Mudumalai National Park

The word Mudumalai is a Tamil word with {{lang|ta|முது}} 'mutu' meaning old, ancient, original; and {{lang|ta|முதுகாடு}} 'mudhukadu' meaning ancient forest.{{cite book |author=Fabricius, J.P. |edition=Fourth, revised and enlarged |year=1972 |title=J. P. Fabricius's Tamil and English dictionary |location=Tranquebar |publisher=Evangelical Lutheran Mission Publishing House |page=809 |chapter=முது mutu |chapter-url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/app/fabricius_query.py?qs=%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%81&searchhws=yes |access-date=24 April 2023 |archive-date=25 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210925064158/https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/app/fabricius_query.py?qs=%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%81&searchhws=yes |url-status=live }} The word {{lang|ta|மலை}} 'malai' means hill or mountain.{{cite book |author=McAlpin, D.W. |edition=Revised |year=1981 |title=A core vocabulary for Tamil |location=Philadelphia |publisher=Dept. of South Asia Regional Studies, University of Pennsylvania |page=56 |chapter=மலை |chapter-url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/app/mcalpin_query.py?qs=%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%88&searchhws=yes |access-date=24 April 2023 |archive-date=25 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210925063148/https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/app/mcalpin_query.py?qs=%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%88&searchhws=yes |url-status=live }}

The name 'Mudumalai forest' was already in use when the British Government rented the forest in 1857 for logging purposes from the Raja of Neelambur.{{cite book |author=Cleghorn, H. |author-link=Hugh Cleghorn (forester) |year=1861 |title=The forests and gardens of South India |location=London |publisher=W. H. Allen |chapter=Third report on forest operations |pages=59–112 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/cu31924003683673/page/76/mode/2up}}

In 1914, large forest tracts on the Sigur Plateau were declared as reserve forest for systematic logging. An area of about {{cvt|60|km2}} was established as Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary in 1940.{{Cite journal |author1=Hegde, R. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Enters, T. |title=Forest products and household economy: a case study from Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary, Southern India |date=2000 |journal=Environmental Conservation |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=250–259 |doi=10.1017/S037689290000028X |s2cid=86160884 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/231857621}} The sanctuary was enlarged in 1977 and incorporated into Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve in 1986.

It was declared as a Tiger Reserve under Project Tiger in April 2007 and notified as 'Critical Tiger Habitat' in December 2007. At the time, 1947 people lived in 28 hamlets inside the reserve; they kept about 1,060 cattle. In 2010, it was proposed to resettle them.{{cite report |author=Desai, A. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Bhargav, P. |year=2010 |title=Report on the progress of Village Relocation Nagarahole and Mudumalai Tiger Reserves |location=Delhi |publisher=National Tiger Conservation Authority |pages=14–22 |chapter=Report on the progress of Village Relocation Mudumalai Tiger Reserve |chapter-url=http://www.wildlifefirst.info/pdfs/pa_ifa/4_FINAL_REPORT.pdf#page=14 |access-date=24 April 2023 |archive-date=21 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221221233646/http://www.wildlifefirst.info/pdfs/pa_ifa/4_FINAL_REPORT.pdf#page=14 |url-status=live }} This notification was criticised by activists and conservationists as having been intransparent and undemocratic.{{cite journal |author1=Taghioff, D. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Menon, A. |year=2010 |title=Can a Tiger Change Its Stripes? The Politics of Conservation as Translated in Mudumalai |journal=Economic & Political Weekly |volume=54 |issue=28 |pages=69–76 |url=http://re.indiaenvironmentportal.org.in/files/Can%20a%20Tiger%20Change%20Its%20Stripes.pdf |access-date=24 April 2023 |archive-date=11 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230411050328/http://re.indiaenvironmentportal.org.in/files/Can%20a%20Tiger%20Change%20Its%20Stripes.pdf |url-status=live }}

In 2010, the National Tiger Conservation Authority approved the release of funds to Mudumalai Tiger Reserve in the frame of Project Tiger.{{cite report |author1=Rajesh, G. |author2=APCCF (PT) |author3=Member Secretary |title=Centrally Sponsored Plan Scheme 'Project Tiger' Administrative Approval for funds release to Mudumalai Tiger Reserve, Tamil Nadu during 2010–2011 |date=2010 |url=http://projecttiger.nic.in/sanction/S2010/Sanction_Mudumalai_2010_11.pdf |volume=4-1(32)/2010-PT |publisher=National Tiger Conservation Authority |place=New Delhi |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110106082959/http://projecttiger.nic.in/sanction/S2010/Sanction_Mudumalai_2010_11.pdf |access-date=2011-02-02 |archive-date=6 January 2011 |url-status=dead}} In 2020, Project Tiger has been extended until 2021 with funding of {{INR}} 114.1 million borne by the Government of India and the Government of Tamil Nadu.{{Cite report |publisher=Environment and Forests (FR.5) Department, Government of Tamil Nadu |place=Chennai |author=Saxena, S. |date=2020 |title=Forests – Wildlife – Centrally Sponsored Scheme – Implementation of Project Tiger Scheme in Mudumalai Tiger Reserve for the year 2020-21 – Release of 1st Installment amount of Rs. 570.676 lakhs – Orders issued |url=https://www.forests.tn.gov.in/app/webroot/img/document/govt_orders/Schemes/2020-21/Central%20Sector%20Schemes/eandf_e_138_2020_D.pdf |url-status=live |access-date=23 April 2021 |archive-date=23 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210423035117/https://www.forests.tn.gov.in/app/webroot/img/document/govt_orders/Schemes/2020-21/Central%20Sector%20Schemes/eandf_e_138_2020_D.pdf }}

{{Maplink|from=Mudumalai.map|type=shape |frame=yes|zoom=9|frame-lat=11.6|frame-long=76.56|stroke-width=1|frame-align=right |text=Mudumalai National Park and vicinity}}

File:Moyar falls (edited).jpg

Mudumalai National Park covers {{cvt|321|km2}} in the eastern hills of the Western Ghats at an elevation range of {{cvt|850-1250|m}}; it is bordered in the west by Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary, in the north by Bandipur National Park and in the east by Sigur Reserve Forest. In the south, it is bordered by Singara Reserve Forest.{{cite journal |author1=Paulraj, S. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Subramanian, C. |year=2000 |title=Skewed sex ratio in elephant population – How it may affect the demography and population growth? A case study in Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary and National Park, Tamil Nadu, Southern India |journal=Indian Forester |volume=126 |issue=10 |pages=1046–1053 |url=http://www.indianforester.in/index.php/indianforester/article/viewFile/3295/3145 |access-date=24 April 2023 |archive-date=24 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230424164539/https://indianforester.in/ |url-status=live }} The Moyar River enters the national park in the south and is joined by five tributaries.{{cite journal |author=Manimekalan, A. |year=1998 |title=The fishes of Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu, south India |journal=The Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society |volume=95 |issue=3 |pages=431–443 |url=https://archive.org/details/journalofbombay951998bomb/page/431/mode/1up}} Together they drain this area, and several artificial waterholes provide drinking water for wildlife during dry seasons.

The original national park area together with a surrounding buffer zone of {{cvt|367.59|km2}} was designated as the Mudumalai Tiger Reserve.{{cite book |author=Sankar, C.V. |year=2012 |title=Forests – Wildlife – Mudumalai Tiger Reserve |publisher=Government of Tamil Nadu Forest Department |url=https://www.forests.tn.gov.in/tnforest/app/webroot/img/document/legislations/MUDUMALAI%20TIGER%20RESERVE.pdf |access-date=24 April 2023 |archive-date=16 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220816044305/https://www.forests.tn.gov.in/tnforest/app/webroot/img/document/legislations/MUDUMALAI%20TIGER%20RESERVE.pdf |url-status=live }}{{Cite book |author=Jhala, Y.V. |author1-link=Yadvendradev Vikramsinh Jhala |author2=Qureshi, Q. |author3=Nayak, A.K. |name-list-style=amp |title=Status of Tigers, Copredators & Prey in India, 2018 |publisher=National Tiger Conservation Authority, Government of India, New Delhi, and Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun |year=2020 |isbn=978-81-85496-50-4 |chapter=Mudumalai Tiger Reserve |pages=502–509 |chapter-url=https://ntca.gov.in/assets/uploads/Reports/AITM/Tiger_Status_Report_2018.pdf#page=504 |access-date=24 April 2023 |archive-date=7 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221207093309/https://ntca.gov.in/assets/uploads/Reports/AITM/Tiger_Status_Report_2018.pdf#page=504 |url-status=live }}

The elevation range of {{cvt|250-1200|m}} in the Western Ghats is characterised by evergreen forest with dipterocarp species prevailing.{{cite book |editor1=Champion, H.G. |name-list-style=amp |editor2=Seth, S.K. |year=1968 |title=A Revised Survey of the Forest Types of India |location=Delhi |publisher=Manager of Publications, Government of India Press Masik |author=Khan, M.A.W. |pages=65–71 |chapter=West Coast tropical evergreen forest |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hIjwAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA65-IA2 |access-date=24 April 2023 |archive-date=24 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230424164511/https://books.google.com/books?id=hIjwAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA65-IA2 |url-status=live }}

Its undulating hills consist mostly of hornblendite and biotite gneiss with black sandy loam; red heavy loam prevails in the southern part.{{cite journal |author=Sharma, B.D. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Shetty, B.V. |author3=Virekananthan, K. |author4=Rathakrishnan, N.C. |date=1978 |title=Flora of Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu |journal=Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society |volume=75 |issue=1 |pages=13–42 |url=https://archive.org/details/journalofbombay751978bomb/page/12/mode/2up}}

It is part of the ecoregion South Western Ghats moist deciduous forests.{{cite book |author=Wikramanayake, E. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Dinerstein, E. |author3=Colby, J. L. |year=2002 |title=Terrestrial Ecoregions of the Indo-Pacific: a Conservation Assessment |location=Washington, D.C. |publisher=Island Press |pages=313–315 |chapter=15: South Western Ghats moist deciduous forests |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_VGRBWqIG2gC&pg=PA313 |isbn=9781559639231 |access-date=24 April 2023 |archive-date=24 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230424164517/https://books.google.com/books?id=_VGRBWqIG2gC&pg=PA313 |url-status=live }}

Mudumalai National Park and the adjacent Sigur Reserve Forest form an important wildlife corridor within the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve and provide the highest landscape connectivity for the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) population in the region.{{cite journal |author1=Puyravaud, J.P. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Cushman, S.A. |author3=Davidar, P. |author4=Madappa, D. |year=2017 |title=Predicting landscape connectivity for the Asian elephant in its largest remaining subpopulation |journal=Animal Conservation |volume=20 |issue=3 |pages=225–234 |doi=10.1111/acv.12314 |s2cid=88870856 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/309575615}}

Mudumalai National Park receives about {{cvt|1420|mm|in}} rainfall annually, most of it during the southwest monsoon season from June to September. The temperature drops during the cool season from December to January, but rises during April to June, which are the hottest months.

Annual precipitation ranges from {{cvt|1100|mm}} in the south and west to {{cvt|600|mm}} in the east.{{cite journal |author1=Murali, K.S. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Sukumar, R. |year=1994 |title=Reproductive phenology of a tropical dry forest in Mudumalai, southern India |journal=The Journal of Ecology |volume=82 |issue=4 |pages=759–767 |doi=10.2307/2261441 |jstor=2261441 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/234136136}}

File:Jungle trek, Wild planet resort, Mudumalai 10.jpg

Mudumalai National Park harbours tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests. The floral diversity comprises 498 plant species including 154 tree, 77 shrub, 214 herb and 53 vine species.{{cite journal |author1=Joseph, S. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Reddy, C.S. |author3=Pattanaik, C. |author4=Sudhakar, S. |year=2008 |title=Distribution of plant communities along climatic and topographic gradients in Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary (southern India) |journal=Biological Letters |volume=45 |issue=1 |pages=29–41 |doi= |citeseerx=10.1.1.572.4297}}

Teak (Tectona grandis) and axlewood (Anogeissus latifolia) are the dominant tree species with a density of more than {{cvt|105|/ha|/acre|disp=preunit|trees|trees}}.{{cite journal |author1=Kishore, B.S.P.C. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Kumar, A. |author3=Saikia, P. |author4=Lele, N. |author5=Pandey, A.C. |author6=Srivastava, P. |author7=Bhattacharya, B.K. |author8=Khan, M.L. |year=2020 |title=Major forests and plant species discrimination in Mudumalai forest region using airborne hyperspectral sensing |journal=Journal of Asia-Pacific Biodiversity |volume=13 |issue=4 |pages=637–651 |doi=10.1016/j.japb.2020.07.001 |doi-access=free}}

Prominent tree species include flame-of-the-forest (Butea monosperma), Indian laurel (Terminalia elliptica), kusum tree (Schleichera oleosa), weaver's beam tree (Schrebera swietenioides), Malabar kino tree (Pterocarpus marsupium), Indian rosewood (Dalbergia latifolia), Malabar plum (Syzygium cumini), silk-cotton tree (Bombax ceiba) and Indian beech (Millettia pinnata); moist deciduous forest is interspersed with giant thorny bamboo (Bambusa bambos). Mango (Mangifera indica) and persimmon (Diospyros) grow along river courses. Climbers include orange climber (Zanthoxylum asiaticum), Wattakaka volubilis, frangipani vine (Chonemorpha fragrans), trellis-vine (Pergularia daemia), purple morning glory (Argyreia cuneata), striped cucumber (Diplocyclos palmatus) and several jasmine species.

Ceylon satinwood (Chloroxylon swietenia), red cedar (Erythroxylum monogynum) and catechu (Senegalia catechu) are the dominant plants in shrubland patches.{{cite journal |author1=Gokula, V. |author2=Vijayan, L. |name-list-style=amp |year=1996 |title=Birds of Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary, India |journal=Forktail |volume=12 |pages=143–152 |url=https://static1.squarespace.com/static/5c1a9e03f407b482a158da87/t/5c1fb9b4562fa7219b07167c/1545583030708/Gokula-Mudumalai.pdf |access-date=24 April 2023 |archive-date=12 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230412100613/https://static1.squarespace.com/static/5c1a9e03f407b482a158da87/t/5c1fb9b4562fa7219b07167c/1545583030708/Gokula-Mudumalai.pdf |url-status=live }}

Lantana camara is an invasive species that negatively affects the dispersal of the native Indian gooseberry (Phyllanthus emblica) and Kydia calycina, but does not affect growth and dispersal of other shrubs.{{cite journal |author1=Ramaswami, G. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Sukumar, R. |year=2011 |title=Woody plant seedling distribution under invasive Lantana camara thickets in a dry-forest plot in Mudumalai, southern India |journal=Journal of Tropical Ecology |volume=27 |issue=4 |pages=365–373 |doi=10.1017/S0266467411000137 |s2cid=86730078 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/231823871}} A study on nesting behaviour of birds revealed that red-vented bulbul (Pycnonotus cafer) and red-whiskered bulbul (P. jocosus) prefer its top canopy level for building nests in spring.{{cite journal |author1=Reddy, C.S. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Narayana, B.L. |author3=Sharmila, G. |author4=Kannan, G. |year=2017 |title=Nest-site selection of breeding birds in fragmented landscapes at Mudumalai Tiger Reserve, Tamil Nadu, India |journal=Zoo's Print |volume=32 |issue=7 |pages=30–38 |url=https://zoosprint.zooreach.org/index.php/zp/article/view/270/267 |access-date=24 April 2023 |archive-date=8 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220808011755/https://zoosprint.zooreach.org/index.php/zp/article/view/270/267 |url-status=live }}

An exceptionally large arjun tree (Terminalia arjuna) with a height of {{cvt|32|m}} and a girth of {{cvt|8.45|m}} was detected in the Moyar River valley in 2019; it was used by white-rumped vulture (Gyps bengalensis), brown fish owl (Ketupa zeylonensis), spot-bellied eagle-owl (Bubo nipalensis), crested honey buzzard (Pernis ptilorhynchus), changeable hawk-eagle (Nisaetus cirrhatus) and shikra (Accipiter badius) for roosting.{{cite journal |author1=Thirumurugan, V. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Prabakaran, N. |author3=Nair, V.S. |author4=Ramesh, C. |year=2021 |title=Ecological importance of two large heritage trees in Moyar River valley, southern India |journal=Journal of Threatened Taxa |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=17587–17591 |doi=10.11609/jott.6095.13.1.17587-17591 |issn=0974-7893 |doi-access=free}}

During the major flowering season, 394 nests of the giant honey bee (Apis dorsata) were detected in the park between January and June 2007; bee colonies comprised an average of 19 nests, mostly built in large trees.{{cite journal |author1=Roy, P. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Leo, R. |author3=Thomas, S.G. |author4=Varghese, A. |author5=Sharma, K. |author6=Prasad, S. |author7=Bradbear, N. |author8=Roberts, S. |author9=Potts, S.G. |author10=Davidar, P. |year=2011 |title=Nesting requirements of the rock bee Apis dorsata in the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, India |journal=Tropical Ecology |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=285–291 |url=http://www.tropecol.com/pdf/open/PDF_52_3/Jour-06-F.pdf |access-date=24 April 2023 |archive-date=6 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220106170814/http://www.tropecol.com/pdf/open/PDF_52_3/Jour-06-F.pdf |url-status=usurped }}

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A survey carried out between November 2008 and February 2009 revealed that about 29 Indian leopards (Panthera pardus fusca) and 19 Bengal tigers (P. tigris tigris) lived in the park's core area of {{cvt|107|km2}}.{{cite journal |author1=Kalle, R. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Ramesh, T. |author3=Qureshi, Q. |author4=Sankar, K. |year=2011 |title=Density of tiger and leopard in a tropical deciduous forest of Mudumalai Tiger Reserve, southern India, as estimated using photographic capture–recapture sampling |journal=Acta Theriologica |volume=56 |issue=4 |pages=335–342 |doi=10.1007/s13364-011-0038-9 |s2cid=196598615 |url=}} As of 2018, the tiger population in the wider Mudumalai Tiger Reserve was estimated to comprise 103 resident individuals.

Jungle cat (Felis chaus), rusty-spotted cat (Prionailurus rubiginosus) and leopard cat (P. bengalensis) were recorded during camera trap surveys in 2010–2011 and 2018.{{cite journal |author1=Kalle, R. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Ramesh, T. |author3=Qureshi, Q. |author4=Sankar, K. |year=2013 |title=The occurrence of small felids in Mudumalai Tiger Reserve, Tamil Nadu, India |journal=Cat News |issue=58 |pages=32–35 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/257823313}}

Two dhole (Cuon alpinus) packs were monitored during 1989–1993 and had home ranges of {{cvt|83.3|and|54.2|km2}}; packs comprised between four and 25 individuals during this period.{{cite journal |author1=Venkataraman, A.B. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Arumugam, R. |author3=Sukumar, R. |year=1995 |title=The foraging ecology of dhole (Cuon alpinus) in Mudumalai Sanctuary, southern India |journal=Journal of Zoology |volume=237 |issue=4 |pages=543–561 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-7998.1995.tb05014.x}}

Golden jackal (Canis aureus), and Nilgiri marten (Martes gwatkinsii) were also recorded in 2018.

Scat of sloth bear (Melursus ursinus) collected along forest roads and animal trails contained remains of 18 plant species with golden shower (Cassia fistula), Indian plum (Zizyphus mauritiana) and clammy cherry (Cordia obliqua) forming the bulk of its diet apart from fungus-growing termites (Odontotermes), fire ants and honey bees.{{cite journal |author1=Ramesh, T. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Sankar, K. |author3=Qureshi, Q. |year=2009 |title=Additional notes on the diet of Sloth Bear Melursus ursinus in Mudumalai Tiger Reserve as shown by scat analysis |journal=Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society |volume=106 |issue=2 |pages=204–206 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/235704076}}

Small Indian civet (Viverricula indica), Asian palm civet (Paradoxurus hermaphroditus) and brown palm civet (P. jerdoni) live in both deciduous and semi-evergreen forest patches; ruddy mongoose (Urva smithii) lives foremost in deciduous forest, whereas stripe-necked mongoose (U. vitticollis) frequents riverine areas, and Indian grey mongoose U. edwardsii open habitats.{{cite journal |author1=Kalle, R. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Ramesh, T. |author4=Qureshi, Q. |author3=Sankar, K. |year=2013 |title=Observations of sympatric small carnivores in Mudumalai Tiger Reserve, Western Ghats, India |journal=Small Carnivore Conservation |volume=49 |issue=4 |pages=53–59 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/261028357}} The mongooses forage foremost for pill millipedes, dung beetles, fruits, small rodents, birds and reptiles.{{cite journal |author1=Kalle, R. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Ramesh, T. |author3=Sankar, K. |author4=Qureshi, Q. |year=2012 |title=Diet of mongoose in Mudumalai Tiger Reserve, southern India |journal=Journal of Scientific Transactions in Environment and Technovation |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=44–51 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/235997878}}

Smooth-coated otter (Lutrogale perspicillata) groups were observed along the Moyar River in 2010 and 2011. Their habitat preference was studied between 2015 and 2017; the groups preferred rocky areas near fast flowing water with loose sand and little vegetation cover.{{cite journal |author1=Narasimmarajan, K. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Hayward, M.W. |author3=Mathai, M.T. |year=2021 |title=Assessing the occurrence and resource use pattern of Smooth-coated Otters Lutrogale perspicillata Geoffroy (Carnivora, Mustelidae) in the Moyar River of the Western Ghats Biodiversity Hotspot |journal=IUCN Otter Specialist Group Bulletin |volume=38 |issue=1 |pages=45–58 |url=https://iucnosgbull.org/Volume38/Narasimmarajan_et_al_2021.pdf |access-date=24 April 2023 |archive-date=30 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211030214728/https://iucnosgbull.org/Volume38/Narasimmarajan_et_al_2021.pdf |url-status=live }}

File:A_family_group_of_elephants_in_Mudumalai_TR_AJTJohnsingh.jpg

The Asian elephant is the largest mammal in the park with an estimated 536–1,001 individuals in 25 herds in 2000.{{cite journal |author1=Baskaran, N. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Udhayan, A. |author3=Desai, A.A. |year=2010 |title=Status of the Asian Elephant population in Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary, southern India |journal=Gajah |issue=32 |pages=6–13 |citeseerx=10.1.1.1070.6845}} Herds comprise up to 22 individuals. The gaur (Bos gaurus) is the largest ungulate in the park, with herds of up to 42 individuals that frequent foremost grasslands in the vicinity of water sources.{{cite journal |author1=Ramesh, T. |author2=Sankar, K. |author3=Qureshi, Q. |name-list-style=amp |author4=Kalle, R. |year=2012 |title=Group size and population structure of megaherbivores (gaur Bos gaurus and Asian elephant Elephas maximus) in a deciduous habitat of Western Ghats, India |journal=Mammal Study |volume=37 |issue=1 |pages=47–54 |doi=10.3106/041.037.0106 |s2cid=86098742 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/235703350}}

The sambar deer (Cervus unicolor) forms smaller groups of up to five individuals, but also congregates in groups of up to 45 individuals in the wet season. The chital (Axis axis) forms large groups of at least 35 individuals, with some herds increasing to more than 100 members in the wet season.{{cite journal |author1=Ramesh, T. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Sankar, K. |author3=Qureshi, Q. |author4=Kalle, R. |year=2012 |title=Group size, sex and age composition of chital (Axis axis) and sambar (Rusa unicolor) in a deciduous habitat of Western Ghats |journal=Mammalian Biology |volume=77 |issue=1 |pages=53–59 |doi=10.1016/j.mambio.2011.09.003 |url=}}

Chital, Indian spotted chevrotain (Moschiola indica) and Indian muntjac (Muntiacus muntjak) have been recorded eating fallen fruit of the Indian gooseberry in a forest monitoring plot; they are therefore considered to be the primary seed dispersers in the park.{{cite journal |author1=Prasad, S. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Pittet, A. |author3=Sukumar, R. |year=2010 |title=Who really ate the fruit? A novel approach to camera trapping for quantifying frugivory by ruminants |journal=Ecological Research |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=225–231 |doi=10.1007/s11284-009-0650-1 |s2cid=46496767 |url=http://asiannature.org/sites/default/files/2010%20Sukumar%20%2C%20Prasad%20%20Who%20really%20ate%20the%20fruit%20A%20novel%20approach%20to%20camera%20trapping%20for%20quantifying%20frugivory%20by%20ruminants%20.pdf |access-date=24 April 2023 |archive-date=11 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230411044047/http://asiannature.org/sites/default/files/2010%20Sukumar%20%2C%20Prasad%20%20Who%20really%20ate%20the%20fruit%20A%20novel%20approach%20to%20camera%20trapping%20for%20quantifying%20frugivory%20by%20ruminants%20.pdf |url-status=live }} Present are also four-horned antelope (Tetracerus quadricornis), blackbuck (Antilope cervicapra), wild boar (Sus scrofa), Indian pangolin (Manis crassicaudata) and Indian crested porcupine (Hystrix indica).

{{multiple image |perrow=1 |image1=Malabar Giant Squirrel-Dogra.jpg |caption1=Indian giant squirrel}}

Four bonnet macaque (Macaca radiata) troops were studied in 1997, which ranged in size from 28 to 35 members and lived in sympatry with gray langur (Semnopithecus entellus) troops.{{cite journal |author1=Ramakrishnan, U. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Coss, R.G. |year=2000 |title=Recognition of heterospecific alarm vocalization by Bonnet Macaques (Macaca radiata) |journal=Journal of Comparative Psychology |volume=114 |issue=1 |pages=3–12 |doi=10.1037/0735-7036.114.1.3 |pmid=10739307 |citeseerx=10.1.1.558.6257}}

A troop in the Moyar River valley foraged on leaves, flowers and fruits of several tree and shrub species including tamarind (Tamarindus indica), banyan fig (Ficus benghalensis), wild jujube (Ziziphus oenoplia), neem (Azadirachta indica), kaayam (Memecylon edule) and indigoberry (Randia malabarica), but also consumed herbs, crickets and grasshoppers.{{cite journal |author1=Sinha, A. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Mukhopadhyay, K. |author3=Datta-Roy, A. |author4=Ram, S. |year=2005 |title=Ecology proposes, behaviour disposes: Ecological variability in social organization and male behavioural strategies among wild bonnet macaques |journal=Current Science |volume=89 |issue=7 |pages=1166–1179 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/255614082}}

The range of the Indian giant squirrel (Ratufa indica) is continuous in the national park's moist deciduous forest; in the drier eastern part, it inhabits foremost riverine habitat with contiguous canopy. It builds nests in trees with a mean canopy height of {{cvt|10.6|m}} and feeds on 25 plant species including teak, Indian laurel and Grewia tiliifolia.{{cite journal |author1=Baskaran, N. |author2=Venkatesan, S. |author3=Mani, J. |author4=Srivastava, S.K. |author5=Desai, A.A. |year=2011 |title=Some aspects of the ecology of the Indian Giant Squirrel Ratufa indica (Erxleben, 1777) in the tropical forests of Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary, southern India and their conservation implications |name-list-style=amp |journal=Journal of Threatened Taxa |volume=3 |issue=7 |pages=1899–1908 |doi=10.11609/JoTT.o2593.1899-908 |doi-access=free}}

The Indian giant flying squirrel (Petaurista philippensis) inhabits foremost moist deciduous forest with old trees of a mean {{cvt|12.9|m}} height, a mean density of {{cvt|499|/ha|/acre|disp=preunit|trees|trees}} and a canopy height of at least {{cvt|6.86|m}}.{{cite journal |author1=Babu, S. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Kumara, H.N. |author3=Jayson, E.A. |year=2015 |title=Distribution, abundance, and habitat signature of the Indian Giant Flying Squirrel Petaurista philippensis (Elliot 1839) in the Western Ghats, India |journal=Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society |volume=112 |issue=2 |pages=65–71 |doi=10.17087/jbnhs/2015/v112i2/104925|doi-access=free}}

In 2013, a painted bat (Kerivoula picta) was sighted in the eastern part of the tiger reserve.{{cite journal |author1=Nachiketha, S.R. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Sreepada K.S. |year=2013 |title=Occurrence of Indian Painted Bat (Kerivuola picta) in dry deciduous forests of Mudumalai Tiger Reserve, Southern India |journal=Small Mammal Mail |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=16–17 |url=https://www.zoosprint.zooreach.org/ZoosPrintNewsLetter/SMM_June2013.pdf#page=16 |access-date=24 April 2023 |archive-date=11 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220811212108/https://www.zoosprint.zooreach.org/ZoosPrintNewsLetter/SMM_June2013.pdf#page=16 |url-status=live }}

{{multiple image |perrow=1 |image1=Oriental honey buzzard Mudumalai Mar21 DSC01405.jpg |caption1=Crested honey buzzard |image2=Indian Pond Heron Bokkapuram Mar21 DSC01447.jpg |caption2=Indian pond heron in the buffer zone}}

Birds observed from 1994 to 1996 comprised 266 species; the 213 resident ones include Malabar grey hornbill (Ocyceros griseus), Indian grey hornbill (O. birostris), Indian peafowl (Pavo cristatus), Bonelli's eagle (Aquila fasciata), crested serpent eagle (Spilornis cheela), black eagle (Ictinaetus malaiensis), besra (Accipiter virgatus) and crested goshawk (A. trivirgatus), white-rumped shama (Copsychus malabaricus), Indian roller (Coracias benghalensis), greater flameback (Chrysocolaptes guttacristatus) and white-naped woodpecker (C. festivus), black-rumped flameback (Dinopium benghalense), white-bellied woodpecker (Dryocopus javensis), heart-spotted woodpecker (Hemicircus canente), rufous woodpecker (Micropternus brachyurus), greater racket-tailed drongo (Dicrurus paradiseus), grey-bellied cuckoo (Cacomantis passerinus) and Indian cuckoo (Cuculus micropterus), coppersmith barbet (Psilopogon haemacephalus), white-cheeked barbet (P. viridis) and brown-headed barbet (P. zeylanicus), grey francolin (Ortygornis pondicerianus), speckled piculet (Picumnus innominatus), Indian pond heron (Ardeola grayii), white-throated kingfisher (Halcyon smyrnensis), blue-winged parakeet (Psittacula columboides), Nilgiri wood pigeon (Columba elphinstonii), common emerald dove (Chalcophaps indica), yellow-footed pigeon (Treron phoenicoptera), red spurfowl (Galloperdix spadicea) and grey junglefowl (Gallus sonneratii), painted bush quail (Perdicula erythrorhyncha), crimson-backed sunbird (Leptocoma minima), Loten's sunbird (Cinnyris lotenius), forest wagtail (Dendronanthus indicus), white-browed wagtail (Motacilla maderaspatensis) black-and-orange flycatcher (Ficedula nigrorufa), Eurasian golden oriole (Oriolus oriolus) and black-hooded oriole (O. xanthornus).

In 2004, pin-striped tit-babblers (Mixornis gularis) were observed in a dry stream bed outside the protected area.{{cite journal |author1=Praveen, J. |year=2004 |name-list-style=amp |author2=Joseph, J. K. |author3=Lethaby, N. |title=Sighting of Yellow-breasted Babbler Macronous gularis in South India |journal=Newsletter for Ornithologists |volume=1 |issue=3 |page=43 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/277333284}}

December to March is the breeding season of yellow-crowned woodpecker (Leiopicus mahrattensis), streak-throated woodpecker (Picus xanthopygaeus), yellow-throated sparrow (Gymnoris xanthocollis), blue-bearded bee-eater (Nyctyornis atherton), Indian robin (Saxicoloides fulicatus), scaly-breasted munia (Lonchura punctulata) and white-rumped munia (L. striata).

Spot-bellied eagle-owl, Oriental scops owl (Otus sunia), brown boobook (Ninox scutulata) and jungle owlet (Glaucidium radiatum) are known night birds in the region.{{cite report |author1=Jayson, E.A. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Sivaram, M. |year=2009 |title=Ecology and behaviour of forest owls in the Western Ghats and developing a habitat model for their conservation |publisher=Kerala Forest Research Institute |series=343 |place=Peechi, Kerala}}

A juvenile cinereous vulture (Aegypius monachus) was recorded in spring 2019.{{cite journal |author1=Mohan, A. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Muralidhar, A. |year=2019 |title=Cinereous Vulture Aegypius monachus in Mudumalai Tiger Reserve, Western Ghats, and its status in southern India |journal=Indian Birds |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages=93–94 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/335749386}} The vulture populations in Moyar River valley were surveyed in March 2019. About 200 white-rumped vultures and about 30 active white-backed vulture (Gyps africanus) nests were observed; Indian vultures (G. indicus) and red-headed vultures (Sarcogyps calvus) were sighted at several locations.{{cite journal |author1=Chandrasekaran, S. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Kannan, V. |year=2021 |title=Population survey of the highly threatened Gyps vultures in Sathyamangalam and Mudumalai tiger reserves, Tamil Nadu, India |journal=Zoo's Print |volume=36 |issue=7 |pages=15–19 |url=https://zoosprint.zooreach.org/index.php/zp/article/view/4/4 |access-date=24 April 2023 |archive-date=24 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220624232207/https://zoosprint.zooreach.org/index.php/zp/article/view/4/4 |url-status=live }}

Sightings of migrating birds include booted eagle (Hieraaetus pennatus), rufous-bellied eagle (Lophotriorchis kienerii), Eurasian sparrowhawk (Accipiter nisus), common buzzard (Buteo buteo), western marsh harrier (Circus aeruginosus) and pallid harrier (C. macrourus), cotton pygmy goose (Nettapus coromandelianus), knob-billed duck (Sarkidiornis melanotos), northern pintail (Anas acuta) and rosy starling (Pastor roseus).

White storks (Ciconia ciconia) were observed in December 2013 and February 2014.{{cite journal |author1=Samson, A. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Ramakrishnan, B. |year=2018 |title=White Stork: Sighting record of Ciconia ciconia (Linnaeus, 1758) in Mudumalai Tiger Reserve, Nilgiris, India |journal=Zoo's Print |volume=33 |issue=8 |pages=16–18 |url=https://zoosprint.zooreach.org/index.php/zp/article/view/4/4 |access-date=24 April 2023 |archive-date=24 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220624232207/https://zoosprint.zooreach.org/index.php/zp/article/view/4/4 |url-status=live }}

File:MNP Python at Moyer.jpg

In 1992, six Indian star tortoises (Geochelone elegans) were sighted in scrubland at elevations of {{cvt|850|-|950|m}}.{{cite journal |author1=Bhupathy, S. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Silori, C.S. |author3=Wesley Sunderraj, S.F. |year=1994 |title=Additional locality records for two Indian tortoise species |journal=The Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society |volume=91 |issue=1 |pages=149–150 |url=https://archive.org/details/journalofbomba9111994bomb/page/149/mode/1up}}

An ornate flying snake (Chrysopelea ornata) was observed in 2006.{{cite journal |author1=Kannan, P. |year=2006 |title=Record of ornate Flying Snake Chrysopelea ornata (Shaw) in Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary, southern India |journal=Cobra |volume=63 |pages=13}}

The mugger crocodile (Crocodylus palustris) population in Moyar River was thought to encompass about 100 individuals as of 2009.{{cite journal |author1=Johnsingh, A.J.T. |author1-link=A. J. T. Johnsingh |name-list-style=amp |author2=Raghunath, R. |author3=Pillay, R. |author4=Madhusudan, M.D. |year=2010 |title=Ensuring the future of the tiger and other large mammals in the southern portion of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, Southern India |journal=Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society |volume=107 |issue=2 |pages=77–85 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/255785728}}

Small reptiles recorded in Mudumalai National Park comprise striped coral snake (Calliophis nigrescens), Elliot's forest lizard (Monilesaurus ellioti), Jerdon's day gecko (Cnemaspis jerdonii), Goan day gecko (C. indraneildasii) and Beddome's ground skink (Kaestlea beddomii).{{cite book |author1=Srinivsaulu, C. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Srinivasulu, B. |author3=Molur, S. (Compilers). |year=2014 |title=The Status and Distribution of Reptiles in the Western Ghats, India Conservation Assessment and Management Plan (CAMP) |publisher=Wildlife Information Liaison Development Society |location=Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu |isbn=978-81-88722-40-2 |url=https://zooreach.org/downloads/ZOO_CAMP_PHVA_reports/2014-Reptile-Report.pdf |access-date=24 April 2023 |archive-date=24 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230424004953/https://zooreach.org/downloads/ZOO_CAMP_PHVA_reports/2014-Reptile-Report.pdf |url-status=live }}

A dead Bibron's coral snake (Calliophis bibroni) was discovered on the road in the Theppakadu area at an elevation of {{cvt|894|m}} in August 2013, the first record since 1874.{{cite journal |author1=Samson, A. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Ramakrishnan, B. |author3=Rathinakumar, S. |author4=Renuka, S. |author5=Santhoshkumar, P. |author6=Karthick, S. |year=2014 |title=Calliophis bibroni (Bibroni Coral Snake): Rediscovery in Mudumalai Tiger Reserve, South India |journal=Herpetological Bulletin |volume=127 |pages=35–36 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/308656175}}

A Bengal monitor (Varanus bengalensis) was recorded in 2018.

The Indian rock python (Python molurus) was studied in the frame of a telemetry project in the Moyar River valley from 2017 to 2020. In February 2019, a {{cvt|3.7|m}} long female Indian rock python was observed mating with two smaller males measuring {{cvt|1.98|and|2.22|m}}.{{cite journal |author1=Vishnu, S.N. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Ramesh, C. |author3=Thirumurugan, V. |author4=Sathish, C. |title=Size matters: First record of minimum male size at maturity and mating of free-ranging, endangered Indian Python Python molurus |year=2021 |journal=Asian Journal of Conservation Biology |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=153–158 |doi=10.53562/ajcb.AQOE1932 |s2cid=237985669 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/353181768|doi-access=free}}

The Moyar River and tributaries harbour 38 fish species, including Nilgiri mystus (Hemibagrus punctatus), Puntius mudumalaiensis, Puntius melanostigma, reba carp (Cirrhinus reba), common carp (Cyprinus carpio), Deccan mahseer (Tor khudree), Malabar baril (Barilius gatensis), mullya garra (Garra mullya), zig-zag eel (Mastacembelus armatus) and bullseye snakehead (Channa marulius).

From 1979 to 2011, remains of 148 dead Asian elephants were found in the park; 50 individuals were killed by poachers.{{cite journal |author1=Davidar, P. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Mammen, P.C. |author3=Puyravaud, J.P. |author4=Srivastava, R. |author5=Wright, B. |year=2015 |title=Mortality records (1979–2011) shed light on threats to Asian Elephants Elephas maximus Linnaeus, 1758 (Mammalia: Proboscidea: Elephantidae) in Nilgiris, southern India |journal=Journal of Threatened Taxa |volume=7 |issue=8 |pages=7436–7442 |doi=10.11609/jott.o4332.7436-42 |doi-access=free}}

Traffic on three public roads cutting through Mudumalai National Park pose a significant threat to the park's wildlife; between December 1998 and March 1999 alone, 180 animals belonging to 40 species were killed by drivers.{{cite journal |author1=Baskaran, N. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Boominathan, D. |year=2010 |title=Road kill of animals by highway traffic in the tropical forests of Mudumalai Tiger Reserve, southern India |journal=Journal of Threatened Taxa |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=753–759 |doi=10.11609/JoTT.o2101.753-9 |doi-access=free}} Between December 2006 and November 2007, 101 amphibians and 78 reptiles became roadkills on a {{cvt|6|km}} stretch of the national highway passing through the park including Indirana frogs, Indian skipper frog (Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis), bronzed frog (Indosylvirana temporalis), pigmy wrinkled frog (Nyctibatrachus beddomii), Asian common toad (Duttaphrynus melanostictus), common green forest lizard (Calotes calotes), Blanford's rock agama (Psammophilus blanfordanus), Mysore day gecko (Cnemaspis mysoriensis), bronze grass skink (Eutropis macularia), green keelback (Rhabdophis plumbicolor), trinket snake (Coelognathus helena), Russell's viper (Daboia russelii), common krait (Bungarus caeruleus) and hump-nosed viper (Hypnale hypnale).{{cite journal |author1=Bhupathy, S. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Srinivas, G. |author3=Kumar, N.S. |author4=Karthik, T. |author5=Madhivanan, A. |year=2011 |title=Herpetofaunal mortality due to vehicular traffic in the Western Ghats, India: a case study |journal=Herpetotropicos |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=119–126 |url=http://erevistas.saber.ula.ve/index.php/herpetotropicos/article/viewFile/4043/3859 |access-date=24 April 2023 |archive-date=9 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220809145137/http://erevistas.saber.ula.ve/index.php/herpetotropicos/article/viewFile/4043/3859 |url-status=live }} Between January 2014 and December 2016, 497 Indian palm squirrels (Funambulus palmarum) were found killed in traffic collisions on a {{cvt|40|km}} long stretch of a state highway passing through the park.{{cite journal |author1=Samson, A. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Ramakrishnan, B. |author3=Leonaprincy, J. |year=2020 |title=A threat assessment of Three-striped Palm Squirrel Funambulus palmarum (Mammalia: Rodentia: Sciuridae) from roadkills in Sigur Plateau, Mudumalai Tiger Reserve, Tamil Nadu, India |journal=Journal of Threatened Taxa |volume=12 |issue=10 |pages=16347–16351 |doi=10.11609/jott.3378.12.10.16347-16351 |doi-access=free}} A {{cvt|0.913|m}} long roadkilled Bibron's coral snake was found in September 2016.{{cite journal |author1=Samson, A. J. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Leona Princy, J. |year=2019 |title=Largest record of Bibron's Coral Snake Calliophis bibroni Jan, 1858) in Mudumalai Tiger Reserve, India |journal=Zoo's Print |volume=34 |issue=8 |pages=10–11 |url=https://zoosprint.zooreach.org/index.php/zp/article/view/5488/4908 |access-date=24 April 2023 |archive-date=8 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220808010540/https://zoosprint.zooreach.org/index.php/zp/article/view/5488/4908 |url-status=live }}

Proliferating tourism resorts and increasing demand for firewood at the national park's periphery are also considered threats to its ecosystem. In 1995, the annual firewood need was estimated at {{cvt|376|kg}} per person living in the periphery of the national park.{{cite thesis |author=Ganesan, B. |year=1995 |title=Fire, grazing, and extraction of non-timber forest products in the Nilgiris Biosphere Reserve, southern India: Implications for forest policy, sustainable use and local economies |type=Doctoral dissertation |publisher=Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey |location=New Brunswick |url=https://www.proquest.com/openview/037b01e4dfcf413109f92ffe546a7cbf/ |access-date=24 April 2023 |archive-date=30 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211030010236/https://www.proquest.com/openview/037b01e4dfcf413109f92ffe546a7cbf/ |url-status=live }}

Between 1999 and 2013, six forest fires affected dry deciduous forest patches ranging in size from {{cvt|80|ha}} to {{cvt|85|km2}} in the northern part of the national park; the plant diversity in burned patches needs more than 15 years to recover.{{cite journal |author1=Verma, S. |author2=Singh, D. |author3=Mani, S. |name-list-style=amp |author4=Jayakumar, S. |year=2017 |title=Effect of forest fire on tree diversity and regeneration potential in a tropical dry deciduous forest of Mudumalai Tiger Reserve, Western Ghats, India |journal=Ecological Processes |volume=6 |issue=32 |doi=10.1186/s13717-017-0098-0 |doi-access=free}}

{{div col|colwidth=23em}}

• Wildlife of Tamil Nadu
• List of birds of Tamil Nadu
• List of endemic plants in the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve
• 2019 Bandipur forest fires

{{div col end}}

{{Commons category|position=left|Mudumalai National Park}}

{{reflist}}

{{Wikivoyage|Mudumalai National Park}}

• {{cite AV media |date=2016 |title=A Day In Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve - A Lifescape To Experience |work=Wild Channel Productions |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XNhDo1Mb4zE |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211221/XNhDo1Mb4zE |archive-date=2021-12-21 |url-status=live}}{{cbignore}}
• {{cite news |title=Wildfire destroys over 10,000 acres of Bandipur forest |newspaper=The Indian Express |date=2019 |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/karnataka/2019/feb/25/wildfire-destroys-over-10k-acres-of-bandipur-forest-1943317.html}}
• {{cite web |date=1988 |title=Mudumalai Sanctuary |url=http://sea.unep-wcmc.org/sites/pa/0196v.htm |archive-url=https://archive.today/20070804094752/http://sea.unep-wcmc.org/sites/pa/0196v.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=2007-08-04 |work=UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre}}
• {{Cite news |last1=Suvarna |first1=P. |last2=Raghunath |first2=A. |date=2021 |title=Illicit tourism extracts its cost from nature |work=Deccan Herald |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/specials/insight/illicit-tourism-extracts-its-cost-from-nature-948459.html |access-date=18 April 2021}}
• {{Cite news |last1=Palaniappan |first1=V. S. |last2=Sudhakar |first2=P. |date=2016 |title=Pros and cons of notification on tiger reserves |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/pros-and-cons-of-notification-on-tiger-reserves/article3796160.ece |access-date=18 April 2021}}
• {{cite web |title=Photos taken in Theppakadu |url=http://greenwaysroad.com/MyAlbums/India2/Theppakadu/index.html |work=Greenwaysroad |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080501202114/http://greenwaysroad.com/MyAlbums/India2/Theppakadu/index.html |archive-date=1 May 2008}}

{{Protected areas of Tamil Nadu}}

{{Tourism in The Nilgiris}}

{{National Parks of India}}

{{Tiger Reserves of India}}

Category:Tiger reserves of India

Category:National parks in Tamil Nadu

Category:Protected areas established in 1940

Category:1940 establishments in India

Category:Nilgiris district

Category:South Western Ghats moist deciduous forests

Category:Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests