Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)#V

This glossary of geography terms is a list of definitions of terms and concepts used in geography and related fields, including Earth science, oceanography, cartography, and human geography, as well as those describing spatial dimension, topographical features, natural resources, and the collection, analysis, and visualization of geographic data. It is split across two articles:

Glossary of geography terms (A–M) lists terms beginning with the letters A through M.
This page, Glossary of geography terms (N–Z), lists terms beginning with the letters N through Z.

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N

{{defn|A land or water passage that is confined or restricted by its narrow breadth, often a {{gli|strait}} or a {{gli|water gap}}.}}

{{defn|A stable community of people formed on the basis of a common geographic territory, language, economy, ethnicity, or psychological make-up as manifested in a common {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|culture}}.}}

{{defn|A governmental agency which manages, produces, and publishes {{gli|topographic map|topographic maps}}, geographic data, and sometimes {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|cadastral}} information that is specific to an individual {{gli|nation}} or political territory, such as the United Kingdom's Ordnance Survey.}}

{{defn|A type of {{gli|protected area}} created and managed as a public park by a {{gli|national}} governmental authority for conservation purposes. Though individual governments designate national parks differently, they usually share the common goal of preserving natural or semi-natural landscapes (often {{gli|wilderness}}) for posterity and as symbols of national pride.}}

{{defn|The original {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|landscape}} that exists before it is acted upon by humans. Contrast {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|cultural landscape}}.}}

{{defn|A unit of distance traditionally defined as the length equal to one {{gli|minute}} of arc ({{frac|60}} of one {{gli|degree}}) along a {{gli|meridian}} of the Earth. Because the Earth is not a perfect sphere, the length of one minute of arc at the {{gli|Equator}} differs from that measured at the {{gli|geographic poles}}; thus the modern internationally agreed-upon standard defines the nautical mile as the average of these two extremes: {{convert|1852|m|ft mi|lk=on|abbr=off}}.{{cite book|last=Maloney |first=Elbert S. |year=1978 |title=Dutton's Navigation and Piloting |edition=13 |location=Annapolis |publisher=Naval Institute Press}} It is widely used in air, marine, and space {{gli|navigation}} as well as for defining the limits of {{gli|territorial waters}}.}}

{{defn|no=1|(of a place) Capable of being {{gli|navigated}}; sufficiently deep, wide, predictable, and/or free of obstructions to afford easy or safe passage to vessels such as ships or automobiles. The term is often used to describe {{gli|river}} {{gli|channels}} and coastal {{gli|inlets}}.}}

{{defn|no=2|(of a vessel) In a navigable condition; steerable; seaworthy or roadworthy.}}

{{defn|no=1|The determination of position and direction, generally by comparing the navigator's position to known locations or patterns.}}

{{defn|no=2|The process of monitoring and controlling the movement of a vehicle or craft from one place to another.}}

{{defn|A {{gli|tide}} of decreased {{gli|tidal range}} occurring semi-monthly as a result of the Moon being in quadrature with respect to the Earth and the Sun (i.e. in the first quarter or last quarter phases, when roughly half of the lunar disk is visible), or the time period recurring every 14 days during which such tides occur. The average height of the high waters of the neap tides occurring at a particular location is called neap high water or high water neaps, and that of the corresponding low waters is called neap low water or low water neaps.{{cite book |title=Glossary of the Mapping Sciences |date=1994 |publisher=American Society of Civil Engineers, American Congress on Surveying and Mapping, and American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing |location=New York, NY |isbn=0-7844-0050-4 |url=https://openlibrary.org/works/OL19347572W/The_Glossary_of_the_Mapping_Sciences}} Compare {{gli|spring tide}}.}}

{{defn|The part of a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|beach}} between the {{gli|shoreline}} and the line at which the waves break.}}

{{defn|A line separating the main body of a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|map}} from the map's margin. On a standard {{gli|quadrangle}} map, the neatlines are the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|meridians}} and {{gli|parallels}} delimiting the quadrangle.{{cite book |last1=Thompson |first1=Morris M. |title=Maps for America: Cartographic products of the U.S. Geological Survey and others |date=1988 |publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office |location=Washington, D.C. |edition=3rd |url=https://pubs.usgs.gov/unnumbered/70178836/report.pdf}}}}

{{defn|no=1|A narrow stretch of land with water on each side, e.g. an {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|isthmus}} or {{gli|promontory}}.{{cite book |last1=Clark |first1=Audrey N. |title=The Penguin Dictionary of Geography |date=2003 |publisher=Penguin Books |location=London, England |isbn=0140515054 |ol=3706101M |edition=3rd |url=https://openlibrary.org/books/OL3706101M/The_Penguin_dictionary_of_geography}}}}

{{defn|no=3|A high level {{gli|pass}}, especially the narrowest part.}}

{{defn|A long {{gli|spit|sandspit}} separating a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|haff}} or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|lagoon}} from the sea, especially one along the south coast of the Baltic Sea.}}

{{defn|A geographically localized {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|community}} within a larger {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|city}}, {{gli|town}}, {{gli|suburb}}, or {{gli|rural}} area, particularly one which supports considerable face-to-face interactions between residents.}}

{{defn|In Scotland and parts of England, a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|headland}} or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|cape}}, or another name for a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|cuspate foreland}}; or a {{gli|spur}} of a mountain {{gli|ridge}}.}}

{{defn|A region characterized by a set of places connected to another place by lines of communication or movement.{{cite web |author=Bureau of International Information Programs (IIP) |author-link=Bureau of International Information Programs |title=Glossary: An Outline of American Geography |website=america.gov |date=2008-06-26 |url=https://www.america.gov/st/diversity-english/2008/May/20080618220306eaifas0.30677.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080626032146/https://www.america.gov/st/diversity-english/2008/May/20080618220306eaifas0.30677.html |archive-date=2008-06-26 |url-status=dead |publisher=United States Department of State |location=Washington, DC}}}}

{{ghat|Also called the Geographic North Pole, Geographic North, or simply the North Pole.}}

{{defn|The point in the {{gli|Northern Hemisphere}} where the Earth's axis of rotation meets its surface. It is the northernmost point on Earth, directly opposite the {{gli|South Geographic Pole}}, and defines the direction of {{gli|true north}} at a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|latitude}} of 90 degrees North; its {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|longitude}} can be assigned any degree value. Unlike the South Pole, the North Pole is not located on a continental landmass but in the middle of the Arctic Ocean. See also {{gli|North Magnetic Pole}}.}}

{{defn|The point in the {{gli|Northern Hemisphere}} where the axis of a theoretical simplified dipole passing through the center of the Earth would intersect the Earth's surface. It is {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|antipodes|antipodal}} to the {{gli|South Geomagnetic Pole}}. Because of the fluid nature of the Earth's molten core, the true axis of the Earth's magnetic field is not a perfect dipole, and so the Geomagnetic Poles and the actual {{gli|North Magnetic Pole|Magnetic Poles}} lie some distance apart.}}

File:North Magnetic Poles.svg

{{ghat|Also called the Magnetic North Pole or Magnetic North.}}

{{defn|The point in the {{gli|Northern Hemisphere}} at which the Earth's magnetic field points vertically downward. It is close to but distinct from the {{gli|North Geographic Pole|Geographic North Pole}} and the {{gli|North Geomagnetic Pole|Geomagnetic North Pole}}, and its precise location varies considerably over time due to frequent magnetic changes in the Earth's core. Its counterpart in the Southern Hemisphere is the {{gli|South Magnetic Pole}}, though the two poles are not directly opposite each other.}}

{{defn|The {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|hemisphere|half sphere}} of the Earth that is north of the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|Equator}}. It is opposite the {{gli|Southern Hemisphere}}.}}

{{defn|A small, gentle {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|hill}} consisting of a bedrock core dotted with rounded residual boulders. Nubbins form in a similar way to {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|castle koppie|castle koppies}} and {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|bornhardts}}.}}

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O

{{defn|A combination of a human {{gli|settlement}} and an area of cultivated vegetation in an otherwise desolate {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|desert}} or semi-desert environment, made fertile when sources of {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|fresh water}}, such as underground {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|aquifers}}, irrigate the surface naturally or via man-made wells.}}

{{defn|The approximate geometric {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|figure of the Earth|shape of the Earth}}: a three-dimensional ellipsoid that is nearly but not exactly a true sphere, being instead slightly flattened at the poles and slightly elongated at the equator.}}

{{defn|(of a stream, river, or any natural water flow) Flowing in the direction opposite to that of the dip of the underlying rock strata. Contrast {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|consequent}} and {{gli|subsequent}}.}}

{{defn|The vast, contiguous body of {{gli|salt water}} covering more than 70% of the Earth's surface area and surrounding the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|continent|continental}} landmasses; or any portion of this larger body of water that is divided and distinguished from the other portions, each of which is called an ocean, by the presence of the landmasses.{{Citation |url=http://www2.ed.gov/pubs/parents/Geography/glossary.html |title=Archived: Helping Your Child Learn Geography: Glossary |last=OERI |first=U.S. Department of Education, Office of Educational Research and Improvement |author-link=Office of Educational Research and Improvement |date=October 1996 |work=Helping Your Child Learn Geography |publisher=U.S. Department of Education |location=Washington, DC |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130525054937/http://www2.ed.gov/pubs/parents/Geography/glossary.html |archive-date=May 25, 2013 |access-date=April 16, 2013 |url-status=dead }} The International Hydrographic Organization recognizes five principal oceanic divisions on Earth: from largest to smallest, they are the Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean, Southern Ocean, and Arctic Ocean.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|seabed}}.}}

{{defn|A long, narrow, very deep {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|depression}} in the {{gli|seabed|ocean floor}} at the junction of two {{gli|plate tectonics|tectonic plates}}, where one plate is {{gli|subduction|subducted}} steeply beneath the other, often penetrating the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|mantle}}.}}

File:Atlantic-trench.JPG, the deepest {{gli|ocean trench|trench}} in the Atlantic Ocean.]]

{{defn|The scientific study of the Earth's {{gli|oceans}} and all processes and phenomena relating to them, including their formation and evolution over time; their physical and chemical properties and how these vary within the ocean and across its boundaries; their interactions with {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|landmasses}} along {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|coasts}}; the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|bathymetry}} and geology of the {{gli|seabed|sea floor}}; {{gli|ocean current|currents}}, waves, and geophysical fluid dynamics; {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|marine}} life and ecosystems; and how humans affect and are affected by oceans. The interdisciplinary field draws from and involves a diverse range of other sciences, including physics, biology, {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|geology}}, {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|hydrology}}, meteorology, and climatology, among others.}}

{{defn|A {{gli|toponym}} or proper name for a house or other residential building, or in the broadest sense for any inhabited settlement, such as a village, town, or city.{{Cite web |url=http://www.icosweb.net/index.php/terminology.html |title=International Council of Onomastic Sciences |access-date=2023-11-15 |archive-date=2016-01-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160117030127/http://icosweb.net/index.php/terminology.html |url-status=dead }}}}

{{defn|See {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|ecumene}}.}}

{{defn|no=1|Moving away from the {{gli|shore}} and toward the {{gli|sea}}.}}

{{defn|no=2|Located at a point or in an area that is relatively close to but still seaward of the shore (as with an offshore {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|island}}). Contrast {{gli|onshore}}.}}

{{defn|no=3|Seaward of the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|foreshore}} and the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|backshore}}.}}

{{defn|One of a series of regularly spaced bands of alternating height and color visible on the surface of some {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|glaciers}}, resulting from seasonal patterns of {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|alimentation}} and {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|ablation}}. Because ice flows faster near the center of the glacier, where there is less friction with the surrounding {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|glacial bed}}, ogives are usually shaped into conspicuous arcs that point towards the {{gli|toe|terminus}} of the glacier."All About Glaciers". National Snow & Ice Data Center. https://nsidc.org/cryosphere/glaciers/gallery/ogives.html#:~:text=Ogives%20are%20bands%20that%20form,collects%20on%20the%20glacier%20surface.}}

{{defn|In the southwestern United States, a small {{gli|pond}}, {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|lake}}, or {{gli|spring}}, especially a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|hot spring}}.}}

{{defn|A country that relies on one principal export for much of its earnings.}}

{{defn|The part of the {{gli|ocean}} that is beyond or outside of {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|coastal}} areas,[https://www.nps.gov/subjects/oceans/open-ocean.htm "Open Ocean". National Park Service] i.e. distant from land and not enclosed or partially enclosed by it. In {{gli|oceanography}}, the term is synonymous with {{gli|pelagic zone}} and is often defined as all oceanic waters seaward of any {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|continental shelf}}; politically and economically, "open ocean" usually refers to all areas of a sea or ocean that are not within {{gli|territorial waters}} (hence, any area that is within {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|international waters}}) or, much more restrictively, not within any sovereign state's {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|exclusive economic zone}}. See also {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|high seas}}.}}

{{defn|A cattle- or sheep-ranching area characterized by a general absence of fences and in which livestock are by law allowed to roam freely.}}

{{ghat|Also curvimeter, meilograph, or map measurer.}}

{{defn|An instrument used to measure the lengths of arbitrary curved lines, especially the distances of rivers and roads on a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|map}}.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|intercardinal directions}}.}}

{{defn|Any {{gli|vertical datum}} used by the British {{gli|Ordnance Survey}} as the basis for reporting {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|elevations}} on {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|maps}}. In modern Great Britain, the standard ordnance datum is the ODN, defined as the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|mean sea level}} calculated from hourly observations of the tidal gauge at Newlyn, Cornwall, between 1915 and 1921. All heights shown on British maps are measured from this {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|benchmark}}.}}

{{defn|The position of or the act of positioning a person or object with respect to the directional points of a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|compass}}, especially the placement of a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|map}} or {{gli|surveying}} instrument in the field so that a north–south line on the map or instrument lies {{gli|parallel}} to a north–south line on the ground. Determining one's orientation at a given time is the chief aim of {{gli|orienteering}}, and is generally of critical importance in {{gli|navigation}}.}}

{{defn|The use of a {{gli|map}} and {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|compass}} to {{gli|navigate}} over unfamiliar terrain, either by land or water; or a recreational activity or competitive sport in which participants navigate in this way, generally on foot from point to point along a predetermined {{gli|route}}, and often in {{gli|wilderness}} areas while racing to complete the course within a certain period of time or before competitors.}}

{{defn|Precipitation that results when moist air is lifted over a topographic barrier, such as a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|mountain range}}.}}

{{defn|A branch of {{gli|physical geography}} and {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|geomorphology}} concerned with the scientific study and description of the {{gli|topographic relief}} of the Earth, particularly of {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|mountains}} and {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|hills}}, and more broadly of any elevated {{gli|terrain}}.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|great circle}}.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|great-circle distance}}.}}

{{ghat|Also orthophoto, orthoimage, or orthoimagery.}}

{{defn|An aerial photograph or satellite image that has been geometrically corrected or orthorectified such that the {{gli|scale}} is uniform across all parts of the image, allowing the image to align with a particular {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|map projection}}. In an uncorrected aerial photo, distances on the ground may be distorted by {{gli|topographic relief}}, camera tilt, or the curvature of the Earth; techniques of digital image processing can compensate for these distortions, often by combining multiple images captured from slightly different perspectives into a single composite image. Orthophotos can be used to measure true distances because they accurately depict the relative sizes and positions of features on the Earth's surface.}}

{{defn|In Australia, the vast, remote, sparsely populated {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|backcountry}}. See also {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|bush}}.}}

{{defn|Any visible exposure of {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|bedrock}} or ancient superficial deposits on the surface of the Earth; or more generally, any bare, rocky surface that is topographically distinct from the surrounding {{gli|terrain}}. Outcrops occur frequently in places where the rate of erosion exceeds the rate of weathering, such as on steep hillsides and mountains, river banks, and coastlines.}}

{{defn|Rocky and sandy surface material deposited by {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|meltwater|melted water}} that flows from a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|glacier}}.}}

{{defn|A smooth, flat {{gli|plain}} of sandy or gravelly {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|alluvial}} sediment formed by {{gli|outwash}} deposited in front of the {{gli|toe}} of a melting {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|glacier}}, with larger material deposited closer to the {{gli|terminal moraine}}.}}

{{defn|no=1|{{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|alluvium|Alluvial}} sediment, usually consisting of fine sand, silt, and clay, that has been {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|deposited}} on the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|floodplain}} of a river or stream by flood waters that have broken through or overtopped the river's {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|banks}}.}}

{{defn|no=2|The {{gli|stream stage|stage}} when a river or stream overflows the banks of its normal channel and spreads on to a floodplain, depositing such sediment.}}

{{defn|Uneconomic material covering a mineral seam or bed that must be removed before the mineral can be extracted in strip mining.}}

{{defn|no=1|A wide U-shaped {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|meander}} in a {{gli|river}} or {{gli|stream}}.}}

{{defn|no=2|The {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|lake}} formed when a meander is cut off from the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|main stem}} of the river, creating a separate body of water.}}

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P

{{defn|See {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|concordant coastline}}.}}

{{defn|An uncultivated, treeless {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|grassland}} in Southeast Asia, sometimes {{gli|swamp}}-like, supporting a scrubby {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|heath}}-type vegetation common on leached sandy soils.}}

{{defn|no=1|A wall of wooden stakes used as a defensive barrier.}}

{{defn|no=2|A line of bold {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|cliffs}}, especially one showing basaltic columns.}}

{{defn|An elliptical dome-like {{gli|permafrost}} mound containing alternating layers of ice lenses and peat or mineral soil, commonly {{convert|3|–|10|m|ft|0}} high and {{convert|2|–|25|m|ft|0}} long, and occurring frequently in {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|bogs}} in the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|Arctic}} and subarctic zones of discontinuous permafrost.}}

{{defn|Of or pertaining to a {{gli|swamp}} or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|marsh}}, or to sediments that accumulate in a marshy environment.{{cite book |last1=Troeh |first1=Frederick R. |last2=Donahue |first2=Roy Luther |title=Dictionary of Agricultural and Environmental Science |date=2003 |publisher=Iowa State Press |location=Ames, Iowa |isbn=9780813802831 |ol=8026680M |edition=1st |url=https://openlibrary.org/books/OL8026680M/Dictionary_of_Agricultural_and_Environmental_Science}}}}

{{defn|In parts of South America, a vast, fertile, {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|grassland|grassy}} {{gli|plain}}; or the temperate {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|lowland}} region encompassing these plains.}}

{{defn|Any shallow, generally rounded {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|basin}} or hollow, which may seasonally capture and hold water from rainfall or snowmelt, especially one occurring in an arid or semi-arid region; more specifically, the flat central part of such a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|depression}}, which may be temporarily or seasonally flooded.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|salient}}.}}

{{ghat|Also gnamma, weathering pit, and solution pan.}}

{{defn|A rounded or circular {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|depression}} eroded into flat or gently sloping cohesive rock, typically shallow and ranging in diameter from a few centimeters to several meters, that is capable of collecting and holding rainwater and snowmelt. The term is sometimes used interchangeably with {{gli|pothole}}, though the latter may also refer to distinct geological features.}}

{{defn|In southern Brazil, a {{gli|wetland}} region consisting of a usually dry {{gli|savanna}} that is seasonally flooded by a {{gli|river}}.}}

{{defn|An instrument that enables the mechanical copying of a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|map}} or technical drawing on a selectable scale, such that the movement of one pen, in tracing an image, produces identical movements in a second pen, resulting in a duplicate image that is the same size, enlarged, or miniaturized with respect to the original. Pantographs typically consist of hinged rods arranged in the shape of a parallelogram which rotate about a fixed point.}}

{{defn|no=1|(geometry) Extending in the same direction, equidistant at all points, and never converging or diverging; having the same orientation, nature, tendency, or course; corresponding or similar.}}

{{defn|no=2|(geography) Another name for a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|circle of latitude}}.}}

{{defn|A type of subnational division of a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|country}} or {{gli|state|federal state}} used for religious, administrative, or other purposes.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|mountain pass}}.}}

{{defn|A {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|glacier}} with low rates of both {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|alimentation}} and {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|ablation}} because it receives only light snowfall and undergoes little melting throughout the year. Such glaciers move very slowly and transport relatively small amounts of ice and debris. Contrast {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|active glacier}}.}}

{{defn|Any land used for grazing by livestock, often a natural {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|grassland}} supporting native grasses and forbs with little or no active management by humans, as opposed to a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|meadow}}, where the vegetation is mown for hay or silage.}}

{{defn|no=1|A pointed or protruding top or other vertical projection on a landform, e.g. a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|mountain}}, especially implying the highest point or elevational maximum, i.e. the {{gli|summit}}.}}

{{defn|no=2|A mountain as a whole, in particular a high, {{gli|topographic isolation|isolated}}, or {{gli|topographic prominence|prominent}} one.}}

{{defn|An eroded, often bare rock platform, cut into the local {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|bedrock}}, usually slightly concave and triangular in shape and extending over a considerable area at the foot of an abrupt mountain {{gli|slope}} or face, the lower edge sloping gently away. Pediments form basal slopes of transport for {{gli|weathering|weathered}} material derived from the steeper slope above, and are characteristic of arid and semi-arid lands.}}

{{defn|The scientific study of the morphology, composition, and spatial distribution of soils, with an emphasis on classifying soils and understanding their formation and evolution.}}

{{defn|The uppermost layer of the Earth's {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|crust}} that is composed of soils and subject to {{gli|pedological}} processes such as soil formation and erosion, a consequence of dynamic interactions between the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|lithosphere}}, {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|atmosphere}}, {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|hydrosphere}}, and {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|biosphere}}.}}

{{defn|A low-relief {{gli|plain}} leveled by long-term erosion, often implying a landscape that is in the final stages of {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|fluvial}} erosion during an extended period of tectonic stability, i.e. approaching the point at which all initial topographic inequalities such as mountains and hills have been eroded and evenly redistributed into a broad, flat, uniform surface at or near sea level.}}

{{defn|A piece of land surrounded by water along the majority of its border while still being connected to a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|mainland}} from which it projects.}}

{{defn|An area of the Earth's surface that is defined by the perceptions of the people living there or by those of the general society, and thus is based largely on subjective or qualitative distinctions.}}

{{defn|A {{gli|stream}} that normally flows continuously throughout the entire year, without drying up, as opposed to a transient or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|intermittent stream}}.}}

{{defn|An {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|anticline}} in which the rock strata have been arched up in the shape of a dome, such that the beds dip away on all sides from a higher central point.}}

{{defn|no=1|Of or relating to an area located adjacent to or on the margin of an {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|ice sheet}} or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|glacier}}, either presently or in the past, or to associated glacial or cryological phenomena.}}

{{defn|no=2|Describing any place where seasonal cycles of freezing and thawing modify the landscape in a significant manner.}}

{{defn|A historical manuscript listing the {{gli|ports}}, safe {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|anchorages}}, and coastal {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|landmarks}} that a maritime vessel could expect to encounter along a {{gli|shore}} or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|coastline}}, arranged in order according to a particular direction of travel and including the intervening distances between them. See also {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|itinerarium}}.}}

{{defn|A permanently frozen layer of soil, or any ground at high {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|latitude}} or high {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|elevation}} that remains frozen year-round.{{Citation |author=USGS |author-link=United States Geological Survey |year=2010 |title=USGS Geography Products – Glossary |publisher=United States Geological Survey |location=Washington, DC |url=http://edc2.usgs.gov/pubslists/teachers-packets/volcanoes/teachgde/teachgdev.php#glossary |access-date=September 30, 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100528020039/http://edc2.usgs.gov/pubslists/teachers-packets/volcanoes/teachgde/teachgdev.php#glossary |archive-date=May 28, 2010}}}}

{{ghat|Also euphotic zone, epipelagic zone, and sunlight zone.}}

{{defn|The uppermost layer of a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|body of water}} (e.g. a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|lake}} or {{gli|ocean}}), defined by the maximum depth to which sunlight can penetrate the {{gli|water column}}. The photic zone usually supports large populations of photosynthetic organisms and the majority of the aquatic life inhabiting the body as a whole.}}

{{defn|no=1|The science and technology of obtaining reliable information about physical objects and environments through the process of recording, measuring, and interpreting photographic images (usually aerial or orbital ones) and patterns of electromagnetic radiant imagery and other phenomena.}}

{{defn|no=2|The science of extracting three-dimensional measurements from two-dimensional data, such as images.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|groundwater}}.}}

{{defn|The part of an {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|aquifer}} that is below the {{gli|water table}}, where nearly all pores and fractures are fully saturated with water. Contrast {{gli|vadose zone}}.}}

{{defn|The branch of geography that studies processes and patterns in the natural environment, such as the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|atmosphere}}, {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|hydrosphere}}, {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|geosphere}}, and {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|biosphere}}, as opposed to the cultural or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|built environment}}. Along with {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|human geography}}, it is one of the two major sub-fields of geography.}}

{{defn|A portion of the Earth's surface with a common {{gli|topography}} and morphology.}}

{{defn|Another name for {{gli|physical geography}}.}}

{{defn|A geographic region of relatively low, gently rolling {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|hills}} lying or formed at the base of a higher {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|mountain range}} or other {{gli|upland}} area; a transition zone characterized by gradual increases in {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|elevation}} from plains or lowlands to topographically higher areas. As a proper noun, "Piedmont" may refer in particular to a formally defined region in northwest Italy immediately south of the Alps, or to a broad, informal region on the eastern {{gli|seaboard}} of the United States extending from the Blue Ridge Mountains to the Atlantic coastal plain.}}

{{defn|A {{gli|periglacial}} landform consisting of a relatively large conical mound of soil-covered ice, commonly {{convert|30|–|50|m|ft|-1}} high and up to {{convert|1000|m|mi|1}} in diameter, and that grows and persists in part as a result of hydrostatic pressure within and below the {{gli|permafrost}} of {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|Arctic}} and subarctic regions.}}

{{ghat|Also chimney, finger, monument, needle, pillar, spire, and tower.}}

{{defn|Any natural, free-standing, vertical or nearly vertical column of earth or rock in the shape of a tall, often slender shaft or spire, and which is distinguished by its isolation from nearby rocks or other landforms. The term is applied to a wide variety of geological formations of various sizes and has numerous regional and local synonyms with which it may be used more or less interchangeably. See also {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|demoiselle}}, {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|hoodoo}}, {{gli|prominence}}, {{gli|stack}}, and {{gli|zeuge}}.}}

{{multiple image|total_width=500|direction=horizontal|image1=Rock pillar (seastack) on Flowerpot Island - Georgian Bay - Ontario, Canada - 2 Sept. 2011.jpg|image2=Cerro torre 1987.jpg

|footer=Rock {{gli|pinnacle|spires or pinnacles}} may range in size from small pillars a few metres tall to entire mountains stretching thousands of metres from base to summit. Left: Large Flowerpot on Flowerpot Island, Ontario, Canada; {{convert|12|m|ft}}. Right: Southeast face of Cerro Torre, border of Chile and Argentina; {{convert|2100|m|ft}}.}}

{{defn|A type of {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|crater}} formed by the {{gli|subsidence|sinking or collapse}} of the surface lying above a void or empty chamber. Pit craters are similar to {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|calderas}} and are often associated with volcanic activity, but lack the ejecta deposits and {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|lava}} flows of {{gli|volcanic crater|volcanic craters}}.}}

{{defn|A particular point on the Earth's surface, or the area surrounding such a point, having or encompassing a definite {{gli|position}}; a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|location}}, often specifically named, that is identifiable in social interaction because humans have endowed it with meaning or purpose; a {{gli|sense of place|mental representation}} of a physical space created from functional or emotional associations in the human mind. The concept of place – how places are created, identified, mapped, connected, and used – is fundamental to many aspects of {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|geography}}.}}

{{defn|The measure of approval or satisfaction accorded by an individual to a {{gli|location}} in his or her {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|action space}}; the value or usefulness of a particular place as perceived by a particular person. Dissatisfaction with place utility may result in {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|migration}}.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|toponym}}.}}

{{defn|no=1|(mineral deposit) An accumulation of valuable minerals, particularly gold, formed by gravity separation from a source rock during natural sedimentary processes. The minerals, {{gli|weathering|weathered}} from rocks or veins, are washed out by streams and mixed with {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|alluvial}} deposits of sand or gravel, from which they can then be extracted by placer mining.}}

{{defn|no=2|(reef) A flat, shallow {{gli|shoal|sandbank}} or {{gli|reef}} submerged beneath the ocean surface, often with a sandy bottom suitable as an {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|anchorage}} for seagoing vessels.}}

{{defn|Any broad, flat expanse of land that generally does not show significant variation in topography or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|elevation}}.}}

{{defn|A small drawing board mounted on a tripod used in {{gli|surveying}}, site mapping, and related disciplines to provide a solid and level surface upon which to make drawings, charts, and maps while in the field.}}

{{defn|A map which uses a two-dimensional {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|geographic coordinate system|coordinate system}}, i.e. in which each point is represented by only two coordinates (x, y), as if all of the depicted features existed within a single, flat plane. These maps usually exclude information about {{gli|vertical datum|vertical position}} and therefore do not show {{gli|topographic relief}} and represent only horizontal distances.{{cite book|title=A to Z GIS: An Illustrated Dictionary of Geographic Information Systems |editor-first=Tasha |editor-last=Wade |editor-first2= Shelly| editor-last2= Sommer| date=2006 |edition=2nd |publisher=ESRI Press |location=Redlands, California |isbn=978-1-58948-140-4}}}}

{{defn|A {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|cadastral}} map, drawn to scale, showing the legal boundaries and divisions of a {{gli|surveyed}} tract of land, particularly of the type used to divide real property for sale and settlement in the {{gli|Public Land Survey System}} of the United States.}}

{{defn|A geologic theory that the bending (folding) and breaking (faulting) of the solid surface of the Earth results from the slow movement of large sections of that surface called {{gli|tectonic plates}}.}}

{{defn|A large area of relatively flat terrain that is significantly higher in elevation than the surrounding landscape, often with one or more sides with steep slopes. }}

{{defn|Land that has been divided into {{gli|surveyed}} lots.}}

{{defn|An exceptionally flat, arid {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|basin}} that is the dry {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|bed}} of an evaporated {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|lake}}; or the shallow, usually saline lake itself which periodically forms when the basin is temporarily covered with water, e.g. after substantial rainfall. See also {{gli|salt pan}}.}}

{{defn|An erosional phenomenon whereby a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|glacier}} gradually scours and displaces pieces of rock from the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|bedrock}} beneath it and transports them along with the glacial flow of ice and debris. As the glacier moves down a {{gli|valley}}, friction causes the basal ice to melt and infiltrate joints and cracks in the bedrock; repeated freezing and thawing widens and deepens these cracks, eventually loosening the rock and causing large blocks and boulders to be carried along by the overlying ice. These boulders are often deposited hundreds of kilometers from their source, becoming {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|erratics}}. The term is also sometimes used to describe the similar process of {{gli|quarrying}}, which occurs on a smaller scale in fast-moving {{gli|rivers}} and {{gli|streams}}.}}

{{defn|A cylindrical mass of volcanic rock marking the neck of an ancient {{gli|volcano}}, especially one exposed by denudation of the surrounding {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|cinder cone|cone}}.}}

{{defn|A vertical reference line created by suspending a weight, known as a plumb bob or plummet, from a string above the Earth's surface and allowing it to hang freely in the direction of the pull of gravity. A precursor to the {{gli|spirit level}}, plumb lines are used to establish a vertical {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|geodetic datum|datum}} in a wide range of applications, particularly in {{gli|surveying}} to determine the {{gli|nadir}} of a point in space, and often in combination with an instrument to set the instrument precisely over a fixed {{gli|survey marker}}.}}

{{defn|A deep {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|depression}} at the base of a {{gli|waterfall}} into which the water drops with great force, {{gli|plucking}} and {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|abrading}} the rock beneath and behind the falls and creating an often nearly circular concavity which may remain filled with water long after the waterfall itself dries up.}}

{{defn|A situation in which two or more distinct {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|cultures}} occupy the same territory but maintain their separate cultural identities.}}

{{defn|A {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|depositional}} feature made of {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|alluvium}} that accumulates on the inside bend of a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|meandering}} {{gli|stream}} or {{gli|river}}, below the {{gli|slip-off slope}} and often directly opposite a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|cut bank}}. Point bars are usually crescent-shaped {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|beaches}} of sand, silt, or gravel, similar to {{gli|shoals}} and {{gli|river island|river islands}}.}}

{{defn|A planar {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|map projection}} with its origin located at either the {{gli|North Geographic Pole|North}} or the {{gli|South Geographic Pole|South}} {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|geographic pole}}.}}

{{defn|Either of the two circles of {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|latitude}} enclosing the Earth's {{gli|polar region|polar regions}}: the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|Arctic Circle}} in the Northern Hemisphere and the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|Antarctic Circle}} in the Southern Hemisphere.}}

{{defn|Either of the two very large regions near the Earth's geographical poles that are seasonally or persistently covered in ice, which occurs because high-latitude regions receive less direct solar radiation than other regions and therefore experience much lower surface temperatures. The Earth's polar ice may cover both land and sea, and varies in size seasonally and with long-term climate change. They typically cover a much larger area than true {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|ice caps}} and are more correctly termed {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|ice sheets}}.}}

{{defn|Either of the two high-latitude regions surrounding the Earth's geographical poles (the {{gli|North Geographic Pole|North}} and {{gli|South Geographic Pole|South Poles}}), which are characterized by frigid climates and extensive {{gli|polar ice cap|polar ice caps}}. The polar region of the Northern Hemisphere is often simply called the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|Arctic}} and that of the Southern Hemisphere is called the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|Antarctic}}.}}

{{defn|A low-lying tract of land enclosed by {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|dikes}}, forming an artificial hydrological entity by creating land from a naturally inundated area, e.g. by {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|land reclamation|reclaiming land}} from a lake or sea, or by building barriers around a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|floodplain}} or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|marsh}} and then draining it. All polders are eventually below the surrounding {{gli|water table}} some or all of the time, making them especially prone to flooding, and they often require continuous draining.}}

{{defn|no=1|An extreme geographical point, especially one of a pair.}}

{{defn|no=2|Either of the two points where the Earth's axis of rotation meets its surface, i.e. the geographic poles, representing the northern and southern extremities of terrestrial {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|latitude}}: the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|Geographic North Pole}} and the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|Geographic South Pole}}.}}

{{defn|no=3|Either of the two ends of the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|geomagnetic field}} generated by the dynamo in the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|core of the Earth|Earth's core}}. These ends may refer either to the true magnetic poles, known as the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|Magnetic North Pole}} and the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|Magnetic South Pole}}, which are not directly opposite each other, or to the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|antipodes|antipodal}} poles of a hypothetical perfect dipole passing through the Earth's center, known as the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|Geomagnetic North Pole}} and the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|Geomagnetic South Pole}}.}}

{{defn|A location that, with respect to a given geographical criterion, is the most difficult to reach according to that criterion, e.g. the geographical location that is the most distant from the nearest point meeting that criterion. The term most commonly refers to the so-called continental or oceanic poles of inaccessibility, i.e. the point on a given continental landmass that is the furthest distance from a coastline, and the point in the ocean that is the furthest distance from land, respectively.}}

{{defn|The study of both the spatially uneven outcomes of political processes and the ways in which political processes are themselves affected by spatial structures. A sub-discipline of {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|human geography}}, its primary concerns can be summarized as the relationships between people, state, and territory.}}

{{defn|A very large {{gli|plain}} found in {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|karstic}} regions, enclosed within a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|depression}}, usually elliptical, with a flat {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|floor}} either of bare limestone or covered by {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|alluvium}}, and generally surrounded by steep limestone walls; or more broadly any enclosed or nearly enclosed {{gli|valley}}. The term is used primarily in the Slavic-speaking world.}}

{{defn|An area of unfrozen seawater surrounded by an otherwise contiguous area of {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|drift ice|pack ice}} or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|fast ice}}. Polynyas are often formed along polar coastlines through the action of katabatic winds, but may also form in the {{gli|open ocean}}.}}

{{defn|A natural or artificial {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|body of water|body}} of standing water that is usually smaller than a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|lake}}.}}

{{defn|A place or area with clustered or scattered buildings and a permanent human population (a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|city}}, {{gli|settlement}}, {{gli|town}}, or {{gli|village}}) that is referenced with {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|geographic coordinate system|geographic coordinates}}.}}

{{defn|A collection of organisms of the same group or species which live in a particular geographical area. In the context of geography, it often refers to a collection of humans and is represented at the most basic level as the number of people in a given geographically or politically defined space, such as a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|city}}, {{gli|town}}, {{gli|region}}, {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|country}}, or the entire world.}}

{{defn|A branch of {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|human geography}} that studies the ways in which spatial variations in the composition, distribution, migration, and growth of {{gli|populations}} are related to the nature of places. This often involves factors such as where populations are found and how the size and composition of these populations is regulated by the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|demography|demographic}} processes of fertility, mortality, and migration.}}

{{defn|The amount by which the mapped location of an imaged cartographic feature fails to agree with the feature's actual location in the real world.}}

{{defn|Any technology or mechanism used to determine the position of an object in space. Numerous methods for determining position have been practiced since ancient times, though modern positioning systems generally rely on electromagnetic and/or {{gli|satellite navigation|satellite-based}} technologies capable of providing coverage ranging from {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|local positioning system|local}} or regional to {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|GNSS|global}} and accuracy ranging from tens of metres to sub-millimetre.}}

{{defn|An economy that gains its basic character from economic activities developed primarily after manufacturing grew to predominance. Most notable would be quaternary economic patterns.}}

{{defn|The branch of {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|hydrology}} that studies {{gli|rivers}}, including the processes and phenomena that occur at their {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|headwaters|sources}}, {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|main stem|main channels}}, and {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|mouths}}; the structure and morphology of {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|drainage basins}}; and the water, thermal, ice, and sediment regimes that affect and are affected by river {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|discharge}}.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|piezometric surface}}.}}

{{ghat|Also pot, swirlhole, churn hole, evorsion, rock mill, and eddy mill.}}

{{defn|no=1|Any smooth, bowl-shaped or cylindrical hollow, generally deeper than it is wide, that is carved into the rocky {{gli|streambed|bed}} of a {{gli|watercourse}} such as a {{gli|stream}} or {{gli|river}}. Fluvial potholes are created by the grinding action of stones or coarse sediment kept in perpetual motion in the same spot by the turbulence of the current. The term is also used to refer to {{gli|plunge pool|plunge pools}} beneath {{gli|waterfalls}}, which are created by similar processes. See also {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|kolk}}.}}

{{defn|no=2|A vertical or steeply inclined {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|karstic}} shaft in a limestone deposit.}}

{{defn|no=3|In the Great Plains of North America, a shallow {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|depression}}, generally less than {{convert|10|acre|ha}} in area, occurring between {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|dunes}} or on {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|morainic}} relief on a {{gli|prairie}} and often filled by an intermittent {{gli|pond}} or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|marsh}}.}}

{{defn|no=4|Another name for a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|kettle}}.}}

{{defn|no=5|Another name for a {{gli|panhole}}.}}

{{defn|A type of temperate {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|grassland}} ecosystem dominated by a characteristic composition of grasses, herbs, and shrubs, rather than by trees. The term is used primarily in North America, but similar ecosystems can be found across the world.}}

{{defn|The oldest rocks, generally more than 600 million years old.}}

{{defn|A {{gli|peninsula}} connected to the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|mainland}} by an extremely narrow {{gli|neck}} of land such that the land at its distal end is very close to being an {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|island}}. See also {{gli|tied island}}.}}

{{defn|The direction from which winds most frequently blow at a specific geographic location.}}

{{defn|That portion of a region's economy devoted to the extraction of basic materials (e.g. mining, lumbering, and agriculture).}}

{{defn|The imaginary line running from north to south through the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, England which is assigned a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|longitude}} of 0 degrees and is therefore used as the reference point for all other lines of longitude.}}

{{defn|Preceding, in advance of, or in front of the {{gli|toe}} or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|moraine}} of a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|glacier}}, either spatially or temporally.}}

{{defn|The natural extension of a {{gli|shoreline}} into a body of water by the gradual accumulation of sediment over time, especially as a result of {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|fluvial}} {{gli|sedimentation}} processes, such as the protrusion of a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|delta|river delta}} into the sea. This occurs when the volume of sediment carried by the river and deposited at its mouth exceeds the volume lost through {{gli|subsidence}}, sea level rise, or coastal erosion.}}

{{defn|no=1|A conspicuous high point that projects above or beyond its surroundings, e.g. a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|butte}} or a {{gli|promontory}}.}}

{{defn|no=2|See {{gli|topographic prominence}}.}}

{{defn|A raised mass of land that projects into a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|lowland}} or a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|body of water}}. Compare {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|headland}} and {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|cape}}.}}

{{defn|Any clearly defined geographic space in which human occupation or the exploitation of resources is limited or forbidden through legal or other effective means because of the area's recognized natural, ecological, cultural, or historical value.}}

{{defn|A type of second-level administrative division within a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|country}} or {{gli|state|federal state}}.}}

{{defn|The study of specific effects of the geographical environment on the emotions and behaviors of individuals, whether consciously organized or not; the landscape of atmospheres, histories, attitudes, actions, and characters that occupy environments and influence group and individual psychologies.}}

{{defn|Any land area held and managed in the public domain by a federal or local government for use by the general public, as opposed to privately held land, for which access and use can be restricted by the individual landholder.}}

{{defn|A type of Indian village constructed by some tribes in the southwestern United States. A large community dwelling, divided into many rooms, up to five stories high, and usually made of adobe. This is also a Spanish word for town or village.}}

{{defn|In human geography, anything that encourages people to move or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|immigrate}} to a new place or location.}}

{{defn|An {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|ecoregion}} in the central Andes Mountains of South America, or any of the various high-altitude ecosystems encompassing it, including cold {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|deserts}} and alpine {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|grasslands}}.}}

{{defn|In human geography, anything that encourages people to leave or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|emigrate}} from a place or location.}}

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Q

{{defn|A standard division of the Earth's surface area used in {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|maps}} produced by the United States Geological Survey. Quadrangles are four-sided polygons of varying size, depending on the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|map series}}; for example, 7.5-minute quadrangles divide the mapped surface into quadrilaterals measuring 7.5 minutes (0.125 {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|degrees}}) of {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|latitude}} by 7.5 minutes of {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|longitude}}, with each 7.5-minute map showing the {{gli|topographical}} detail within one particular quadrilateral of this size. Because the boundaries of quadrangles are based on lines of latitude and longitude, the northern and southern limits of a quadrangle map are not straight lines, and the eastern and western limits are usually not parallel; the actual surface area covered by each map varies with the latitudes depicted.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|bog}}.}}

{{defn|A place from which stone, rock, sand, gravel, slate, or aggregate is excavated from the ground, especially a large man-made pit that is exposed to the open air.}}

{{defn|Activities focused on the management, processing, and research of information.}}

R

{{defn|A jumbled mass of blocks of ice that impedes the flow of water in a river or stream.}}

{{defn|The track or trace of a railroad route, commonly raised slightly above the adjacent natural ground surface and constructed mostly of locally occurring, earthy materials (e.g. gravel and rock fragments).}}

{{defn|An area on the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|leeward}} (downwind) side of a mountain or mountain range that receives greatly diminished precipitation.}}

File:Rain Shadow.tif

{{defn|Any {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|forest}} characterized by abundant rainfall, dense layers of vegetation, and extremely high {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|biological diversity|biodiversity}}. Rainforests are found in both tropical and temperate regions. The term {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|jungle}} is sometimes used to refer to a tropical rainforest.}}

{{defn|A sloping {{gli|terrace}} on a mountainside or rock face. The term is used primarily in Scotland.}}

{{defn|A section of a {{gli|river}} or {{gli|stream}} where the {{gli|riverbed}} is sufficiently steep, the rate of flow is sufficiently fast, and/or the {{gli|channel}} is sufficiently narrow or obstructed by shallow or protruding rocks or other obstacles that the water at the surface is visibly swift, turbulent, and broken, often forming large white-capped {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|breaking waves}}, {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|eddies}}, {{gli|whirlpools}}, and "holes", in contrast to other sections where relatively slow, steady, laminar flows predominate. Rapids can persist long enough to form distinct, stable patterns at particular locations, though they are ultimately dependent on water volume and thus may change seasonally, disappearing entirely if water levels are too low or too high. Generally, watercourses are more likely to form rapids closer to their {{gli|source}}, where channels are relatively shallow and narrow and often pass through mountainous or highly eroded terrain, than to downstream portions near their {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|mouth}}, where channels tend to be deeper and wider.}}

{{defn|A representation of spatial data within a two-dimensional image that defines space as a rectangular array or grid of equally sized cells arranged in rows and columns, where each cell can be identified with {{gli|spatial coordinate system|location coordinates}} and is associated with {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|attribute}} values containing a discrete amount of information from one or more layers or "{{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|bands}}". Raster models are useful for storing and presenting large amounts of complex multivariate data that vary continuously across space, as is commonly encountered in {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|maps}}, aerial photographs, satellite imagery, and many other aspects of {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|geographic information science}}. Raster data are contrasted with {{gli|vector|vector data}}, which instead store and represent geographic information in the form of points, lines, and polygons.}}

{{defn|A {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|fluvial}} slope landform of relatively steep sides, sometimes with an intermittent {{gli|stream}} flowing along the downslope channel. Ravines are typically narrower and shallower than {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|canyons}}, larger than {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|gullies}}, and smaller than {{gli|valleys}}.}}

{{defn|no=1|A relatively straight, level, uninterrupted segment of a {{gli|stream}}, {{gli|river}}, {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|channel}}, or other {{gli|watercourse}}, or of an {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|arm}} of a sea or ocean, traditionally defined by its ability to be sailed in one "reach" (i.e. on a single point of sail, without tacking) and also usually implying a line-of-sight stretch of water between two bends or horizons, or between {{gli|rapids}}, {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|locks}}, stream gauges, or any other {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|landmarks}}.}}

{{defn|no=2|Any expanse or widening of a watercourse, natural or man-made (commonly on dammed streams and rivers), or even an expanse of land, especially one that appears to be visually contiguous.}}

{{defn|no=3|In {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|fluvial}} {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|hydrology}}, a length of a stream or river having fairly uniform characteristics and which is therefore convenient to study as a discrete subdivision of the longer whole.}}

{{defn|no=1|Any land area that is artificially created from earthy fill material that has been intentionally placed and shaped so as to approximate natural contours, especially as part of {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|land reclamation}} efforts such as those designed to bury {{gli|tailings}} following the cessation of mining operations.}}

{{defn|no=2|An area of land, commonly submerged underwater in its natural state, that has been protected by artificial structures such as {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|dike|dikes}} and drained for agricultural or other purposes (e.g. a {{gli|polder}}).}}

{{defn|A submerged {{gli|ridge}}-like or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|mound}}-like structure built by sedentary calcareous organisms, especially corals, in shallow marine waters, and consisting primarily of their skeletal remains, though often still supporting living colonies as well. Reefs may also be partially composed of rocks, sand, gravel, or seashells. They are locally prominent above surrounding sediments deposited on the {{gli|sea floor}}, rising to or nearly to the water's surface.{{cite book |author=National Soil Survey Center |date=2018-02-01 |chapter=Part 629 – Glossary of Landform and Geologic Terms |chapter-url=https://directives.sc.egov.usda.gov/OpenNonWebContent.aspx?content=41992.wba |title=Title 430 – National Soil Survey Handbook |location= Washington, DC |publisher=Natural Resources Conservation Service |id={{OCLC|851204093|681768549}} |access-date=2018-10-07}}}}

{{defn|See {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|draw}}.}}

{{defn|A mathematically defined surface that approximates the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|geoid}} for use in {{gli|spatial reference system|spatial reference systems}} or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|geodetic datum}} definitions. Because of their relative simplicity, reference ellipsoids are used in geographic applications as preferred surfaces on which {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|geodetic control network|geodetic network}} computations are performed and point coordinates such as {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|latitude}}, {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|longitude}}, and {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|elevation}} are defined.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|desert pavement}}.}}

{{defn|An area having some characteristic or characteristics that distinguish it from other areas; a {{gli|territory}} that is of interest to people, for which one or more distinctive traits (e.g. climate, economy, history, etc.) define its identity.}}

{{defn|no=1|The feeling or expression of a common sense of identity, purpose, or group consciousness associated with a particular geographical {{gli|region}}, e.g. the Southern United States, Scandinavia, or Lower Egypt, often combined with the creation of institutions that accommodate that particular identity and shape public action.}}

{{defn|no=2|A movement to decentralize central government, placing administrative responsibility instead at a level intermediate between that of the {{gli|state}} and that of smaller local or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|municipal}} units.}}

{{defn|no=3|In architecture, an approach that strives to counter placelessness and lack of identity by incorporating elements of the building's geographical context in its design.}}

{{defn|no=4|In linguistics, a word or phrase originating in, characteristic of, or limited in usage to a particular region.}}

{{defn|A {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|city}} located outside the core of a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|metropolitan area}} that serves as an independent driving force for political, economic, or cultural development within a larger {{gli|region}}. Contrast {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|metropolis}}.}}

{{defn|A layer of loose, unconsolidated, heterogeneous superficial deposits (e.g. soil, sediments, broken rock, volcanic ash, wind-blown material, etc.) overlying solid {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|bedrock}}.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|topographic prominence}}.}}

{{defn|The {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|elevation}} or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|altitude}} of one location relative to another location; the difference between the highest and lowest points within a given geographical area.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|terrain}}.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|topographic map}}.}}

{{defn|(of a particular location) Isolated or inaccessible, either by being physically very distant from another location or by lacking connectivity to transportation or communication networks which would otherwise make exchange between locations convenient.}}

{{defn|The gathering of information about an object or place from a remote location (i.e. without making physical on-site observations), most commonly by the use of satellite- or aircraft-based electromagnetic sensor technologies.}}

{{defn|The fraction expressing the ratio between the distance measured between two points on a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|map}} and the corresponding actual distance measured between those points in the real world, used to indicate the map's {{gli|scale}}. The fraction's numerator is typically 1 (indicating one of some specified unit of length, e.g. inches or centimetres) and the denominator is the number of the same unit in the real world which this length represents on the map. For example, a representative fraction of {{frac|1|1,000,000}}, often written as 1:1,000,000 or 1:1 mn, means that one inch (or one centimetre) on the map itself is equivalent to one million inches (or centimetres) in the real world. One statute mile is equal to 63,360 inches, so 1,000,000 inches is approximately 16 miles.}}

{{defn|An artificial {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|lake}} or an artificially enlarged natural lake that is used to store water. Reservoirs are often created by the construction of a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|dam}} or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|lock}} in a natural {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|drainage basin}}.}}

{{defn|Anything that is both naturally occurring and of use to humans.}}

{{defn|A line drawn on the surface of a sphere (or on an idealized representation of the Earth) which crosses all {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|meridians}} of {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|longitude}} at the same angle, and which therefore has constant {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|bearing}} relative to {{gli|true north|true}} or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|magnetic north}}.}}

File:Loxodrome.png

{{defn|The seaward end of a {{gli|river}} valley which has been flooded as a result of a rise in sea level.{{cite book |last1=Mayhew |first1=Susan |title=A Dictionary of Geography |date=1997 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=0-19-280034-5 |edition=2nd |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofgeog0000mayh }}}}

{{defn|The {{gli|urban sprawl|build-up}} of residential and economic communities along the main routes of communication and transportation radiating from a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|city}} or other developed area, because of the advantages of accessibility, relatively inexpensive land, and trade from passers-by.The Dictionary of Human Geography. 1986. https://openlibrary.org/works/OL18001127W/The_Dictionary_of_human_geography?edition=key%3A/books/OL2108433M}}

{{defn|A long, narrow, finger-shaped {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|lake}}, especially one found in a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|glacial trough}} and dammed by a rock bar or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|moraine}}.}}

{{defn|An elongated raised landform which forms a continuous elevated crest for some distance, such as a chain of {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|hills}} or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|mountains}}. The line formed by the highest points, with only lower terrain immediately to either side, is called the ridgeline.}}

{{defn|A landscape characterized by a series of regularly spaced, parallel {{gli|ridges}} or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|hills}} alternating with marshy {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|depressions}}. They are most commonly formed on {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|beaches}} or near river {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|banks}} by the gradual fluctuations of {{gli|tides}} or in association with {{gli|scroll bars}} on the inside bends of {{gli|meanders}}.{{cite book|ref={{harvid|Schoon|2016}}|author=Kenneth Schoon|year=2016|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u_74DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA9|title=Shifting Sands: The Restoration of the Calumet Area|publisher=Indiana University Press |isbn=978-0-253-02340-7 }} See also {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|berm}} and {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|basin and range}}.}}

{{defn|An {{gli|outcrop}} of resistant {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|bedrock}} that forms a bar across a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|glacial trough}} and often acts as a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|dam}} to impound the waters of a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|lake}}.}}

{{defn|A {{gli|valley}} that has formed along a long, narrow continental trough bounded by normal {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|faults}}; a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|graben}} of regional size.}}

{{defn|A shallow water channel, generally not more than {{convert|6|in|cm}} deep, that has been cut into a soil surface (especially a cultivated agricultural soil) by the erosive action of flowing water. Larger erosional channels may be called {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|gullies}}.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|bergschrund}}.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|water rights}}.}}

{{term|riparian zone}}{{anchor|riparian area|riparian corridor|riparian strip|riparian}}

{{ghat|Also riparian area, riparian corridor, and riparian strip.}}

{{defn|The area along the margins or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|banks}} of a {{gli|river}}, {{gli|stream}}, {{gli|canal}}, {{gli|estuary}}, or other {{gli|watercourse}}; or the interface between land and a watercourse, generally including any land that is close enough to the watercourse to be frequently or persistently hydrated with its water. Riparian areas are important {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|biomes}} with characteristics of both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, and often support dense hydrophilic plant communities of high {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|biodiversity}}. They often overlap with and by some definitions may be considered {{gli|wetlands}}.}}

{{defn|A natural {{gli|watercourse}}, usually {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|fresh water}}, that flows towards an {{gli|ocean}}, {{gli|sea}}, {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|lake}}, {{gli|tributary|another river}}, or in some cases into an {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|endorheic basin}} or an underground {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|aquifer}}. See also {{gli|stream}}.}}

{{defn|An area of land enclosed within the bend of a {{gli|river}}, especially where the bend is extended or pronounced (e.g. a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|meander}}) and the only road access is along the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|isthmus}}. The term is used primarily in Australia.}}

{{defn|Located on or inhabiting the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|banks}} or the area adjacent to a {{gli|river}} or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|lake}}.}}

{{defn|A very small {{gli|stream}} or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|brook}}, often {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|intermittent}} or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|ephemeral}}; a {{gli|streamlet}}.}}

{{defn|Any {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|map}} that shows the man-made roads, streets, highways, railways, and/or other transportation routes within a specific coverage area, especially one which prioritizes the display of this information over other information such as natural features. Road maps are designed to emphasize information relevant to motorists, often including {{gli|political map|political boundaries and labels}} as well as {{gli|points of interest}} such as important buildings and businesses, tourist attractions, parks and recreational facilities, hotels, restaurants, gas stations, public transit networks (airports, train stations, etc.), and emergency services. The widths of the roads themselves are often exaggerated to make the routes more conspicuous.}}

{{defn|A {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|body of water}}, natural or man-made, that is sheltered from {{gli|rip current|rip currents}}, {{gli|spring tides}}, and {{gli|swell|swells}}, and is therefore a known general station in which ships can {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|anchorage|safely be anchored}} without dragging or snatching.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|sheepback}}.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|pothole}}.}}

{{defn|A diagram printed on a {{gli|map}} consisting of a set of lines radiating from a point and marked so as to indicate velocity or some other quantity having {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|direction}}; e.g. a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|compass rose}} or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|current rose}}.}}

{{defn|no=1|A way or course taken in getting from one place to another; an established or selected course of travel or action; a line of travel or means of access, especially when marked by a path, track, road, or rail.}}

{{defn|no=2|A circuit traveled in delivering, selling, or collecting goods, e.g. by a mail carrier.}}

{{defn|The determination of a viable {{gli|route}} or line of travel between two places, especially in rugged or unexplored areas such as mountainous terrain or in conditions of poor visibility, and especially when done without the benefits of prior knowledge of the area, maps, or other technology that might aid {{gli|orienteering}}, instead relying entirely on recognition of natural features and {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|landmarks}} and quick estimations of distance, scale, ease, and safety.}}

{{defn|An adjective describing any geographic area located outside areas of significant human population such as {{gli|towns}} and {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|cities}}; all population, housing, and territory not included within an {{gli|urban}} area is often said to be rural. Rural areas are typified by low {{gli|population density|population densities}}, very small {{gli|settlements}}, and expansive areas of agricultural land or {{gli|wilderness}}.}}

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S

{{defn|A {{gli|mudflat}} or sandflat in the {{gli|supratidal zone}} of an arid or semiarid {{gli|coastal plain}} in which large amounts of mineral salts accumulate; or, more generally, any flat area, coastal or interior, where salts or other evaporites readily precipitate at or near the land surface.J.K. Warren. "Sulfate Dominated Sea-Marginal and Platform Evaporative Settings: Sabkhas and Salinas, Mudflats and Salterns". Developments in Sedimentology, 50 (1991), pp. 69–187. The term is used primarily in Western Asia and Africa, though the landforms it describes occur worldwide. See also {{gli|salt pan}}, {{gli|salt marsh}}, and {{gli|playa}}.}}

{{defn|For a given pair of {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|mountain}} summits, the region surrounding the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|elevational}} low point or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|col}} on the {{gli|ridge}} connecting the two summits; mathematically, it is the critical point that is simultaneously a relative minimum in one axial direction (e.g. between the peaks) and a relative maximum in the perpendicular direction. Assuming it is navigable, a saddle can be thought of as the area surrounding the highest point on the lowest route which one could use to {{gli|pass}} between the two summits.}}

File:Red Box Saddle 2019.jpg

{{ghat|Also panhandle, chimney (if protruding northward), or bootheel (if protruding southward).}}

{{defn|Any narrow, elongated protrusion of a larger {{gli|territory}}, either physical or political, such as a state.}}

{{defn|Flat land made of chemical salts that remain after winds evaporate the moisture in the soils.}}

{{defn|A natural {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|coastal}} {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|marsh}} ecosystem in the upper {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|intertidal zone}}, between land and open {{gli|salt water|seawater}} or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|brackish water}}, that is regularly flooded by the {{gli|tide}} at high water. Salt marshes support dense stands of terrestrial salt-tolerant plants, especially grasses and low shrubs, which trap and bind sediments from the ocean and help protect the nearby {{gli|shoreline}} from coastal erosion.}}

{{defn|A large, flat expanse of land naturally covered with mineral salts and/or other evaporites, usually to the exclusion of virtually all vegetation. Salt pans are common in {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|deserts}}, where they form by the precipitation of dissolved mineral solids as a large body of water evaporates. See also {{gli|playa}}.}}

{{defn|Any naturally occurring water, especially the water from a {{gli|sea}} or {{gli|ocean}}, characterized by high concentrations (between 3 and 5% by volume) of dissolved salts, primarily sodium and chloride ions, relative to {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|fresh water}} or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|brackish water}}. Salt water in the Earth's oceans has an average salinity of about 3.5%; it is both denser and freezes at a lower temperature than fresh water.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|dune}}.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|erg}}.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|shoal}}.}}

{{defn|A flat area where the soil or ground surface is covered with or composed of sand that has been transported from elsewhere and {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|deposited}} by wind or oceans, rather than by weathering of the local {{gli|bedrock}}.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|outwash plain}}.}}

{{defn|A method of {{gli|navigation}} or an autonomous geospatial {{gli|positioning system}} that relies on artificial satellites in orbit around the Earth to transmit time signals at radio frequencies along a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|line of sight}} to electronic receivers on the surface, which can then use this information to determine the receiver's location, direction, and the current local time to high precision. Satnav systems operate independently of telephonic or internet connectivity, though simultaneous use of these technologies can enhance the accuracy and usefulness of the positioning information generated.}}

{{defn|A formally independent {{gli|state}} or polity which nevertheless depends economically, politically, or militarily upon, or is strongly influenced or controlled by, another, more powerful state.}}

{{defn|A mixed {{gli|woodland}}-{{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|grassland}} ecosystem characterized by scattered trees and bushes that are sufficiently widely spaced that the canopy does not close, permitting enough sunlight to reach the ground to support an unbroken herbaceous layer of primarily xerophytic grasses. The term is used especially to refer to the vast, hot, arid grasslands covering parts of equatorial Africa, South America, and northern Australia, but is also sometimes applied more broadly.}}

{{defn|no=1|The relationship between a linear measurement on a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|map}} and the distance it represents on the Earth's surface.}}

{{defn|no=2|The level at which a geographical phenomenon occurs or is described.}}

{{ghat|Also {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|escarpment}}.}}

{{defn|A steep {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|cliff}} face or slope terminating an elevated surface of low {{gli|relief}}, formed either because of faulting or by the erosion of inclined rock strata.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|bergschrund}}.}}

{{defn|no=1|A narrow stretch of {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|floodplain}} added to the outer end and downstream side of {{gli|spurs}} between enclosed {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|meanders}} on a river.}}

{{defn|no=2|A type of {{gli|point bar}} consisting of a low, narrow {{gli|ridge}} running in line with the curve of a meander, formed when the river overflows its {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|banks}}.}}

{{defn|no=1|Any large body of {{gli|salt water}} surrounded in whole or in part by land.}}

{{defn|no=2|Any large subdivision of the World Ocean. "The sea" is the colloquial term for the entire interconnected system of salty bodies of water, including {{gli|oceans}}, that covers the Earth.}}

{{defn|A navigable route across a wide waterway such as an {{gli|ocean}}, {{gli|sea}}, or large {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|lake}} that is regularly used for maritime trade by large vessels or ships because it is safe, direct, and economical.}}

{{defn|The average level of the surface of one or more of Earth's {{gli|oceans}} from which heights such as {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|elevation}} and {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|altitude}} are commonly measured. Often called mean sea level (MSL), it is a type of standardized {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|geodesy|geodetic}} {{gli|vertical datum}} that is used in numerous applications, including {{gli|surveying}}, {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|cartography}}, and {{gli|navigation}}. Mean sea level is commonly defined as the midpoint between the mean low and mean high {{gli|tides}} at a particular location.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|stack}}.}}

{{defn|The bottom of a {{gli|sea}} or {{gli|ocean}}. As with land {{gli|terrain}}, the ocean floor may have {{gli|ridges}}, {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|mountains}}, {{gli|valleys}}, and {{gli|plains}}.}}

{{defn|Any extensive region of land adjacent to the {{gli|ocean|sea}}, broadly synonymous with {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|coast}} or coastline.}}

{{defn|A {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|mountain}} (often a {{gli|volcano}}) rising from the {{gli|ocean floor}} whose {{gli|summit}} does not reach the water's surface and which is therefore entirely submerged and not an {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|island}} or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|islet}}.}}

{{defn|In {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|human geography}}, the locations within an area where an individual or group searches for the resources necessary to meet their specific needs (e.g. for housing or employment), based on information from their current {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|awareness space}}.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|sea lane}}.}}

{{defn|A seasonally occupied dwelling that is not the primary residence of the owner. Such residences are usually found in areas with substantial opportunities for recreation or tourist activity.}}

{{defn|The set of eight intermediate directions used in {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|cartography}} and {{gli|navigation}}, each of which is located halfway between a pair of {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|intercardinal directions}}: north-northeast (NNE), east-northeast (ENE), east-southeast (ESE), south-southeast (SSE), south-southwest (SSW), west-southwest (WSW), west-northwest (WNW), and north-northwest (NNW). They may or may not be explicitly labeled on a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|compass rose}}.}}

{{defn|That portion of a region's economy devoted to the processing of basic materials extracted by the {{gli|primary sector}}; i.e. to the production of material goods.}}

{{defn|The principle on which political claims to territory in the {{gli|polar region|polar regions}} have historically been made, such that the territories are divided into arbitrary wedge-shaped sectors, each one having an apex at the geographic pole and including outer areas of both land and sea extending to a particular {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|latitude}}. Because of the limited accessibility and generally low material value of both the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|Arctic}} and {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|Antarctic}}, the sector principle has emerged as a means of formally sharing responsibility for these regions between the world's sovereign states.}}

{{defn|The view that commercial, industrial, and especially residential areas in a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|city}} develop in 'sectors' or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|districts}} along lines of transport and communication, from the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|central business district}} outwards. In many {{gli|urban}} areas the basic pattern of development often approximately follows this model, with industrial sectors developing along canals and railways, working-class housing developing near industrial sectors, and higher quality housing being built away from industrial zones but still in places with quick and convenient road access to other sectors.}}

{{defn|Rock formed by the hardening of material deposited in some process; most commonly sandstone, shale, and limestone.}}

{{defn|A scientific instrument that detects and records vibrations (seismic waves) produced by {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|earthquakes}}.}}

{{defn|A dense {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|equatorial}} forest, especially in the Amazon basin of South America.}}

{{defn|Either the intrinsic character of a {{gli|place}} or the meaning people give to it, or a mixture of both. This sense of meaning may include national, regional, or local {{gli|place identity|identity}} or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|awareness space|awareness}}, or emotional attachments formed between humans and the places they reside in or travel to. It is often the intangible characteristics of a particular place which are most important to mental representations of that place; these characteristics may be natural and unintentional, or may be consciously created or preserved through memorable or singular structures in order to give a place a distinctive identity.{{cite book |last1=Mayhew |first1=Susan |title=A Dictionary of Geography |date=2023 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=9780192896391 |edition=6th}}}}

{{defn|A large block or pillar of {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|glacial}} ice formed by the intersection of numerous {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|crevasses}} where the glacier fragments as it reaches a steep slope. Seracs are usually found in {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|icefalls}}, often in large numbers, in mountainous terrain.}}

{{ghat|Also locality or {{gli|populated place}}.}}

{{defn|The spatial distribution of where humans inhabit the Earth.}}

{{defn|The phenomenon by which a large, well-served {{gli|urban}} center affects the transport services of a nearby smaller town or city, often by drawing producers and consumers away from the smaller settlement and toward the larger one, causing the smaller settlement to be relatively ill-provided with direct services.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|doline}}.}}

{{defn|An area of water of relatively little depth, e.g. in a sea, lake, or river.}}

{{defn|A rock formation created by the passage of a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|glacier}} over underlying {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|bedrock}}, which often results in asymmetrical erosional forms created by abrasion on the upstream side of the rock and {{gli|plucking}} on the downstream side.}}

{{defn|A relatively shallow {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|marginal sea}}, generally less than {{convert|300|m|ft|sigfig=2}} deep, beneath which a portion of a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|continental shelf}} is submerged.}}

{{defn|A broad area of very old rocks above sea level that is usually characterized by thin, poor soils and low population densities.}}

File:World geologic provinces.jpg

{{defn|A class of {{gli|volcano}} that resembles an inverted warrior's shield, with long gentle slopes produced by multiple eruptions of fluid {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|lava}} flows.}}

{{defn|A natural submerged {{gli|ridge}}, {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|bank}}, or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|bar}} that consists of or is covered by sand or other unconsolidated material and rises from the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|bed}} of a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|body of water}} to just below or above the surface.}}

{{defn|The fringe of land at the edge of a large {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|body of water}}, such as an {{gli|ocean}}, {{gli|sea}}, or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|lake}}. Compare {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|coast}}.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|wave-cut platform}}.}}

{{defn|no=1|A rounded {{gli|spur}} on a mountainside; or a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|bench}} on the side of a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|glacier}}-deepened {{gli|U-shaped valley}}, demarcating an abrupt transition between the gentle upper slopes which have been largely unaffected by glacial erosion and the steep lower slopes of the heavily eroded inner valley.}}

{{defn|no=2|The part of a roadway between the edge of the graded or paved driving surface and the top of the {{gli|foreslope}} of an adjacent ditch or embankment.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|topographic prominence}}.}}

{{defn|A {{gli|valley}} whose {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|mouth}} opens onto a larger, {{gli|stream order|lower-order}} valley to which its {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|drainage}} is {{gli|tributary}}.}}

{{defn|A {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|crater}} formed when the roof of a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|cave|cavern}} collapses, usually found in areas of limestone rock.}}

{{defn|The features of a {{gli|place}} related to the immediate environment in which the place is located (e.g. {{gli|terrain}}, soil, subsurface, geology, {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|groundwater}}, etc.).}}

{{defn|The features of a place related to its location relative to other places (e.g., accessibility, hinterland quality).}}

{{defn|A small, rocky {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|islet}} or {{gli|reef}}, often one of a series lying just offshore and parallel to the main trend of the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|coast|coastline}}, over which large waves may break at high tide or in stormy weather.}}

{{defn|An isolated mountain, mountain range, or high plateau characterized by conspicuous elevational gradients in geology, climate, and/or biodiversity, so that environments and ecosystems near the summit differ greatly from those of the adjacent slopes or the surrounding lowlands. This effectively cuts off the ecosystems of the highest areas, turning them into "islands" in a "sea" of dissimilar landscapes.}}

{{defn|A shallow hole or hollow among {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|coastal}} {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|dune|sand dunes}} or mud banks.}}

{{defn|The brief period of time during which a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|body of water}} susceptible to {{gli|tides}} is completely unstressed because the tidal stream is almost still, i.e. there is no movementby conspicuous elevational gradients in either direction in the tidal current, usually the period immediately before and after the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|mean high water|high}} and {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|mean low water|low water}} marks, prior to the tide reversing direction.}}

{{defn|The {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|line-of-sight}} distance along the relative direction between two points, especially two points which are not at the same {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|elevation}} relative to a specific {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|datum}}. If the two points are at the same elevation, the slant range equals the horizontal distance.{{cite book |title=Glossary of mapping, charting, and geodetic terms |date=1973 |edition=3rd |publisher=United States Defense Mapping Agency Topographic Center |location=Washington, DC |url=https://archive.org/details/glossaryofmappin0000unit}}}}

{{defn|no=1|In the southeastern United States, a low-lying {{gli|swamp|swampy}} or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|bog|boggy}} area, overgrown with shrubs and cane grasses and favorable for the growth of the slash pine and related trees.}}

{{defn|no=2|The debris of felled trees, especially in a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|forest}} that has been subjected to slash-and-burn agriculture.}}

{{defn|no=1|A noticeable track of bare rock or furrowed earth left by the mass movement of soil, mud, snow, or rock under shear stress down a steep slope, as in a landslide or avalanche.}}

{{defn|no=2|The mass of material moved or deposited by such an event, and which has become fixed or settled upon the landscape.{{cite book |author=National Soil Survey Center |date=2018-02-01 |chapter=Part 629 – Glossary of Landform and Geologic Terms |chapter-url=https://directives.sc.egov.usda.gov/OpenNonWebContent.aspx?content=41992.wba |title=Title 430 – National Soil Survey Handbook |location= Washington, DC |publisher=Natural Resources Conservation Service |id={{OCLC|851204093|681768549}} |access-date=2018-10-07}}}}

{{defn|The more gently sloping of the two {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|banks}} of a {{gli|river}} or {{gli|stream}}, usually on the inside bend of a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|meander}}, as opposed to a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|cut bank}}.{{cite book |editor1-last=Goudie |editor1-first=Andrew |editor2-last=Atkinson |editor2-first=B. W. |editor3-last=Gregory |editor3-first=K. J. |editor4-last=Simmons |editor4-first=I. E. |editor5-last=Stoddart |editor5-first=D. R. |editor6-last=Sugden |editor6-first=David |title=The Encyclopedic Dictionary of Physical Geography |date=1994 |publisher=Basil Blackwell Ltd |location=Oxford, UK |isbn=0631186077 |ol=1419551M |edition=2nd |url=https://openlibrary.org/books/OL1419551M/The_Encyclopedic_dictionary_of_physical_geography}}}}

File:Slip-off slope diagram.svg

{{defn|The upward or downward inclination of a natural or artificial surface (e.g. a hillside or a road), or the degree or nature of such an incline; a deviation from the perpendicular or horizontal direction (these directions generally being assigned with respect to the direction of the force of gravity). See also {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|grade}}.}}

{{defn|A type of {{gli|wetland}} – usually a {{gli|swamp}}, a shallow {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|lake}}, or a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|backwater}} branching from or feeding into a {{gli|river}} – in which water tends to be stagnant or flows only very slowly on a seasonal basis.}}

{{defn|A residential settlement or {{gli|neighborhood}}, usually in or near an {{gli|urban}} area, characterized by densely packed and poorly built or dilapidated housing units such as shacks and a deterioration or lack of civic infrastructure such as reliable water, electricity, sanitation, law enforcement, and other basic services, and usually associated with extreme poverty and overpopulation.}}

{{defn|A mixture of particulate matter and chemical pollutants in the lower atmosphere, usually over urban areas.}}

{{defn|The lowermost margin or extremity of a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|glacier}}, always either gradually advancing or retreating, sometimes partially hidden by {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|moraine|morainic}} material, and commonly featuring a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|cave}} from which meltwater flows.}}

{{defn|The lowest elevation at which snow remains throughout the year if the summer warmth does not completely melt the winter accumulation, e.g. on a high {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|mountain}}. This elevation varies widely with {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|latitude}}, local climate, directional {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|aspect}}, and steepness of {{gli|slope}}, such that the snowline may be very different on different mountains in the same {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|mountain range|range}}, on different faces of the same mountain, or on the same face in different years.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|desire path}}.}}

{{defn|The creation of organic matter from weathered rock, air, and water.}}

{{defn|A distinct layer of soil which can be distinguished from other layers in vertical cross-section.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|panhole}}.}}

{{defn|The degree to which a substance can be dissolved in another substance; in a geographical context, the characteristic of soil minerals that leads them to be carried away in solution by water. See also {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|leaching}}.}}

{{defn|no=1|A large {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|inlet}} of a sea or ocean that is larger than a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|bay}}, deeper than a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|bight}}, and wider than a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|fjord}}.}}

{{defn|no=2|A narrow sea or ocean {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|channel}} between two landmasses.}}

{{ghat|Also called the Geographic South Pole, Geographic South, or simply the South Pole.}}

{{defn|The point in the {{gli|Southern Hemisphere}} where the Earth's axis of rotation meets its surface. It is the southernmost point on Earth, directly opposite the {{gli|North Geographic Pole}}, and is located on continental land in Antarctica at a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|latitude}} of 90 degrees South; its {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|longitude}} can be assigned any degree value. See also {{gli|South Magnetic Pole}}.}}

{{defn|The point in the {{gli|Southern Hemisphere}} where the axis of a theoretical simplified dipole passing through the center of the Earth would intersect the Earth's surface. It is {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|antipodes|antipodal}} to the {{gli|North Geomagnetic Pole}}. Because of the fluid nature of the Earth's molten core, the true axis of the Earth's magnetic field is not a perfect dipole, and so the Geomagnetic Poles and the actual {{gli|South Magnetic Pole|Magnetic Poles}} lie some distance apart.}}

{{ghat|Also called the Magnetic South Pole or Magnetic South.}}

{{defn|The point in the {{gli|Southern Hemisphere}} at which the Earth's magnetic field points vertically downward. It is close to but distinct from the {{gli|South Geographic Pole|Geographic South Pole}} and the {{gli|South Geomagnetic Pole|Geomagnetic South Pole}}, and its precise location varies considerably over time due to frequent magnetic changes in the Earth's core. Its counterpart in the Northern Hemisphere is the {{gli|North Magnetic Pole}}, though the two poles are not directly opposite each other.}}

{{defn|The {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|hemisphere|half sphere}} of the Earth that is south of the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|Equator}}. It is opposite the {{gli|Northern Hemisphere}}.}}

{{defn|The locational pattern of economic activities and their interconnecting linkages.}}

{{defn|no=1|Any of the wide variety of formal techniques used to study entities according to their topological, geometric, or geographic properties.}}

{{defn|no=2|An approach to geography in which the locational variations of a phenomenon or a series of phenomena are studied and the factors influencing or governing the observed patterns of distribution within space are investigated. This approach attempts to break down spatial patterns into simple elements so that measurements can be made of individual sub-patterns, which then allows the comparison of two or more distinct patterns and the development of statistical tests to determine whether a given pattern differs significantly from random variation.}}

{{defn|The participation of individuals and groups of laypeople in decision-making about {{gli|spatial planning}} and social rules in public spaces through the reflexive production and use of geographic media such as {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|maps}}, {{gli|virtual globe|virtual globes}}, and {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|geographic information system|GIS}} software, particularly to question existing perspectives on the appropriation of space and the actions permitted within that space and to negotiate alternative spatial visions.}}

{{defn|The occurrence of location pairing such that items demanded by one place can be supplied by another.}}

{{defn|The process by which materials, ideas, diseases, or information are distributed or spread through space.}}

{{defn|Movement or exchange between locationally separate places.}}

{{defn|A {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|geographic coordinate system|coordinate-based}} local, regional, or global system used to locate geographical entities and which defines a specific {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|map projection}} as well as transformations between different systems.}}

{{defn|A {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|map}} that is not merely a diagrammatic representation of a place but is based on an aerial {{gli|orthophotograph}}, such that the map includes actual imagery of ground-level features typically omitted from standard maps. Often, spatiomaps are created simply by overlaying annotations directly upon an orthophoto, such as a north arrow or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|compass rose}}, a {{gli|scale bar}}, political boundaries and labels, or other cartographical information. Spatiomaps are useful when reliable data from ground-based {{gli|surveying|surveys}} are missing for a particular geographical area or when accurate maps must be produced very quickly, especially during disaster relief efforts where a natural disaster has dramatically changed ground-level detail but new surveys have not yet been conducted.}}

{{defn|A type of {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|bar}} or {{gli|shoal}} extending from a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|beach}} into an {{gli|ocean}} or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|lake}} and which develops by the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|deposition}} of sediment as a result of {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|longshore drift}}. Spits form where the direction of the {{gli|shoreline}} sharply changes direction, such as at a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|headland}}, and often develop a "hooked" or recurve shape at their distal ends.}}

{{defn|A point on a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|map}} or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|chart}} whose height or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|elevation}} above a specified {{gli|reference datum}} (often {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|mean sea level}}) is explicitly annotated, usually by a numerical elevation value printed immediately adjacent to a dot or {{gli|sawbuck}} indicating the point itself. {{gli|topographic map|Topographic maps}} often include spot elevations, wherever practicable, for the {{gli|summits}} of {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|hills}}, {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|mountains}}, {{gli|plateau|plateaus}}, and {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|buttes}}; {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|mountain pass|mountain passes}}; {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|forks}} and {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|junction|intersections}} of roads, trails, and waterways; water surfaces of {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|lakes}} and {{gli|ponds}}; notable low points such as the local elevational minimum of a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|basin}}; very large flat areas; and any other point which may be {{gli|point of interest|of interest}} to the map user.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|mid-ocean ridge}}.}}

{{defn|Any location where {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|groundwater}} naturally emerges from an underground {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|aquifer}} to the Earth's surface.}}

{{defn|A lateral {{gli|ridge}} or other salient landform protruding from the side of a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|hill}}, {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|mountain}}, or the main crest of a {{gli|ridge}} and typically surrounded on at least three sides by steep hillsides.}}

{{defn|A {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|coastal}} landform consisting of a steep and often vertical column or columns of rock above the surface of the sea and formed by erosion due to wave action. See also {{gli|pinnacle}}.}}

{{defn|In {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|hydrology}}, the height of the surface of a {{gli|stream}} or {{gli|river}} at a particular location and a particular point in time, with respect to a reference height such as its {{gli|streambed|bed}} or a position on its {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|banks}}, and used especially to monitor seasonal changes in discharge and flooding.}}

{{defn|An area of vegetation dominated by a single plant species, e.g. a stand of oak trees.}}

{{defn|A statistical unit of one or more counties that focus on one or more central cities larger than a specified size, or with a total population larger than a specified size. This is a reflection of urbanization.}}

{{defn|A compulsory political organization with a centralized government that maintains a monopoly of the legitimate use of force within a certain geographical territory. See {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|country}}.}}

{{defn|A steep {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|mountain|mountainside}}, {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|hill|hillside}}, or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|escarpment}}, especially one with an average {{gli|slope|incline}} between 30 and 60 degrees from the horizontal. The term is used primarily in the German-speaking world.}}

{{defn|An {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|ecoregion}} characterized by expansive grassland {{gli|plains}} without trees apart from those near rivers and lakes.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|levee}}.}}

{{defn|An adjective describing the side of a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|hill}} or {{gli|ridge}} that faces the direction from which an advancing {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|glacier}} or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|ice sheet}} is moving or has moved; i.e. facing upstream or "up-ice" with respect to the glacier, and therefore most exposed to its abrasive action. The opposite side, facing downstream or away from the glacier, is known as the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|lee}}.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|channel}}.}}

{{defn|A {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|beach}} or {{gli|shoreline}}, especially a former or relict one, now elevated above the present water level, which appears as a bench or other visible demarcation lining the length of the shore at a common elevation. See also {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|high water mark}}.}}

{{defn|A large river {{gli|valley}}, typically wider and shallower than a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|glen}}. The term is used primarily in Scotland, Australia, and Canada.}}

{{defn|A steep-sided {{gli|volcano}} built by {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|lava}} flows and {{gli|tephra}} deposits.}}

{{defn|A natural body of water in which {{gli|surface water}} flows between the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|banks}} of a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|channel}}. Long, large streams are called {{gli|rivers}}.}}

{{defn|The hierarchical classification of all of the branching {{gli|watercourse|streams}} comprising a river system or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|drainage basin|watershed}}, usually by assigning an ordinal number to each individual {{gli|tributary}} indicating the magnitude of its {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|channel}} and/or its position within the overall drainage sequence. Several different numbering methods are in common usage. In the Strahler system, the outermost tributaries (i.e. near the {{gli|source|sources}}) are designated first-order streams, and at least two streams of any given order must combine to form a stream of the next higher order, e.g. two first-order streams unite to form a second-order stream, two-second-order streams join to form a third-order stream, and so on until the largest channel or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|main stem}}, terminating at the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|mouth}}, is reached.}}

File:Strahler-stream-order.png

{{ghat|Also riverbed or simply {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|bed}}.}}

{{defn|The bottom of the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|channel}} of a {{gli|stream}} or {{gli|river}}, usually covered with rocks, sand, or debris and totally devoid of terrestrial vegetation if the stream has flowed recently. The bed is generally considered the part of the channel up to the normal water line, whereas the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|bank}} is the part above the water line.}}

{{defn|A {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|map}} covering only a narrow band of territory in which the user is interested, e.g. alongside each side of a trail or vehicle route.}}

{{defn|A large {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|landmass}} forming a contiguous part of an even larger {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|continent}}, though often separable by physiographic or political boundaries, e.g. the Indian subcontinent; or a non-contiguous but still very large landmass that is smaller than one usually termed a continent, e.g. Greenland.}}

{{defn|The place where two lithospheric plates come together, one riding over the other. Most volcanoes on land occur parallel to and inland from the boundary between the two plates.}}

{{defn|Of, relating to, or formed on or by the underside of a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|glacier}}. Contrast {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|englacial}} and {{gli|superglacial}}.}}

{{defn|no=1|Of or relating to the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|coastal}} area of the sea between the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|intertidal zone}} and the edge of the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|continental shelf}}. Compare {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|littoral zone}}.}}

{{defn|no=2|Of or relating to the deepest parts of a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|lake}} or other large body of freshwater, distant from the {{gli|shore}}, where plants cannot root. See also {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|aphotic zone}}.}}

{{defn|(of a stream, river, or any natural water flow) Flowing along a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|course}} determined by the structure of the local {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|bedrock}}. Contrast {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|consequent}} and {{gli|obsequent}}.}}

{{defn|An adjective describing a mixed-use or residential area existing either as an ancillary part of an {{gli|urban}} area or as a separate community within commuting distance of a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|city}}; a place of this type is called a suburb. Suburbs are often defined by commuter infrastructures and have lower population densities than inner-city {{gli|neighborhoods}}.}}

{{defn|The process by which a human {{gli|population}} shifts from {{gli|urban}} to {{gli|suburban}} residency, or the gradual increase in the proportion of people choosing to live in suburban neighborhoods which act as satellite communities within commuting distance of larger, centralized urban areas. Suburbanization is inversely related to {{gli|urbanization}}.}}

{{defn|A point on a surface that is higher in {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|elevation}} than all points immediately adjacent to it. Mathematically, it is a local maximum in elevation. The highest point of a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|hill}} or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|mountain}} is often referred to as the summit.}}

{{defn|Of or relating to the surface or to the environment at the surface of a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|glacier}}. Contrast {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|englacial}} and {{gli|subglacial}}.}}

{{defn|A region composed of several countries working together for either political, economic, or social purposes, e.g. the European Union.}}

{{defn|The area along a {{gli|shoreline}} in which {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|breaking waves}} routinely form, between the furthest seaward limit at which incoming waves begin to break and the furthest landward extent reached by the uprush of {{gli|swash}} on the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|beach}}.{{cite book|last=Bowditch|first=Nathaniel, LLD|title=The American Practical Navigator|publisher=National Imagery and Mapping Agency|location=Washington|edition=2002|chapter=Glossary of Marine Navigation|url=http://msi.nga.mil/MSISiteContent/StaticFiles/NAV_PUBS/APN/Gloss-1.pdf|display-authors=etal|access-date=2010-11-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170517000124/http://msi.nga.mil/MSISiteContent/StaticFiles/NAV_PUBS/APN/Gloss-1.pdf|archive-date=2017-05-17|url-status=dead}} The extent of the surf zone may change with the {{gli|tide}} and local weather conditions.}}

{{defn|Water present on the surface of the Earth, such as in a {{gli|river}}, {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|lake}}, {{gli|wetland}}, or {{gli|ocean}}, as opposed to {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|groundwater|subsurface water}}.}}

{{defn|The science, technique, and profession of determining the terrestrial or three-dimensional positions of points on the surface of the Earth and the distances and angles between them. These points are often used to draw {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|maps}} and establish {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|border|boundaries}} for property ownership, construction projects, and other purposes required by civil law.}}

{{defn|Any shallow {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|channel}} or trough with gently sloping sides, either natural or artificial. Man-made swales are often designed to manage {{gli|surface runoff}} and increase rainwater infiltration.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|ponor}}.}}

{{defn|A forested {{gli|wetland}}, often occurring along a large {{gli|river}} or on the shores of a large {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|lake}}.}}

{{defn|no=1|The regular, undulating motion of the surface of a large body of water, e.g. of the {{gli|ocean}}; the succession of surface waves in the {{gli|open ocean}} which, though they may grow very large, do not {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|breaking wave|break}}.}}

{{defn|no=2|A rise or uplift on the deep {{gli|sea floor}}.}}

{{defn|no=3|Any dome-shaped {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|landform}}, often a {{gli|plateau}} or other geological uplift, covering a very large area.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|pothole}}.}}

{{defn|A {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|denudation|denudational}} {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|highland}} or elevated flatland in Russia and Central Asia; a kind of {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|dissected plateau}}.}}

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{{defn|A {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|butte}}, {{gli|plateau}}, or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|highland}} with a relatively flat, often expansive {{gli|summit}} area. See also {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|mesa}}.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|guyot}}.}}

{{defn|A moist subarctic coniferous {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|forest}} that begins where the {{gli|tundra}} ends and is dominated by spruces and firs.}}

{{defn|Waste materials left over after the mining and processing of ore, during which a valuable mineral or metal is extracted from the uneconomic fraction accompanying it; the latter plus any substances applied in the extraction process are then discarded, often in spoil piles or {{gli|ponds}} near the mine, usually because it is prohibitively expensive or impossible to relocate, reuse, or otherwise destroy the discarded material. Mine tailings are distinct from {{gli|overburden}}, which is displaced during mining but not processed, and are often nutrient-poor or toxic to living organisms, making it difficult for plant and animal life to reclaim the environs without further treatment.}}

{{defn|A layer of year-round unfrozen ground between or within layers of {{gli|permafrost}}, or between the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|active layer}} and permafrost.}}

{{defn|Loose, broken rock fragments of any size and shape, usually coarse and angular, derived from and lying at the base of a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|cliff}} or a very steep rock slope. Large quantities tend to accumulate on the slopes of high {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|mountains}} by falling, rolling, or sliding from an eroding rockfall source. Compare {{gli|scree}}.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|thalweg}}.}}

{{defn|A small man-made {{gli|pond}} or {{gli|reservoir}} created by impounding a stream or by constructing a pit or basin to collect and hold rainwater or snowmelt. Less commonly, the term may also refer to a natural pond or basin.}}

{{defn|A mountain {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|lake}} or pool of water formed in a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|cirque}} excavated by a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|glacier}}. A {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|moraine}} may form a natural {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|dam}} below a tarn.}}

{{defn|The physical processes involving the movement of the Earth's crust.}}

{{defn|Any of several very large divisions of the Earth's crust consisting of solid rock which "floats" on top of the semi-solid mantle.}}

{{defn|Traditionally, either of the two mid-latitude regions of the Earth defined by their {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|latitude|latitudinal}} position between the {{gli|tropics}} and the {{gli|polar|polar zones}}, i.e. the region between latitudes {{gli|Tropic of Cancer|23°30' N}} and {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|Arctic Circle|66°30' N}}, or that between {{gli|Tropic of Capricorn|23°30' S}} and {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|Antarctic Circle|66°30' S}}. In modern usage, the term may refer instead to regions of mild or temperate climate, regardless of latitude.}}

{{defn|An increase in temperature with height above the Earth's surface, a reversal of the normal pattern, often observed in deep {{gli|valleys}} and {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|basins}} that are mostly or entirely enclosed by high {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|mountain ranges}}.}}

{{defn|Solid material of all sizes explosively ejected from a {{gli|volcano}} into the atmosphere.}}

{{defn|A {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|moraine}} that forms at the terminus or {{gli|snout}} of a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|glacier}}, marking its furthest advance. Debris transported by {{gli|plucking}} and abrasion accumulates at the glacier's leading edge, where it is deposited in an unsorted pile of sediment as the ice begins to retreat.}}

{{defn|One of a series of regularly spaced, horizontal, step-like {{gli|ridges}} forming a distinctive ribbed pattern on a steep and usually grassy hillside, similar to an agricultural {{gli|terrace}} or lynchet but naturally occurring. Various explanations for their origins have been suggested, including {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|creep|soil creep}}, {{gli|solifluction}}, and animal trampling.}}

{{defn|The vertical and horizontal dimensions of a land surface, usually as expressed in terms of {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|elevation}}, {{gli|slope}}, and orientation of geographical features.}}

{{defn|no=1|Consisting of, living on, or relating to land, as opposed to water or air; e.g. a terrestrial animal lives primarily on land surfaces rather than in the sea.}}

{{defn|no=2|On, of, or relating to the Earth, as opposed to other planets or to celestial phenomena occurring outside the Earth's atmosphere.}}

{{defn|no=1|A concept of the Law of the Sea defined as the belt of {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|coastal}} waters extending no more than {{convert|12|nmi|km}} from a designated {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|baseline}} (usually defined as the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|mean low water mark|mean low-water line}}) for a coastal {{gli|state}} and regarded as the sovereign {{gli|territory}} of the state; or more generally any area of water over which a state has legal jurisdiction, including {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|internal waters}}, the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|exclusive economic zone}}, and potentially others.}}

{{defn|A specific area or portion of the Earth's surface, especially one claimed or administered by a particular country; similar to though distinct from a {{gli|region}}.}}

{{defn|That portion of a region's economy devoted to service activities (e.g. retail and wholesale operations, transportation, and insurance).}}

{{defn|The line of lowest {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|elevation}} within a {{gli|valley}} or {{gli|watercourse}}, i.e. the line defining the longitudinal profile of an area with respect to the path followed by water draining from the area. Thalwegs may acquire special significance in {{gli|political geography}} because disputed {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|borders}} along rivers are often defined by the river's thalweg. This has sometimes led to conflict because the thalweg may change naturally over time.}}

{{defn|A shallow, rounded {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|lake}} or {{gli|pond}} occupying a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|depression}} resulting from the melting of ground ice or {{gli|permafrost}}, ubiquitous in {{gli|thermokarst}} regions wherever there are flat {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|lowlands}} with silty {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|alluvium}} and high ice content, including much of the North American and Siberian {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|Arctic}}. Many thaw lakes develop elongate shapes oriented with the long axis at a right angle to the prevailing wind.}}

{{defn|An optical instrument consisting of a small telescope, a {{gli|spirit level}}, and graduated arcs mounted on a tripod, used in {{gli|surveying}} and other applications to precisely measure angles between designated visible points in the horizontal and vertical planes.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|hot spring}}.}}

{{defn|The tendency of bodies of water such as {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|lakes}} to separate into distinct thermal layers along a vertical gradient, such that water temperature varies predictably with increasing depth. Stratification is typically a seasonal phenomenon, as exemplified by deep lakes at {{gli|temperate zone|temperate}} latitudes during the summer, which often form a warm, turbulent {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|epilimnion|upper layer}} near the surface; a colder, denser {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|hypolimnion|bottom layer}}; and a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|metalimnion|transition zone}} of {{gli|thermocline|rapidly decreasing temperature}} in between. In all but the deepest lakes and oceans, these layers often disappear entirely in the spring and fall, when convective mixing makes the temperature more or less uniform at all depths, and may even invert if the surface freezes during the winter. Local {{gli|topography}}, wind patterns, and dissolved solutes also strongly influence the formation and disruption of stratified waters.{{cite book |last1=Dodson |first1=Stanley I. |title=Introduction to Limnology |date=2005 |publisher=McGraw-Hill |location=New York |isbn=978-0-07-287935-3 |edition=1st |url=https://openlibrary.org/works/OL9308033W/Introduction_to_limnology?edition=key%3A/books/OL22716814M}}}}

{{defn|A thin layer of water in an ocean or lake, typically between the non-circulating {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|hypolimnion}} and the warmer {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|epilimnion}}, through which temperature changes more drastically with depth than it does in the layers above or below; e.g. temperature may decrease much more rapidly with increasing depth in this layer, commonly exceeding {{convert|1|C-change|F-change}} per metre of descent.}}

{{defn|A type of {{gli|terrain}} characterized by expansive landscapes of small {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|hummocks}} interspersed with irregular, {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|marsh|marshy}} {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|depressions}} formed by the thawing of ice-rich {{gli|permafrost}}. The unique landforms of thermokarst, including {{gli|pingoes}}, {{gli|palsen}}, {{gli|thaw lakes}}, {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|alases}}, and linear and polygonal {{gli|troughs}}, result from various {{gli|periglacial}} and thermo-erosional phenomena common in the Arctic and on a smaller scale in mountainous areas such as the Himalayas and the Alps.}}

{{defn|A {{gli|volcano|volcanic cone}} occurring inside of a larger volcanic crater or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|caldera}}.}}

{{defn|The vertical displacement of strata or rocks across the line of a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|fault}}, varying from a few millimetres to hundreds of metres in height. Those rocks on the higher side of the fault are termed upthrow, while those on the lower side are termed downthrow.}}

{{defn|A narrow {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|inlet}} or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|estuary}} that is affected by the ebb and flow of {{gli|tides}} from an adjacent ocean. Water in the lower portions of these channels tends to vary greatly in depth, salinity, electrical conductivity, and other {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|hydrological}} properties over the course of the {{gli|tidal cycle}}, but is often slow-moving and rich in organic sediment drained from upstream {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|freshwater}} portions, making them important habitats for many species.}}

{{defn|An extensive, nearly horizontal, barren or sparsely vegetated tract of land at the edge of a sea or ocean that is alternately covered and uncovered by the {{gli|tide}}.}}

{{defn|The total volume of water that flows in and out of a coastal {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|inlet}} or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|estuary}} with each cycle of the {{gli|tides}}, excluding any freshwater discharges; i.e. the difference in the inlet's volume between the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|mean high water|mean high}} and {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|mean low water|low}} tides.}}

{{defn|The difference in height between {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|high tide}} and {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|low tide}} at a given location. This range may vary over the course of the year, e.g. during {{gli|neap tides}} and {{gli|spring tides}}.}}

{{defn|The periodic rise and fall of {{gli|sea levels}} caused by the combined effects of the gravitational forces exerted by the Moon and the Sun and the Earth's rotation.}}

{{defn|A shallow pool of {{gli|salt water|seawater}}, supplied regularly by incoming {{gli|tides}}, that forms on a rocky intertidal {{gli|shore}}.}}

{{defn|An {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|island}} that is connected to a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|mainland}} only by a narrow {{gli|spit}} or {{gli|tombolo}} which may or may not be occasionally submerged.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|glacial till}}.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|tree line}}.}}

{{defn|A measure of how far apart places are in terms of the amount of time it takes to travel between them (how long does it take to travel from place A to place B?). This may be contrasted with other distance metrics such as geographic distance (how far is it?) and cost-distance (how much will it cost to get there?).}}

{{defn|An interdisciplinary perspective, ontological framework, and visual language in which space and time are used as basic dimensions of analysis of dynamic processes and events, including social and ecological interactions, environmental changes, and biographies of individuals.}}

{{defn|A region of the globe that observes a uniform standard time for legal, commercial, and social purposes. Most time zones span about 15 degrees of longitude, and in each of these divisions the mean solar time at an arbitrarily selected {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|meridian}} (usually one near the longitudinal center of the division) is made the standard time across the entire zone. Time zones tend to follow political boundaries between countries and their subdivisions, however, rather than strictly following the same meridian, because it is convenient for areas in frequent communication to keep the same time.}}

{{ghat|Also Tissot's ellipse and ellipse of distortion.}}

{{defn|A mathematical contrivance used to illustrate the linear, angular, and areal distortions that result when {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|map projection|projecting}} information from a curved three-dimensional geometric model such as a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|globe}} onto a two-dimensional {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|map}}. A single indicatrix is traditionally a circle of determinate size drawn upon the surface of the globe, with center at specific coordinates; the extent to which this circle is deformed when the globe's coordinates are transformed onto a flat two-dimensional map makes apparent the nature of the distortion affecting nearby map features, such as the size and shape of landmasses, which might otherwise be difficult to visualize. Because distortion can vary greatly across a map, it is common for multiple indicatrices to be depicted at multiple points on the map, e.g. at major intersections of {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|meridians}} and {{gli|parallels}}.}}

File:Behrmann with Tissot's Indicatrices of Distortion.svg

{{defn|See {{gli|snout}}.}}

{{defn|A public or private road or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|highway}} for which a fee or toll is charged to drivers for passage.}}

{{defn|A sandy or shingle-covered {{gli|spit}}, {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|bar}}, or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|isthmus}} connecting an {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|island}} to the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|mainland}} or to another island (thereby forming a {{gli|tied island}}).}}

{{defn|The minimum {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|great-circle distance}} between the {{gli|summit}} of a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|mountain}} or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|hill}} and a point of equal {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|elevation}}, representing a radius of dominance in which the summit is the highest point.}}

File:Topographic isolation and prominence.svg

{{defn|A {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|map}} that uses {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|contour lines}} to represent the three-dimensional features of a landscape on a two-dimensional surface.}}

{{ghat|Also autonomous height, relative height, or shoulder drop.}}

{{defn|A measure of the independence of a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|mountain}} or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|hill}} defined as the vertical distance between its {{gli|summit}} and the lowest {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|contour lines|contour line}} completely encircling it but containing no higher summit within it; or, equivalently, the difference between the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|elevation}} of the summit and the elevation of the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|key col}}. Mountains with high prominence tend to be the highest points in their vicinity.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|terrain}}.}}

{{defn|The physical features of a place, or the study and depiction of physical features, both natural and man-made, including {{gli|terrain|terrain relief}}.}}

{{defn|A type of diagrammatic {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|map}} which depicts the actual positional relationships between certain features but on which true {{gli|scale}} is distorted and unnecessary detail is absent to accommodate other considerations (e.g. simplicity so as to aid understanding of a complex communications network or public transit system).}}

File:London Underground Overground DLR Crossrail map.svg of the London Underground and several other passenger railways shows connectivity – i.e. the way in which the various lines connect particular stops and stations, which is the information most relevant to people riding the lines – but is not concerned with correctly depicting the orientation of the stations and is not drawn to scale.]]

{{defn|In geographical studies, a discipline concerned with the mathematical analysis of enclosure, order, connectivity, {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|contiguous|contiguity}}, and relative position rather than with actual distance and orientation. Topological relationships are commonly expressed in terms of networks and depicted with {{gli|topological map|topological maps}}.}}

{{defn|The study of placenames (known as toponyms), their origins, meanings, use, and typology.}}

{{defn|A prominent, free-standing rock {{gli|outcrop}} that rises abruptly from the smooth slopes of a gently rounded {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|hill}} or {{gli|ridge}}. In the United Kingdom, the term is also used to refer to the hill itself.}}

{{defn|A medium-sized human {{gli|settlement}} that is generally larger than a {{gli|village}} but smaller than a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|city}}, though the criteria for distinguishing a town vary considerably in different parts of the world.}}

{{defn|The rectangular system of land subdivision used to plat real property for sale and settlement in much of the agriculturally settled United States west of the Appalachian Mountains, established by the Land Ordinance of 1785.}}

{{defn|A road or path alongside a navigable {{gli|river}}, {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|canal}}, or other inland waterway designed to allow land vehicles, draught animals, or a team of human pullers to tow a boat or barge.}}

{{defn|The capacity of a soil or of a particular type of terrain to permit the movement of vehicles or pedestrians.}}

{{defn|The extent to which a good or service can be moved from one location to another; the relative capacity for spatial interaction.}}

{{defn|The seasonal movement of people and animals in search of pasture. Commonly, winters are spent in snow-free lowlands and summers in the cooler uplands.}}

{{defn|Crosswise; lying across; crossing from one side to another, as a line on a map.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|discordant coastline}}.}}

{{defn|A {{gli|sand dune}} with its crest oriented at right angles to the direction of the prevailing wind, as opposed to the orientation of a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|longitudinal dune}}.}}

{{defn|A {{gli|valley}} which cuts across a {{gli|ridge}} or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|mountain range}} at right angles to the primary orientation of the crest. Contrast {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|longitudinal valley}}.}}

{{defn|In {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|cartography}}, a misrepresented or nonexistent road or street that is deliberately included on a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|map}} (often outside the map's nominal area of coverage) for the purpose of detecting plagiarism by acting as a copyright trap: plagiarists who have copied other cartographers' work would find it difficult to explain the inclusion of the trap street on their map as coincidental. For this reason trap streets are often inconspicuous and given unique names. Many other map features are also used as copyright traps, including natural features and {{gli|paper town|entire towns}}, and the implementation may also involve mislabeling features such as topographic elevations as well as making subtle stylistic alterations such as exaggerated or nonexistent bends in roads or rivers, ideally in a way that does not interfere significantly with navigation.Bridle, James. "Trap Streets: The road not taken". Cabinet Magazine. Issue 47, Fall 2012.}}

{{defn|no=1|In {{gli|surveying}}, a line or {{gli|route}} and the sequence of points on it at which observations or measurements are made, or the process by which such a sequence is established. The term may also refer more generally to any route or path traveled for any purpose.}}

{{defn|no=2|A relatively horizontal route taken so as to bypass obstacles when the primary goal is to move vertically, as in rock climbing and mountaineering.}}

{{defn|The {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|latitude|latitudinal}} or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|elevational}} limit of normal tree growth. Beyond this limit (i.e. closer to the {{gli|polar region|poles}} or at higher elevations) climatic conditions are too severe for such growth and trees are stunted or entirely absent. The term cold timberline may also be used to emphasize that the limiting factor is temperature, particularly when distinguishing it from the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|dry timberline}} of arid regions, where tree growth is instead limited by the availability of water.}}

{{defn|The process of determining the location of a given point or object, especially its distance from an observer, by measuring only the angles to it from two known points along a common baseline, which represent two vertices of an imaginary triangle. The unknown point can then be fixed as the third vertex of the triangle, using the one known side and two known angles. Triangulation differs from {{gli|trilateration}}, which measures distances to the point directly instead of angles.}}

File:Triangulation-boat.png

{{defn|A {{gli|stream}} or {{gli|river}} that flows into a larger stream or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|main stem}} or a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|lake}}, rather than directly into a {{gli|sea}} or {{gli|ocean}}. Contrast {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|distributary}}.}}

{{defn|The process of determining the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|location}} of a given point or object by measuring only the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|distances}} to it from a sufficient number of other points; in particular, a method of {{gli|surveying}} in which the location of one point relative to two or more others is determined by measuring the distances between all points (either ordinary Euclidean distances or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|great-circle distances}}). When more than three distances are involved, the process may be called {{gli|multilateration}}. Measurement of {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|direction}} and {{gli|triangulation|angle}} is not strictly necessary for trilateration, though this information is often used in tandem with trilateration data.}}

{{defn|Either of the two {{gli|parallels}} of latitude marking the boundary of the {{gli|tropics}}: the {{gli|Tropic of Cancer}} and the {{gli|Tropic of Capricorn}}.}}

{{defn|The northernmost {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|latitude|circle of latitude}} on the Earth at which the Sun appears {{gli|zenith|directly overhead}} at its culmination, which lies approximately 23.4 degrees north of the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|Equator}}. Its southern equivalent is the {{gli|Tropic of Capricorn}}.}}

{{defn|The southernmost {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|latitude|circle of latitude}} on the Earth at which the Sun appears {{gli|zenith|directly overhead}} at its culmination, which lies approximately 23.4 degrees south of the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|Equator}}. Its northern equivalent is the {{gli|Tropic of Cancer}}.}}

{{defn|Characteristic of, located in, or relating to the {{gli|tropics}}, either the specific parallels of latitude or the zone lying between those two parallels.}}

{{defn|The region of the Earth's surface surrounding the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|Equator}} and bounded by the {{gli|Tropic of Cancer}} (23.4° N latitude) and the {{gli|Tropic of Capricorn}} (23.4° S latitude). It is characterized by high annual precipitation and the absence of any significant seasonal variation in temperature. The term is often used more broadly to describe any area possessing what is considered a hot, humid climate, regardless of latitude. See also {{gli|temperate zone}} and {{gli|polar zone}}.}}

{{defn|Any elongated, generally U-shaped {{gli|valley}}, {{gli|ravine}}, {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|basin}}, or trench, natural or artificial, dry or wet. Particularly common usages refer to a submarine trench or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|deep}} in the {{gli|ocean floor}}, or to a geological {{gli|syncline}}.}}

{{defn|The direction along the Earth's surface towards the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|Geographic North Pole}}. Geodetic true north differs from {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|magnetic north}} and {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|grid north}}, and also very slightly from astronomical true north, which is based on the direction of the north {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|celestial pole}}.}}

{{defn|The direction along the Earth's surface that is exactly opposite (i.e. bearing 180 degrees) of {{gli|true north}}, towards the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|Geographic South Pole}}.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|main stem}}.}}

{{defn|A giant ocean wave caused by an underwater earthquake or volcanic eruption with great destructive power.}}

{{defn|A treeless {{gli|plain}} characteristic of the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|Arctic}} and subarctic regions.}}

{{defn|A deep, greatly elongated, U-shaped {{gli|valley}} carved from land beneath a mass of {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|glacier|glacial ice}}, often near the margin of a continental {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|ice sheet}}. Tunnel valleys may be up to {{convert|100|km|mi}} long, {{convert|2.5|km|mi}} wide, and {{convert|1300|ft|m|order=flip}} deep, and often occur side-by-side in a series of multiple parallel valleys.}}

{{defn|In western Ireland, a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|depression}} or {{gli|sinkhole}} which fills with water when the {{gli|water table}} rises, e.g. by tidal effects.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|toll road}}.}}

{{defn|A subglacial landform consisting of a flat-topped, steep-sided {{gli|volcano|volcanic}} mountain formed when {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|lava}} erupts beneath an overlying {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|glacier}} or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|ice sheet}} and melts through the ice to the surface, where it pools and solidifies into a level bed of volcanic rock; the glacier continues to gradually erode the surrounding landscape and, upon retreating, leaves behind a characteristic {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|mesa}}-like rock formation.}}

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U

{{defn|An area which is culturally, economically, and politically related to a particular town or city.}}

{{defn|A {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|misfit stream}} that is seemingly too small to have eroded the valley or passage through which it flows, often an indication that there was once a larger stream in its place. Contrast {{gli|overfit stream}}.}}

{{defn|Economically, a situation in which an increase in the size of the labor force will result in an increase in per-worker productivity.}}

{{defn|A territory with one or more features present throughout which are absent or unimportant elsewhere.}}

{{defn|Topographic surface {{gli|relief}} which closely reflects the shape and orientation of the underlying geological structure, i.e. where hills and ridges coincide with {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|anticlines}} and valleys with {{gli|syncline|synclines}}. Contrast {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|inverted relief}}.}}

{{ghat|Sometimes used interchangeably with {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|highland}}.}}

{{defn|Any area of land that is higher in {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|elevation}} relative to another area, especially one that is populated by low {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|hills}} or situated atop a {{gli|plateau}}. The term is often used as a conditional descriptor to distinguish related habitats or ecosystems, especially freshwater {{gli|riparian area|riparian areas}}, on the basis of elevation above sea level. Upland areas are usually characterized by relatively fast-flowing waterways and hilly or rocky terrain. Contrast {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|lowland}}.}}

{{defn|An adjective describing a settlement with a high {{gli|population density}} and a developed {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|infrastructure}} of {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|built environment}}; places of this type are variously categorized as {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|cities}}, {{gli|towns}}, or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|conurbations}}, or simply called urban areas. Contrast {{gli|suburban}}, {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|exurban}}, and {{gli|rural}}.}}

{{defn|The sub-discipline of geography that derives from the study of {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|cities}}, {{gli|urban}} processes, and the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|built environment}}.}}

{{defn|The unrestricted growth of housing, commercial development, and roads (typically of low densities) over large expanses of land, usually within or near an existing {{gli|urban}} or {{gli|suburban}} area and with little concern for civic planning. It is often considered a type of {{gli|urbanization}} and almost always carries negative connotations.}}

File:کلانشهر قم در سال ۱۳۸۵ ـ نماها و چشم اندازها ـ طراحی شهری ـ عکاس مصطفی معراجی 02.jpg]]

{{defn|The study of the development of {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|cities}} and {{gli|urban}} areas, especially from historical, architectural, or civic planning perspectives.}}

{{defn|The process by which a human {{gli|population}} shifts from {{gli|rural}} to {{gli|urban}} residency, the gradual increase in the proportion of people living in urban areas such as {{gli|towns}} and {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|cities}}, and the ways in which human societies respond and adapt to this change. Urbanization may be characterized as a specific condition at a set time (e.g. the proportion of the total population or physical area within a given set of towns or cities) or as an increase in that condition over time. It precipitates enormous social, economic, and environmental changes for the planet as a whole.}}

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V

{{defn|Another name for a {{gli|valley}}.}}

{{defn|no=1|A low area between {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|hills}} or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|mountains}}, often with a {{gli|river}} running through it.}}

{{defn|no=2|A {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|depression}} that is longer than it is wide.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|bushveld}}.}}

{{defn|An opening at the Earth's surface through which volcanic materials ({{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|lava}}, tephra, and gases) erupt. Vents can be at a {{gli|volcano}}'s summit or on its slopes; they can be circular ({{gli|volcanic crater|craters}}) or linear ({{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|fissures}}).}}

{{defn|A {{gli|scale}} used in certain {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|maps}}, such as {{gli|raised-relief map|raised-relief maps}}, that deliberately distorts the apparent {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|elevation}} of the map's {{gli|topography}} to emphasize vertical features, which might otherwise appear too small to identify relative to the corresponding horizontal scale.}}

{{defn|The geographical area that is visible from a particular location. It includes all surrounding points within line-of-sight of the location and excludes points beyond the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|horizon}} or obstructed by {{gli|terrain}} and natural or artificial objects.}}

{{defn|A small, clustered human {{gli|settlement}} or community, usually larger than a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|hamlet}} but smaller than a {{gli|town}} and often in {{gli|rural}} areas, though the criteria for distinguishing a village can vary considerably in different parts of the world.}}

{{defn|A computer-generated three-dimensional software model or representation of Earth or another planet, providing the user with the ability to freely move around in the virtual environment by changing the viewing angle and position, and also to map many different types of data upon the modeled surface, such as land use statistics, meteorological records, and demographic quantities. An example is Google Earth.}}

{{defn|A large, chaotic mass of soil, rock, and volcanic debris moving swiftly down the slopes of a volcano. Volcanic avalanches can also occur without an eruption due to an earthquake, heavy rainfall, or unstable soil, rock, and volcanic debris.}}

{{defn|A type of {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|crater}} created by {{gli|volcanic}} activity, typically shaped like a bowl and containing one or more {{gli|vent|volcanic vents}}. Compare {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|caldera}}.}}

{{defn|A vent or opening in the Earth's surface through which magma erupts, or the landform that is constructed by the eruptive material.}}

{{defn|The scientific study of {{gli|volcanoes}}, lava, magma, and the body of related geophysical phenomena known as {{gli|volcanism}}. It is a branch of {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|geology}} and {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|Earth science}} which seeks to understand the formation, activity, and dormancy of volcanoes, their current and historic eruptions, and how to predict them.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|doline}}.}}

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W

{{defn|no=1|A dry, ephemeral {{gli|streambed|riverbed}} which contains water only when heavy rainfall occurs.}}

{{defn|no=2|Another name for a {{gli|valley}}, used primarily in Arabic-speaking parts of the world.}}

{{defn|no=1|The slow, gentle deformation of the Earth's {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|crust}} over a wide area, resulting in a raising or lowering of the surface.}}

{{defn|no=2|(sedimentation) Any process, natural or artificial, whereby the low-lying land of a tidal {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|estuary}} is flooded, leading to {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|deposition}} of silt, mud, or clay.}}

{{defn|no=1|The surging movement of the sea or any other large body of water; another name for the {{gli|swash}} of a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|breaking wave}}.}}

{{defn|no=2|An area of sand and mud submerged or wettened during {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|high tide}} and exposed during {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|low tide}}.}}

{{defn|no=3|A dry {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|bed|streambed}} or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|gully}}; an {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|arroyo}}.}}

{{defn|no=4|Another name for a {{gli|washland}}.}}

{{defn|no=5|The collection of fine, granular material that is moved down a slope by erosional processes. See also {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|gravity slope|wash slope}}.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|gravity slope}}.}}

{{defn|A low-lying area of unused or undeveloped land adjacent to a {{gli|river}} or {{gli|stream}}, often within a natural {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|floodplain}}, which is deliberately flooded when the water is high in order to prevent developed residential or agricultural areas from flooding. Washlands are thus sacrificed as a form of flood control, and may simultaneously function as {{gli|wetlands}} and {{gli|nature reserve|wildlife refuges}}.}}

{{defn|no=1|Wild, uncultivated, uninhabited land, especially that which is barren or desolate, supporting little or no plant and animal life, such as is found in some {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|deserts}}.}}

{{defn|no=2|Land that yields little or no return when used for agriculture.}}

{{defn|no=3|Any land, {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|common land|common}} or otherwise, that was previously cultivated or developed but is now abandoned, and for which further use has yet to be found. See also {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|brownfield land}}.}}

{{defn|In {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|hydrology}} and {{gli|oceanography}}, a conceptual column of water extending from the surface of an {{gli|ocean}}, {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|lake}}, or {{gli|river}} to the sediment of the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|floor}} or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|bed}}, used to aid interpretation of properties and processes that vary along a depth gradient.}}

{{defn|A low point or opening in a {{gli|ridge}} or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|mountain range}} carved by the erosional activity of flowing water and through which water continues to flow in the present day. Contrast {{gli|wind gap}}.}}

{{defn|The collection and presentation of point data related to the distribution, status, and sustainability of water supplies, generally by overlaying these data on a map showing administrative boundaries and population data, which can help to visualize and predict coverage issues and inform water management practices.}}

{{defn|The contamination of water by chemical or biological constituents which make it unfit for use.}}

{{defn|The level below the land surface at which subsurface material such as permeable rock is fully saturated with water. The {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|depth}} of the water table reflects the minimum level to which {{gli|wells}} must be drilled for {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|groundwater}} extraction; a {{gli|spring}}, {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|marsh}}, or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|lake}} results wherever the theoretical water table lies above the level of the land surface. The level of the water table is the boundary between the {{gli|vadose zone}} and the {{gli|phreatic zone}}. In many places its depth fluctuates seasonally, which accounts for the intermittent flow of {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|bournes}}. In some circumstances, there may be no regular water table; in others, a {{gli|perched water table}} may exist.}}

{{defn|A low-lying area of {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|grassland}} beside a natural stream or river, subjected to periodic flooding through controlled irrigation to increase agricultural productivity, typically via a series of man-made {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|canals}} or drains connected to the stream or river.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|body of water}}.}}

{{defn|Any {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|channel}} followed by a flowing {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|body of water}} such as a {{gli|river}} or {{gli|stream}}, potentially including channels that are dry for part or all of the year.}}

{{ghat|Also {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|cascade}}, {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|cataract}}, or simply fall or falls.}}

{{defn|An abrupt and steep or perpendicular descent in a {{gli|watercourse}}, e.g. in the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|bed}} of a {{gli|river}}, resulting in a significant volume of water tumbling vertically downward or even freely falling by the pull of gravity. Waterfalls occur where the water's normally more level flow is interrupted by a nearly horizontal layer of hard rock overlying more easily eroded soft rock, or by the sharp edge of a {{gli|plateau}}, or by the steep rock faces of a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|hanging valley}}, coastal {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|cliff}}, or any other {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|escarpment}} or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|knickpoint}}. They may be permanent or ephemeral; many alpine waterfalls form seasonally on mountainsides as snow and ice melts during the summer.}}

{{defn|A hollow or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|depression}} in the ground, natural or artificial, in which water can collect, either from precipitation or fed by a {{gli|spring}}, especially in {{gli|savannas}} or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|deserts}} where water is otherwise scarce; or a pool in the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|bed}} of an {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|intermittent stream}}. Waterholes may be permanent or ephemeral.}}

{{defn|Another name for a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|drainage divide}}, or for the entire catchment area of a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|drainage basin}}.}}

{{defn|Any {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|body of water}} that is deep, wide, and slow enough to be navigable by watercraft.}}

{{ghat|Also shore platform, wave-cut cliff, or coastal bench.}}

{{defn|A flat erosion surface along the {{gli|shore}} of a lake, {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|bay}}, or {{gli|sea}} that is formed by the undercutting and eventual collapse of a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|cliffed coast|sea cliff}} as a result of repetitive wave action.}}

{{defn|A reference point in physical space used for purposes of {{gli|navigation}}, especially when plotted on a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|map}} or in a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|GIS}} application as part of a traveled {{gli|route}}.}}

{{defn|The breaking of rocks into smaller rocks, gradually becoming soil.}}

{{defn|A man-made obstruction built across the width of a {{gli|river}} that alters its flow and usually results in a change in the height of the river level, commonly by permitting water to flow freely over a low barrier before cascading down to a lower level. Weirs may serve many purposes, including decreasing or increasing the force of the current, maintaining water depth, or diverting or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|impoundment|impounding}} flow, typically for navigation, irrigation, fishing, to generate a head for a water mill, or to control outflow from a {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|lake}} or {{gli|reservoir}}. Compare {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|dam}} and {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|barrage}}.}}

File:Tikkurilankoski in April.jpg

{{defn|An approach in {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|human geography}} which considers the areal differentiation and spatial organization of human activity from the perspective of the welfare (health, prosperity, well-being, etc.) of the people involved, covering everything, positive or negative, contributing to the quality of human life and examining how and where observed inequalities between different societies arise.}}

{{defn|A hole or shaft dug into the ground to access liquid resources, especially water, oil, or gas, from beneath the Earth's surface. Water wells typically tap into natural {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|groundwater}} {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|aquifers}} and remain filled with water up to the level of the {{gli|water table}}, which can vary seasonally. The water is drawn up by a pump, or by using containers such as buckets that are raised mechanically or by hand. An {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|artesian well}} taps a water source held under considerable pressure.}}

{{defn|The {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|hemisphere|half sphere}} of the Earth that is west of the {{gli|Prime Meridian}} and east of the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|antimeridian}}, and opposite the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|Eastern Hemisphere}}. The Western Hemisphere includes all of the Americas, the Atlantic Ocean, and a large portion of the Pacific Ocean.}}

{{defn|Any area of land or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|ecosystem}}, natural or artificial, which is flooded or saturated by water, either seasonally or intermittently for short periods or permanently for years or decades, and characterized generally by oxygen-poor hydric soils, distinct flora, high {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|biodiversity}}, and interactions between terrestrial and aquatic processes. Wetlands may be {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|freshwater}}, {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|brackish}}, or {{gli|saltwater}} ecosystems, and are often classified based on their sources of water (as with {{gli|tidal wetlands}}, {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|estuaries}}, {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|floodplains}}, {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|fens}}, and {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|bogs}}) and/or their dominant vegetation (as with {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|marshes}} and {{gli|swamps}}).}}

{{defn|Any natural environment which has not been significantly developed or modified by human activity, or within which natural processes operate without human interference. Such areas are considered important for the survival of wild plant and animal species as well as for maintaining {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|biological diversity|biodiversity}} and ecological stability. Wildernesses are often {{gli|protected areas}}.}}

{{defn|A {{gli|pass}}, notch, or opening in a {{gli|ridge}} or {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|mountain range}}, originally carved by a watercourse flowing through it but which is now dry as a result of {{gli|stream capture}}. Contrast {{gli|water gap}}.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|compass rose}}.}}

{{defn|The side of a landmass facing the direction from which the wind is blowing. Contrast {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|leeward}}.}}

{{defn|An intermittent stream or {{gli|bourne}} which is dry during the summer, especially one formed in the downlands of southern England.{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L7swDwAAQBAJ&q=%22Winterbourne%22+stream+-wikipedia&pg=PA368|title=River and Stream Ecosystems of the World: With a New Introduction|last1=Cushing|first1=Colbert E.|last2=Cummins|first2=Kenneth W.|last3=Minshall|first3=G. Wayne|date=2006-02-06|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-24567-9|language=en}}}}

{{defn|See {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|global city}}.}}

{{defn|A standard {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|geographic coordinate system}}, spheroidal {{gli|reference ellipsoid}} (for raw {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|altitude}} data), and {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|geoid}} (which defines the nominal {{gli|sea level}}) used in {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|cartography}}, {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|geodesy}}, and {{gli|satellite navigation}} applications worldwide. The latest revision, WGS84, is the standard coordinate system used by the {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|Global Positioning System}}.}}

{{defn|A {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|map}} of most or all of the surface of the Earth.}}

{{defn|See {{gli|global}}.}}

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Z

{{defn|A tabular mass of rock that has become perched atop a pinnacle created by erosion (often {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|aeolian}}) of the softer, underlying rock. See also {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|demoiselle}}, {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|hoodoo}}, and {{gli|pinnacle}}.}}

{{defn|A type of low {{gli|sand dune}} with limited {{gli|slip face}} development, often occurring in the corridors between higher dunes.}}

{{defn|In {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|biogeography}} and ecology, the separation of the Earth's flora and fauna into distinct groups occupying characteristic habitats, {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|biomes}}, {{gli|glossary=Glossary of geography terms (A–M)|ecozones}}, or other idealized geographic divisions, primarily defined by climate, for the purpose of identifying and categorizing patterns in biodiversity. The boundaries of the resulting "zones" may be loosely defined or even somewhat arbitrary. The term has also been extended to include any ecological unit with spatial dimensions.}}

{{defn|The public regulation of land and building use to control the character of a place.}}

{{defn|The imaginary point on the celestial sphere that is directly above a particular location (i.e. in the vertical direction exactly opposite to the apparent direction of the gravitational force at that location). Contrast {{gli|nadir}}.}}

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Notes

Much of this material was copied from U.S. government works which are in the public domain because they are not eligible for copyright protection.{{Citation |last=17USC105 |first=U.S. Copyright Office |author-link=United States Copyright Office |title=U.S. Copyright Office – Copyright Law: Chapter 1|url=http://www.copyright.gov/title17/92chap1.html |access-date=October 2, 2010 |series=Title 17 of the United States Code, Circular 92 |date=December 15, 2009 |publisher=U.S. Copyright Office |location=Washington, DC |chapter=§ 105. Subject matter of copyright |chapter-url=http://www.copyright.gov/title17/92chap1.html#105 |quote=United States Government works: Copyright protection under this title is not available for any work of the United States Government, but the United States Government is not precluded from receiving and holding copyrights transferred to it by assignment, bequest, or otherwise. }}

References

Category:Geography-related lists

Geography terms

Category:Wikipedia glossaries using description lists