q=Pidwirny Google Play].

Geography