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Observatory

{{short description|Location used for observing terrestrial or celestial events}}

{{Other uses|Observatory (disambiguation)}}

File:Royal observatory Greenwich.JPG in England]]

An observatory is a location used for observing terrestrial, marine, or celestial events. Astronomy, climatology/meteorology, geophysics, oceanography and volcanology are examples of disciplines for which observatories have been constructed.Udías, Agustín (2003) [https://books.google.com/books?id=SRdJCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA3 Searching the Heavens and the Earth] Kluwer Academic Publishers p3

The term observatoire has been used in French since at least 1976 to denote any institution that compiles and presents data on a particular subject (such as public health observatory) or for a particular geographic area (European Audiovisual Observatory).

Astronomical observatories

{{main|List of astronomical observatories}}

{{see also|Observational astronomy}}

Astronomical observatories are mainly divided into four categories: space-based, airborne, ground-based, and underground-based. Historically, ground-based observatories were as simple as containing a mural instrument (for measuring the angle between stars) or Stonehenge (which has some alignments on astronomical phenomena).

=Ground-based observatories=

{{multiple image

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|image1 = ALMA’s Solitude01.jpg

|image2 = 20041225-Paranal.jpg

|image3 = Mauna Kea observatory.jpg

|image4 = Haleakala Observatory Maui (45015823284).jpg

|caption1 = Atacama Large Millimeter Array, Chile, at {{convert|5,058|m|ft|abbr=on}}{{cite web|title=ALMA's Solitude|url=http://www.eso.org/public/images/potw1252a/|work=Picture of the Week|publisher=ESO|access-date=26 December 2012}}

|caption2 = Paranal Observatory, Chile, home of the VLT at {{convert|2,635|m|ft|abbr=on}}

|caption3 = The Mauna Kea Observatories, Hawaii, home of several of the world's largest optical telescopes at {{convert|4205|m|ft|abbr=on}}

|caption4 = Haleakala Observatory at {{convert|3,036|m|ft|abbr=off}}, Maui, Hawaii

}}

Ground-based observatories, located on the surface of Earth, are used to make observations in the radio and visible light portions of the electromagnetic spectrum. Most optical telescopes are housed within a dome or similar structure, to protect the delicate instruments from the elements. Telescope domes have a slit or other opening in the roof that can be opened during observing, and closed when the telescope is not in use. In most cases, the entire upper portion of the telescope dome can be rotated to allow the instrument to observe different sections of the night sky. Radio telescopes usually do not have domes.{{citation needed|date=March 2024}}

For optical telescopes, most ground-based observatories are located far from major centers of population, to avoid the effects of light pollution. The ideal locations for modern observatories are sites that have dark skies, a large percentage of clear nights per year, dry air, and are at high elevations. At high elevations, the Earth's atmosphere is thinner, thereby minimizing the effects of atmospheric turbulence and resulting in better astronomical "seeing".{{cite book| last = Chaisson| first = Eric|author2=McMillan, Steve| title = Astronomy Today, Fourth Edition| pages = 116–119|publisher = Prentice Hall| date = 2002}} Sites that meet the above criteria for modern observatories include the southwestern United States, Hawaii, Canary Islands, the Andes, and high mountains in Mexico such as Sierra Negra.{{cite book | last = Chaisson| first = Eric|author2=McMillan, Steve| title = Astronomy Today, Fourth Edition| page = 119|publisher = Prentice Hall| date = 2002}} Major optical observatories include Mauna Kea Observatory and Kitt Peak National Observatory in the US, Roque de los Muchachos Observatory in Spain, and Paranal Observatory and Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory in Chile.Leverington, David (2017) [https://books.google.com/books?id=o0xsDQAAQBAJ Observatories and Telescopes of Modern Times] Cambridge Univ Press {{ISBN|9780521899932}}Meszaros, Stephen Paul (1986) [https://books.google.com/books?id=ReWYs1AImFcC&pg=PA2 World Atlas of Large Optical Telescopes] NASA TM 87775 p2

Specific research study performed in 2009 shows that the best possible location for ground-based observatory on Earth is Ridge A — a place in the central part of Eastern Antarctica.{{Cite journal |last1=Saunders |first1=Will |last2=Lawrence |first2=Jon S. |last3=Storey |first3=John W. V. |last4=Ashley |first4=Michael C. B. |last5=Kato |first5=Seiji |last6=Minnis |first6=Patrick |last7=Winker |first7=David M. |last8=Liu |first8=Guiping |last9=Kulesa |first9=Craig |name-list-style=amp |date=2009 |title=Where Is the Best Site on Earth? Domes A, B, C, and F, and Ridges A and B |journal=Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific |volume=121 |issue=883 |pages=976–992 |doi=10.1086/605780|bibcode=2009PASP..121..976S|arxiv = 0905.4156 |s2cid=11166739 }} This location provides the least atmospheric disturbances and best visibility.{{citation needed|date=March 2024}}

==Solar observatories==

{{main|Solar telescope}}

==Radio observatories==

Beginning in 1933, radio telescopes have been built for use in the field of radio astronomy to observe the Universe in the radio portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. Such an instrument, or collection of instruments, with supporting facilities such as control centres, visitor housing, data reduction centers, and/or maintenance facilities are called radio observatories. Radio observatories are similarly located far from major population centers to avoid electromagnetic interference (EMI) from radio, TV, radar, and other EMI emitting devices, but unlike optical observatories, radio observatories can be placed in valleys for further EMI shielding. Some of the world's major radio observatories include the Very Large Array in New Mexico, United States, Jodrell Bank in the UK, Arecibo in Puerto Rico, Parkes in New South Wales, Australia, and Chajnantor in Chile. A related discipline is Very-long-baseline interferometry (VLBI).{{citation needed|date=March 2024}}

==Highest astronomical observatories==

{{main|List of highest astronomical observatories}}

Since the mid-20th century, a number of astronomical observatories have been constructed at very high altitudes, above {{convert|4000|–|5000|m|ft|abbr=on}}. The largest and most notable of these is the Mauna Kea Observatory, located near the summit of a {{convert|4205|m|ft|abbr=on}} volcano in Hawaiʻi. The Chacaltaya Astrophysical Observatory in Bolivia, at {{convert|5230|m|ft|abbr=on}}, was the world's highest permanent astronomical observatory{{cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.asr.2008.10.039|last=Zanini|first=A.|author2=Storini, M.|author3=Saavedra, O.|date=2009|title=Cosmic rays at High Mountain Observatories|journal=Advances in Space Research|volume=44|issue=10|pages=1160–1165|bibcode=2009AdSpR..44.1160Z}} from the time of its construction during the 1940s until 2009. It has now been surpassed by the new University of Tokyo Atacama Observatory,{{cite web|url=http://www.s.u-tokyo.ac.jp/press/press-2009-15en.html|title=The 1m telescope at the Atacama Observatory has Started Scientific Operation, detecting the Hydrogen Emission Line from the Galactic Center in the Infrared Light|last=Yoshii|first=Yuzuru|display-authors=etal|date=August 11, 2009|work=Press Release|publisher=School of Science, the University of Tokyo|access-date=21 December 2009|archive-date=28 May 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100528115920/http://www.s.u-tokyo.ac.jp/press/press-2009-15en.html|url-status=dead}} an optical-infrared telescope on a remote {{convert|5640|m|ft|abbr=on}} mountaintop in the Atacama Desert of Chile.

{{multiple image

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| image1 = Daniells1808a.jpg

| image2 = Chichen Itza Observatory 2 1.jpg

| image3 = Maragheh observatory 2.JPG

| image4 = Jantar Mantar at Jaipur.jpg

| image5 = Tartu asv2022-04 img06 Old Observatory.jpg

| image6 = SLNSW 479519 16 Observatory SH 198.jpg

| image7 = Quito Observatory.JPG

| image8 = STANICA LANOVKY S OBSERVATÓRIOM.JPG

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| caption1 = Ancient Indian observatory at Delhi

| caption2 = "El Caracol" observatory temple at Chichen Itza, Mexico

| caption3 = Remains of the Maragheh observatory (under dome) at Maragheh, Iran

| caption4 = Jantar Mantar in Jaipur, India

| caption5 = The Estonian Tartu Observatory starting point of the Struve Geodetic ArcTaavi Tuvikene, [http://www.obs.ee/index_eng.html Tartu Old Observatory], 18 February 2009[https://web.archive.org/web/20140611231732/http://www.to.ee/eng Tartu Observatory – Official website (English version)]

| caption6 = 19th century Observatory Sydney, Australia (1872)[https://web.archive.org/web/20030602155203/http://www.sydneyobservatory.com.au/ Official Web Site] of the Sydney Observatory

| caption7 = Ecuador's 1873-Quito Astronomical Observatory near the Equator{{Cite web |url=http://astroguyz.com/2009/12/09/the-oldest-observatory-in-south-america/ |title=One of the Oldest Observatories in South America is the Quito Astronomical Observatory |access-date=2015-01-05 |archive-date=2012-01-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118055218/http://astroguyz.com/2009/12/09/the-oldest-observatory-in-south-america/ |url-status=dead }}[http://oaq.epn.edu.ec/ Official website of the Quito Astronomical Observatory]

| caption8 = The 1962-built Solar observatory on Lomnický peak in Slovakia{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/in-pictures-29059374 |title=Slovakia's High Tatras mountains are seen from the solar observatory station on the Lomnicky Stit peak|publisher=BBC|date= 5 September 2014}}[https://thestarphoenix.com/news/Photos+World+Photos+Sept/10174778/story.html A long time exposed picture taken by night shows Slovakia's High Tatras mountains seen from the Solar observatory station on the Lomnicky Stit peak] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171016031205/http://www.thestarphoenix.com/news/Photos+World+Photos+Sept/10174778/story.html |date=2017-10-16 }} 4 September 2014.

| caption9 = A modern observatory in Tehran's Ab-o-Atash Park, Iran

| image10 = Griffith observatory 2006.jpg

| caption10 = Griffith Observatory in September 2006 in Los Angeles, California

}}

==Oldest astronomical observatories==

{{main|List of archaeoastronomical sites by country}}

The oldest proto-observatories, in the sense of an observation post for astronomy,

  • Wurdi Youang, Australia
  • Zorats Karer, Karahunj, Armenia
  • Loughcrew, Ireland
  • Newgrange, Ireland
  • Stonehenge, Great Britain
  • Chankillo, Peru
  • El Caracol, Mexico
  • Buto, Egypt{{Cite web |last=Radley |first=Dario |date=2024-08-24 |title=Ancient astronomical observatory discovered in Egypt |url=https://archaeologymag.com/2024/08/astronomical-observatory-discovered-in-kafr-el-sheikh/ |access-date=2024-12-30 |website=Archaeology News Online Magazine |language=en-US}}
  • Abu Simbel, Egypt
  • Kokino, Kumanovo, North Macedonia
  • Observatory at Rhodes, Greece"[https://www.britannica.com/facts/5/147663/Hipparchus-as-discussed-in-astronomical-observatory Facts about Hipparchus: astronomical observatory, as discussed in astronomical observatory:]". Encyclopædia Britannica.{{Dead link|date=May 2014}}
  • Goseck circle, Germany
  • Ujjain, India
  • Arkaim, Russia
  • Cheomseongdae, South Korea
  • Angkor Wat, Cambodia

The oldest true observatories, in the sense of a specialized research institute,{{Cite book |contributor-last=Micheau |contributor-first=Francoise |contribution=The Scientific Institutions in the Medieval Near East |pages=992–3 |last1=Rashed |first1=Roshdi |last2=Morelon |first2=Régis |date=1996 |title=Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-12410-2 |title-link=Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science}}Peter Barrett (2004), Science and Theology Since Copernicus: The Search for Understanding, p. 18, Continuum International Publishing Group, {{ISBN|0-567-08969-X}}{{Cite journal |last=Kennedy |first=Edward S. |date=1962 |title=Review: The Observatory in Islam and Its Place in the General History of the Observatory by Aydin Sayili |journal=Isis |volume=53 |issue=2 |pages=237–239 |doi=10.1086/349558 }} include:

=Space-based observatories=

{{main|Space telescope}}

File:Hubble Space Telescope (27946391011).jpg in Earth's orbit]]

Space-based observatories are telescopes or other instruments that are located in outer space, many in orbit around the Earth. Space telescopes can be used to observe astronomical objects at wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum that cannot penetrate the Earth's atmosphere and are thus impossible to observe using ground-based telescopes. The Earth's atmosphere is opaque to ultraviolet radiation, X-rays, and gamma rays and is partially opaque to infrared radiation so observations in these portions of the electromagnetic spectrum are best carried out from a location above the atmosphere of our planet.{{cite book| last = Chaisson| first = Eric|author2=McMillan, Steve| title = Astronomy Today, Fourth Edition| publisher = Prentice Hall| date = 2002}} Another advantage of space-based telescopes is that, because of their location above the Earth's atmosphere, their images are free from the effects of atmospheric turbulence that plague ground-based observations.{{cite web|publisher=NASA|url=https://history.nasa.gov/hubble/index.html|title=A Brief History of the Hubble Space Telescope: Why a Space Telescope?|access-date=2006-08-14}} As a result, the angular resolution of space telescopes such as the Hubble Space Telescope is often much smaller than a ground-based telescope with a similar aperture. However, all these advantages do come with a price. Space telescopes are much more expensive to build than ground-based telescopes. Due to their location, space telescopes are also extremely difficult to maintain. The Hubble Space Telescope was able to be serviced by the Space Shuttles while many other space telescopes cannot be serviced at all.

=Airborne observatories=

{{main|Airborne observatory}}

File:SOFIA with open telescope doors.jpg on board a Boeing 747SP]]

Airborne observatories have the advantage of height over ground installations, putting them above most of the Earth's atmosphere. They also have an advantage over space telescopes: The instruments can be deployed, repaired and updated much more quickly and inexpensively. The Kuiper Airborne Observatory and the Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy use airplanes to observe in the infrared, which is absorbed by water vapor in the atmosphere. High-altitude balloons for X-ray astronomy have been used in a variety of countries.{{citation needed|date=March 2024}}

=Neutrino observatories=

{{main|Neutrino detector}}

Example underground, underwater or under ice neutrino observatories include:

Meteorological observatories

{{main|Weather station}}

Example meteorological observatories include:

=See also=

Marine observatories

A marine observatory is a scientific institution whose main task is to make observations in the fields of meteorology, geomagnetism and tides that are important for the navy and civil shipping. An astronomical observatory is usually also attached. Some of these observatories also deal with nautical weather forecasts and storm warnings, astronomical time services, nautical calendars and seismology.

Example marine observatories include:

=See also=

Magnetic observatories

A magnetic observatory is a facility which precisely measures the total intensity of Earth's magnetic field for field strength and direction at standard intervals. Geomagnetic observatories are most useful when located away from human activities to avoid disturbances of anthropogenic origin, and the observation data is collected at a fixed location continuously for decades. Magnetic observations are aggregated, processed, quality checked and made public through data centers such as INTERMAGNET.Gupta, Harsh (ed) (2021) [https://books.google.com/books?id=BHgOwNCGbnAC&pg=PA774 Encyclopedia of Solid Earth Geophysics] Springer {{ISBN|9783030586300}} p774[https://books.google.com/books?id=Fwpqqur1KCIC&pg=PA57 Principal Facts of the Earth's Magnetism] U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, 1919 pp57-59

The types of measuring equipment at an observatory may include magnetometers (torsion, declination-inclination fluxgate, proton precession, Overhauser-effect), variometer (3-component vector, total-field scalar), dip circle, inclinometer, earth inductor, theodolite, self-recording magnetograph, magnetic declinometer, azimuth compass. Once a week at the absolute reference point calibration measurements are performed.Jankowski, J. and Sucksdorff, C. (1996) IAGA Guide for Magnetic Measurements and Observatory Practice {{ISBN|0965068625}}

Example magnetic observatories include:

Seismic observatories

{{main|International Federation of Digital Seismograph Networks}}

Example seismic observation projects and observatories include:

Geodetic observatories

{{main|Fundamental station}}

Cosmic-ray observatories

{{main|Cosmic-ray observatory}}

Gravitational wave observatories

Example gravitational wave observatories include:

Wildlife observatories

{{main|Bird observatory}}

Volcano observatories

{{main|Volcano observatory}}

A volcano observatory is an institution that conducts the monitoring of a volcano as well as research in order to understand the potential impacts of active volcanism. Among the best known are the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory and the Vesuvius Observatory. Mobile volcano observatories exist with the USGS VDAP (Volcano Disaster Assistance Program), to be deployed on demand. Each volcano observatory has a geographic area of responsibility it is assigned to whereby the observatory is tasked with spreading activity forecasts, analyzing potential volcanic activity threats and cooperating with communities in preparation for volcanic eruption.{{cite web |title=USGS operates five U.S. Volcano Observatories |url=https://www.usgs.gov/natural-hazards/volcano-hazards/observatories#:~:text=The%20YVO%20is%20a%20consortium,Idaho%2C%20Montana%2C%20and%20Wyoming. |publisher=U.S. Geological Survey |access-date=8 February 2021}}

See also

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References

{{Reflist|30em}}

Further reading

  • Aubin, David; Charlotte Bigg, and H. Otto Sibum, eds. The Heavens on Earth: Observatories and Astronomy in Nineteenth-Century Science and Culture (Duke University Press; 2010) 384 pages; Topics include astronomy as military science in Sweden, the Pulkovo Observatory in the Russia of Czar Nicholas I, and physics and the astronomical community in late 19th-century America.
  • Brunier, Serge, et al. Great Observatories of the World (2005)
  • Dick, Steven. [http://www.cambridge.org/gb/knowledge/isbn/item5708676/?site_locale=en_GB Sky and Ocean Joined: The U.S. Naval Observatory 1830–2000] (2003)
  • Gressot Julien and Jeanneret Romain, « Determining the right time, or the establishment of a culture of astronomical precision at Neuchâtel Observatory in the mid-19th century », Journal for the History of Astronomy, 53(1), 2022, 27–48, https://doi.org/10.1177/00218286211068572
  • Leverington, David. Observatories and Telescopes of Modern Times - Ground-Based Optical and Radio Astronomy Facilities since 1945. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2017, {{ISBN|9780521899932}}.
  • McCray, W. Patrick. Giant Telescopes: Astronomical Ambition and the Promise of Technology (2004); focuses on the Gemini Observatory.
  • Sage, Leslie, and Gail Aschenbrenner. A Visitor's Guide to the Kitt Peak Observatories (2004)

External links

{{Wiktionary}}

{{commons}}

  • [https://web.archive.org/web/20080919023315/http://www.wvuo.info/ Western Visayas Local Urban Observatory] (archived 19 September 2008)
  • [https://web.archive.org/web/20150904063323/http://files.library.northwestern.edu/findingaids/dearborn.pdf Dearborn Observatory Records, Northwestern University Archives, Evanston, Illinois] (archived 4 September 2015)
  • [http://www.eso.org/~ndelmott/obs_sites.html Coordinates and satellite images of astronomical observatories on Earth]
  • [http://www.observatory-guide.org/ Milkyweb Astronomical Observatory Guide] world's largest database of astronomical observatories since 2000{{spaced ndash}}about 2000 entries
  • [http://cleardarksky.com/cgi-bin/find_clock.py?keys=%22%5C%28observatoire%5C%7Cobservatory%5C%7Cobservatories%5C%29%22&type=text&doit=Find List of amateur and professional observatories in North America with custom weather forecasts]
  • [http://robslink.com/SAS/democd32/observatories.htm Map showing many of the Astronomical Observatories around the world (with drilldown links)]
  • [http://physics.usc.edu/solar/ Mt. Wilson Observatory] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071024010701/http://physics.usc.edu/solar/ |date=2007-10-24 }}

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