Proto-Torres–Banks language#Regular sound changes from Proto-Oceanic
{{short description|Reconstructed ancestor of the Torres–Banks languages}}
{{Infobox proto-language
| name = Proto-Torres–Banks
| altname = PTB
| familycolor = Austronesian
| era = after 1000 BCE
| region = Torres and Banks Islands
| ancestor = Proto-Austronesian
| ancestor2 = Proto-Malayo-Polynesian
| ancestor3 = Proto-Oceanic
| ancestor4 = Proto-North-Central Vanuatu
| target = Torres–Banks languages
}}
Proto-Torres–Banks (abbr. PTB) is the reconstructed ancestor of the seventeen languages of the Torres and Banks Islands of Vanuatu. Like all indigenous languages of Vanuatu, it belongs to the Oceanic branch of the Austronesian languages.
More specifically, it is the shared ancestor of the following modern languages (ranked geographically, from NW to SE): Hiw, Lo-Toga, Lehali, Löyöp, Volow, Mwotlap, Lemerig, Vera'a, Vurës, Mwesen, Mota, Nume, Dorig, Koro, Olrat, Lakon, and Mwerlap.
Reconstruction
Proto-Torres–Banks, as reconstructed with the comparative method from the attested daughter languages, evidently represented an early, mutually intelligible chain of Oceanic dialects in the northern part of Vanuatu starting from 1000 BCE after Lapita settlement of the archipelago, as evidenced by the pattern of loss and retention of the Proto-Oceanic phoneme *R, which merged with *r in the early history of the North-Central Vanuatu dialect chain. It therefore is not a "true" proto-language in the sense of an undifferentiated language ancestral to all Torres–Banks languages, but rather a part of the early North-Central Vanuatu linkage with some dialectal variation across different island groups, before they eventually disintegrated into mutually unintelligible languages.François (2011).
Elements of the proto-language have been proposed by linguist Alexandre François: vowels and consonants, personal pronouns,François (2009, 2016). space system,François (2015). vocabulary.François (2005): 489-502; 2013).
Phonology
=Phoneme inventory=
Proto-Torres–Banks had 5 phonemic vowels, /i e a o u/,François (2005). and 16 consonants:
:
| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+Vowels ! ! Front ! Back |
| Close
| align=center | *{{IPA link|i}} | align=center | *{{IPA link|u}} |
|---|
| Close-mid
| align=center | *{{IPA link|e}} | align=center | *{{IPA link|o}} |
| Open
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"| *{{IPA link|a}} |
:
| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+Consonants ! colspan="2" | |
| rowspan="2" |Stop
|*{{IPA link|ᵐ}}{{IPA link|b}}{{IPA link|ʷ}} |*{{IPA link|ᵐ}}{{IPA link|b}} |*{{IPA link|ⁿ}}{{IPA link|d}} |*{{IPA link|ᵑ}}{{IPA link|g}} |
|---|
| voiceless
| | |*{{IPA link|t}} | |
| colspan="2" |Nasal
|*{{IPA link|m}}{{IPA link|ʷ}} |*{{IPA link|m}} |*{{IPA link|n}} |*{{IPA link|ŋ}} |
| colspan="2" |Fricative
| |*{{IPA link|β}} {{angbr|v}} |*{{IPA link|s}} |*{{IPA link|ɣ}} |
| colspan="2" |Approximant
|*{{IPA link|w}} | |*{{IPA link|l}}, *{{IPA link|r}} |*{{IPA link|j}} |
Following the loss of final POc consonants (or dialectal addition of a paragogic vowel), syllable structure in Proto-Torres–Banks was open, i.e. (C)V with optional consonant: e.g. POc *quraŋ "crayfish" > PTB *ura ~ *uraŋi; POc *matiruʀ "to sleep" > PTB *matiru; POc *laŋit "sky" > {{abbr|{{sc|ptb}}|Proto-Torres–Banks}} *laŋi "wind". No descendant language preserves this situation today, but it can still be found in other related languages such as Gela and Uneapa.
Stress fell on the penultimate syllable. Following the pervasive loss of final vowels, descendant languages usually have stress on the final syllable. Vera'a and Mota have lost stress entirely.
=Evolution of vowels=
In all of the descendant languages except for Mota, vowel hybridization occurred (a form of metaphony or umlaut). Later, a process of vowel deletion took place whereby every second vowel, being unstressed, was dropped: this resulted in an increase in the number of vowel phonemes – a process known as transphonologization. For example, {{abbr|{{sc|ptb}}|Proto-Torres–Banks}} *laŋi "wind" > {{abbr|{{sc|hiw}}|Hiw language}} {{IPA|[jɔŋ]}}, {{abbrlink|{{sc|mtp}}|Mwotlap language}} {{IPA|[lɛŋ]}}, giving rise to phonemes /ɔ/ and /ɛ/ respectively.This syllable-reduction process can be dated sometime within the last 1000 years, as evidenced by Polynesian loans such as {{abbrlink|{{sc|mtp}}|Mwotlap language}} /kumaj/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|vrs}}|Vurës language}} /komar/ < *kumara "sweet potato"; that vegetable, together with its name (originally, a likely loan from languages of South America), was brought to Vanuatu by the relatively recent expansion that gave rise to Polynesian outliers. Words which initially had 4 syllables were reduced to 2 syllables (e.g. POc *RapiRapi "evening" > {{abbr|{{sc|ptb}}|Proto-Torres–Banks}} *raβiˈraβi > {{abbrlink|{{sc|msn}}|Mwesen language}} /rɛβrɛβ/ {{IPA|[rɛɸˈrɛɸ]}}); *CVCV disyllables were reduced to a single CVC syllable (e.g. POc *roŋoR "to hear" > {{abbr|{{sc|ptb}}|Proto-Torres–Banks}} *roŋo > {{abbrlink|{{sc|lkn}}|Lakon language}} /rɔŋ/); words with 3 syllables ended up with 2, including *CVCVV which became *CVCV (e.g. POc *panua "island, land" > {{abbr|{{sc|ptb}}|Proto-Torres–Banks}} *βanua > {{abbrlink|{{sc|lkn}}|Lakon language}} /βanʊ/).
In Mota, only single high vowels were dropped, evident even in the earliest records: e.g. *tolu "three" > /tol/. In the 1880s, Codrington reported cases when Mota had preserved high vowels (e.g. /siwo/ "down"; /tolu/ "three"), which have since disappeared from today's Mota (e.g. /swo/;François (2015):190). /tol/).
In Hiw, Lo-Toga and Vera'a, the final vowel was retained as a schwa when it was originally lower than the one under stress:François (2005): 462-5). e.g. POc *ikan "fish" > {{abbr|{{sc|ptb}}|Proto-Torres–Banks}} *íɣa > {{abbr|{{sc|hiw}}|Hiw language}} /ɪɣə/, {{abbr|{{sc|ltg}}|Lo-Toga language}} /iɣə/. In Vera'a, the schwa became an echo vowel, e.g. POc *pulan "moon" > {{abbr|{{sc|ptb}}|Proto-Torres–Banks}} *βula > *βulə > {{abbr|{{sc|vra}}|Vera'a language}} /fulʊ/; that final vowel in Vera'a can disappear in phrase-medial position, yielding the form /ful/ for 'moon'.
In trisyllabic words, the first vowel tends to be deleted or copied after the second vowel, with the exception of Mota and Lakon, which preserve them. Thus, POc *panua "island, land" > {{abbr|{{sc|ptb}}|Proto-Torres–Banks}} *βanua > {{abbrlink|{{sc|lkn}}|Lakon language}} /βanʊ/, but {{abbrlink|{{sc|msn}}|Mwesen language}} /βʊnʊ/.
=Examples of reconstructions=
| class="wikitable"
|+ !{{abbr|{{sc|ptb}}|Proto-Torres–Banks}} !meaning !reflexes !Proto-Oceanic etymon !source |
| *[n]iᵑgo
|‘2sg. pronoun, thou’ | (1) *iᵑgo > {{abbrlink|{{sc|hiw}}|Hiw language}} /ikə/ (2) *niᵑgo > {{abbrlink|{{sc|ltg}}|Lo-Toga language}} /nikə/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|lhi}}|Lehali language}} /nɛk/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|lyp}}|Löyöp language}} /niŋ/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|vlw}}|Volow language}} /nɪŋ/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|mtp}}|Mwotlap language}} /nɪk/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|lmg}}|Lemerig language}} /næk/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|vra}}|Vera'a language}} /nikɪ/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|vrs}}|Vurës language}} /nɪk/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|msn}}|Mwesen language}} /nɪk/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|mta}}|Mota language}} /niko/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|num}}|Nume language}} /nik/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|drg}}|Dorig language}} /nɪk/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|kro}}|Koro language (Vanuatu)}} /nɪk/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|olr}}|Olrat language}} /nɪk/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|lkn}}|Lakon language}} /nɪk/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|mrl}}|Mwerlap language}} /nɛ͡ak/ | *[i]ko[e] "thou" |François 2016: 33 |
| *lolomarani
|‘wise, intelligent; wisdom, knowledge’ |{{abbrlink|{{sc|hiw}}|Hiw language}} /jɵjməg͡ʟen/ ‘smart; to know’, {{abbrlink|{{sc|ltg}}|Lo-Toga language}} /lolmərɛn/ ‘smart; to know’, {{abbrlink|{{sc|lhi}}|Lehali language}} /lɛlməjæn/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|lyp}}|Löyöp language}} /lɔlmɛjɛn/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|vlw}}|Volow language}} /lɔlmɛjɛn/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|mtp}}|Mwotlap language}} /lɔlmɛjɛn/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|lmg}}|Lemerig language}} /lɪlmɛrɛn/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|vra}}|Vera'a language}} /lʊlmaran/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|vrs}}|Vurës language}} /lʊlʊmɛrɛn/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|msn}}|Mwesen language}} /lɔlmɛrɛn/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|mta}}|Mota language}} /lolomaran/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|drg}}|Dorig language}} /llɔmraːn/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|lkn}}|Lakon language}} /lɔlmaːræn/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|mrl}}|Mwerlap language}} /lɔlmɛrɛn/ |*lalom "inside" + *ma-Raqani "daylight" |François 2013: 208 |
| *rowo
|‘dash, escape; out; seawards’ |{{abbrlink|{{sc|hiw}}|Hiw language}} /g͡ʟow/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|ltg}}|Lo-Toga language}} /row/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|lhi}}|Lehali language}} /jɔw/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|lyp}}|Löyöp language}} /jɔw/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|vlw}}|Volow language}} /jɔ/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|mtp}}|Mwotlap language}} /jɔw/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|lmg}}|Lemerig language}} /rɔw/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|vra}}|Vera'a language}} /rʊw/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|vrs}}|Vurës language}} /rʊw/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|msn}}|Mwesen language}} /rɔw/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|mta}}|Mota language}} /rowo/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|num}}|Nume language}} /rɔw/ ‘dash+’, {{abbrlink|{{sc|drg}}|Dorig language}} /rɔw/ ‘dash+’, {{abbrlink|{{sc|kro}}|Koro language (Vanuatu)}} /rɔw/ ‘dash+’, {{abbrlink|{{sc|olr}}|Olrat language}} /rɔw/ ‘dash+’, {{abbrlink|{{sc|lkn}}|Lakon language}} /rɔw/ ‘dash+’, {{abbrlink|{{sc|mrl}}|Mwerlap language}} /rɔw/ | *Ropok ‘dash, fly’ |François 2015: 191 |
| *salaɣoro
|‘secret; secret meeting place in the bush for men during initiation rituals’ |{{abbrlink|{{sc|ltg}}|Lo-Toga language}} /hɔləɣor/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|lhi}}|Lehali language}} /n-halɣɛj/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|lyp}}|Löyöp language}} /n-salɣoj/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|vlw}}|Volow language}} /n-halɣoj/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|mtp}}|Mwotlap language}} /na-halɣoj/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|lmg}}|Lemerig language}} /n-sɒlɣœr/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|vra}}|Vera'a language}} /salɣʊr/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|vrs}}|Vurës language}} /salɣʊr/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|msn}}|Mwesen language}} /salɣɔr/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|mta}}|Mota language}} /salaɣoro/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|num}}|Nume language}} /salɔwɔr/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|drg}}|Dorig language}} /salɣɔr/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|kro}}|Koro language (Vanuatu)}} /salɣɔr/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|olr}}|Olrat language}} /salwɔj/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|lkn}}|Lakon language}} /salwɔː/ |*jalan "road" + {{abbr|{{sc|pncv}}|Proto-North‒Central Vanuatu}} *koro "obstruct" |François 2005: 499 |
| *s[i,u]wo
|‘down; northwest’ | (1) *siwo > {{abbrlink|{{sc|hiw}}|Hiw language}} /hiw/ "Hiw (island)", {{abbrlink|{{sc|ltg}}|Lo-Toga language}} /iw/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|mta}}|Mota language}} /siwo/ (modern /swo/) (2) *suwo > {{abbrlink|{{sc|hiw}}|Hiw language}} /ʉw/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|lhi}}|Lehali language}} /hɔw/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|lyp}}|Löyöp language}} /sʊw/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|vlw}}|Volow language}} /hʊ/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|mtp}}|Mwotlap language}} /hʊw/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|lmg}}|Lemerig language}} /sʊw/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|vra}}|Vera'a language}} /suwʊ/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|vrs}}|Vurës language}} /sʊw/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|msn}}|Mwesen language}} /sʊw/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|lkn}}|Lakon language}} /hʊw/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|mrl}}|Mwerlap language}} /sʊw/ |*sipo "down" |François 2015: 190 |
| *totoɣale
|‘notch (wood), carve an effigy; effigy, image’ |{{abbrlink|{{sc|mtp}}|Mwotlap language}} /nɔ-tɔtɣal/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|lmg}}|Lemerig language}} /ʔɔɣal/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|vra}}|Vera'a language}} /ʔʊɣal/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|vrs}}|Vurës language}} /tʊtɣi͡al/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|mta}}|Mota language}} /totoɣale/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|lkn}}|Lakon language}} /tɔtɣæl/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|mrl}}|Mwerlap language}} /nɛ-tɛtɣɛl/ |*toto(k) "cut" + {{abbr|{{sc|pncv}}|Proto-North‒Central Vanuatu}} *kale "deceive" |François 2013: 198 |
Regular sound changes from Proto-Oceanic
The historical sound changes that took place from Proto-Oceanic (POc) to Proto-Torres–Banks (PTB) were intricate, yet largely regular. Some have been reconstructed explicitly, whether on vowels or on consonants;François (2016): 31). others are implicit in published lists of {{abbr|{{sc|ptb}}|Proto-Torres–Banks}} lexical reconstructions.
Pervasive phonological sound changes include:
- The loss of all final POc consonants, such as POc *manuk "bird" > {{abbr|{{sc|ptb}}|Proto-Torres–Banks}} *manu. This sound change resulted in the language having only open syllables.Cases such as POc *saqat "bad" > {{abbrlink|{{sc|lhi}}|Lehali language}} /sæt/ can be explained by the addition of a paragogic vowel in {{abbr|{{sc|ptb}}|Proto-Torres–Banks}} (François 2005: 479-480); thus POc *saqat "bad" > *saqat-i > {{abbr|{{sc|ptb}}|Proto-Torres–Banks}} *sati > {{abbrlink|{{sc|lhi}}|Lehali language}} /sæt/.
- The labialization of POc *p, *ᵐb and *m before *o or *u, resulting in {{abbr|{{sc|ptb}}|Proto-Torres–Banks}} *w (< *βʷ), *ᵐbʷ and *mʷ (especially in Torres and northern Banks languages).
Considering each POc proto-phoneme sequentially, the {{abbr|{{sc|ptb}}|Proto-Torres–Banks}} reflexes can be listed in the following table.
| class="wikitable"
|+ ! POc ! {{abbr|{{sc|ptb}}|Proto-Torres–Banks}} reflex ! style="max-width: 35%" | Comments ! style="width: 50%" | Examples ! Source |
| *pʷ
|*βʷ > *w |> /w/ in all daughter languages. | - POc *puia "good"See p.596 of: {{Cite book| publisher = Asia–Pacific Linguistics| volume = 5| pages = 567–599| editor-last1 = Ross| editor-first1 = Malcolm D.| editor-last2 = Pawley| editor-first2 = Andrew K.| editor-last3 = Osmond| editor-first3 = Meredith| last1 = Ross| first1 = Malcolm D.|author-link1=Malcolm Ross (linguist)| last2 = Osmond| first2 = Meredith| title = The lexicon of Proto-Oceanic. People: Body and mind| chapter = Describing people: stature, temperament, emotion and evaluation| location = Canberra| series = A-PL| date = 2016 |url=https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/bitstream/1885/106908/9/RossPawleyOsmond-ProtoOceanicLexicon-Vol5-PeopleMindBody.pdf}}. > *pʷia > *βʷia > {{abbr|{{sc|ptb}}|Proto-Torres–Banks}} *wia > {{abbrlink|{{sc|hiw}}|Hiw language}} /wi̯ə/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|ltg}}|Lo-Toga language}} /⟨ɣɛ-wi̯ə/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|vlw}}|Volow language}} /⟨ɣɛ-wɪ/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|mtp}}|Mwotlap language}} /wɪ/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|lmg}}|Lemerig language}} /wi/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|vra}}|Vera'a language}} /wiɪ/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|vrs}}|Vurës language}} /wɪ/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|msn}}|Mwesen language}} /wɪ/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|mta}}|Mota language}} /wia/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|drg}}|Dorig language}} /wɪ/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|kro}}|Koro language (Vanuatu)}} /wɪ/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|olr}}|Olrat language}} /wɪ/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|lkn}}|Lakon language}} /wɪ/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|mrl}}|Mwerlap language}} /wɛ͡a/ | |
| rowspan="2" |*p
|*β |> /β/ in most daughter languages, except: | - POc *panua "island, land" > {{abbr|{{sc|ptb}}|Proto-Torres–Banks}} *βanua > {{abbrlink|{{sc|hiw}}|Hiw language}} /βəniɵ/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|ltg}}|Lo-Toga language}} /βəniə/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|lhi}}|Lehali language}} /n-βɔnɔ/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|lyp}}|Löyöp language}} /n-βʊnʊ/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|vlw}}|Volow language}} /n-βʊnʊ/,, {{abbrlink|{{sc|mtp}}|Mwotlap language}} /na-pnʊ/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|lmg}}|Lemerig language}} /n-βʊnʊ/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|vra}}|Vera'a language}} /funuʊ/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|vrs}}|Vurës language}} /βono/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|msn}}|Mwesen language}} /βʊnʊ/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|mta}}|Mota language}} /βanua/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|num}}|Nume language}} /βunu/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|drg}}|Dorig language}} /βnʊ/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|kro}}|Koro language (Vanuatu)}} /βʊnʊ/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|olr}}|Olrat language}} /βʊnʊ/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|lkn}}|Lakon language}} /βanʊ/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|mrl}}|Mwerlap language}} /βʊnʊ/{{rp|469}} |
| *w
| Before a rounded vowel, *p > *β > *βʷ > /w/ often (though not always); mostly in northern languages | - POc *poli "to buy" > *βoli > *βʷoli > {{abbr|{{sc|ptb}}|Proto-Torres–Banks}} *woli > {{abbrlink|{{sc|mtp}}|Mwotlap language}} /wɪl/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|mta}}|Mota language}} /wol/ |
| *t
|*t |> /t/ in all daughter languages, except: | - POc *[qa]tamate "dead person" > {{abbr|{{sc|ptb}}|Proto-Torres–Banks}} *[a]tamate "ghost, spirit" > {{abbrlink|{{sc|hiw}}|Hiw language}} /təmet/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|ltg}}|Lo-Toga language}} /təmet/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|lhi}}|Lehali language}} /n-təmat/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|lyp}}|Löyöp language}} /n-tamat/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|vlw}}|Volow language}} /n-tamat/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|mtp}}|Mwotlap language}} /na-tmat/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|lmg}}|Lemerig language}} /ʔamaʔ/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|vra}}|Vera'a language}} /ʔamaʔ/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|vrs}}|Vurës language}} /timi͡at/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|msn}}|Mwesen language}} /tamat/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|mta}}|Mota language}} /tamate/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|num}}|Nume language}} /tamat/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|drg}}|Dorig language}} /tmat/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|kro}}|Koro language (Vanuatu)}} /tamat/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|olr}}|Olrat language}} /tamat/ {{abbrlink|{{sc|lkn}}|Lakon language}} /ætmæt/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|mrl}}|Mwerlap language}} /nɛ-tɛmɛt/{{rp|213}} |
| *k
|*ɣ |> /ɣ/ in all daughter languages, except: | - POc *kutu > {{abbr|{{sc|ptb}}|Proto-Torres–Banks}} *ɣutu "louse" > {{abbrlink|{{sc|hiw}}|Hiw language}} /ɣit/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|ltg}}|Lo-Toga language}} /ɣʉt/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|lhi}}|Lehali language}} /wut/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|lhi}}|Löyöp language}} /wut/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|vlw}}|Volow language}} /ni-ɣit/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|mtp}}|Mwotlap language}} /ni-ɣit/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|lmg}}|Lemerig language}} /wuʔ/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|vra}}|Vera'a language}} /wuʔ/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|vrs}}|Vurës language}} /wyt/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|msn}}|Mwesen language}} /wut/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|mta}}|Mota language}} /wut/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|num}}|Nume language}} /wu-wut/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|drg}}|Dorig language}} /wut/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|kro}}|Koro language (Vanuatu)}} /ɣut/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|lkn}}|Lakon language}} /wut/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|mrl}}|Mwerlap language}} /wut/ |
| *ᵐbʷ
|*ᵐbʷ {{nowrap|(>*ᵑᵐg͡bʷ)}} |> /ᵑᵐg͡bʷ/ in {{abbrlink|{{sc|vlw}}|Volow language}} | - POc *ᵐbʷatu(k) "head" + -ᵑgu "my" > {{abbr|{{sc|ptb}}|Proto-Torres–Banks}} *ᵐbʷatu-ᵑgu "my head" > *ᵑᵐg͡bʷatu-ᵑgu > {{abbrlink|{{sc|hiw}}|Hiw language}} /kʷiti-k/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|ltg}}|Lo-Toga language}} /kʷətʉ-k/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|lhi}}|Lehali language}} /n-kʷutu-k/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|lyp}}|Löyöp language}} /n-k͡pʷit͡ʃi-k/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|vlw}}|Volow language}} /n-ᵑᵐg͡bʷiti-ŋ/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|mtp}}|Mwotlap language}} /ni-k͡pʷti-k/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|lmg}}|Lemerig language}} /n-k͡pʷiʔi-k/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|vra}}|Vera'a language}} /k͡pʷiʔi-k/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|vrs}}|Vurës language}} /k͡pʷøty-k/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|msn}}|Mwesen language}} /k͡pʷutu-k/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|mta}}|Mota language}} /k͡pʷatu-k/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|num}}|Nume language}} /na-k͡pʷutu-k/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|drg}}|Dorig language}} /na-k͡pʷtu-k/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|kro}}|Koro language (Vanuatu)}} /k͡pʷutu-k/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|olr}}|Olrat language}} /k͡pʷutu-k/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|lkn}}|Lakon language}} /k͡pʷatʊ-k/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|mrl}}|Mwerlap language}} /nɞ-kʷɞtʉ-k/ |
| rowspan="3" |*ᵐb
| rowspan="2" |*ᵐb | (in onset position of modern syllable) | - POc *ᵐbanic "wing" + -ᵑgu "my" > {{abbr|{{sc|ptb}}|Proto-Torres–Banks}} *ᵐbani-ᵑgu "my hand; my wing" > {{abbrlink|{{sc|hiw}}|Hiw language}} /pini-k/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|lyp}}|Löyöp language}} /pɛnɛ-k/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|vlw}}|Volow language}} /n-mɪnɪ-ŋ/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|mtp}}|Mwotlap language}} /na-mnɪ-k/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|lmg}}|Lemerig language}} /pini-k/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|vra}}|Vera'a language}} /ᵐbini-k/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|vrs}}|Vurës language}} /ᵐbɛni-k/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|msn}}|Mwesen language}} /pini-k/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|mta}}|Mota language}} /pane-k/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|num}}|Nume language}} /ᵐbini-k/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|drg}}|Dorig language}} /na-ᵐbni-k/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|kro}}|Koro language (Vanuatu)}} /ᵐbini-k/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|lkn}}|Lakon language}} /panɪ-k/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|mrl}}|Mwerlap language}} /ᵐbani-k/ |
| (in coda position of modern syllable) /ᵐb/ in {{abbrlink|{{sc|drg}}|Dorig language}} /m/ in {{abbrlink|{{sc|lhi}}|Lehali language}}, {{abbrlink|{{sc|lyp}}|Löyöp language}}, {{abbrlink|{{sc|mtp}}|Mwotlap language}}, {{abbrlink|{{sc|vlw}}|Volow language}}, {{abbrlink|{{sc|vra}}|Vera'a language}}, {{abbrlink|{{sc|vrs}}|Vurës language}}, {{abbrlink|{{sc|num}}|Nume language}}, {{abbrlink|{{sc|kro}}|Koro language (Vanuatu)}}, {{abbrlink|{{sc|mrl}}|Mwerlap language}} /p/ in {{abbrlink|{{sc|hiw}}|Hiw language}}, {{abbrlink|{{sc|ltg}}|Lo-Toga language}}, {{abbrlink|{{sc|lmg}}|Lemerig language}}, {{abbrlink|{{sc|msn}}|Mwesen language}}, {{abbrlink|{{sc|mta}}|Mota language}}, {{abbrlink|{{sc|olr}}|Olrat language}}, {{abbrlink|{{sc|lkn}}|Lakon language}}. | - {{abbr|{{sc|ptb}}|Proto-Torres–Banks}} *leᵐba "mud, muddy" > {{abbrlink|{{sc|hiw}}|Hiw language}} /jepə/ “swamp”, {{abbrlink|{{sc|ltg}}|Lo-Toga language}} /lɛpə/ “swamp”, {{abbrlink|{{sc|lhi}}|Lehali language}} /n-læm/ “swamp garden for taro”, {{abbrlink|{{sc|lyp}}|Löyöp language}} /n-lɛm/ “dirty, muddy”, {{abbrlink|{{sc|mtp}}|Mwotlap language}} /lɛm/ “dirty, muddy”, {{abbrlink|{{sc|mta}}|Mota language}} /lepa/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|drg}}|Dorig language}} /lɛᵐb/ “soil, ground”, {{abbrlink|{{sc|olr}}|Olrat language}} /lɛp/ “soil, ground” |
| *ᵐbʷ
| *ᵐb before a rounded vowel. | - POc *ᵐboŋi "night" > {{abbr|{{sc|ptb}}|Proto-Torres–Banks}} *ᵐbʷoŋi > *ᵑᵐg͡bʷoŋi > {{abbrlink|{{sc|hiw}}|Hiw language}} /kɵŋ/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|ltg}}|Lo-Toga language}} /kʷəŋ/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|lhi}}|Lehali language}} /kʷɔŋ/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|lyp}}|Löyöp language}} /k͡pʷʊŋ/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|vlw}}|Volow language}} /n-ᵑᵐg͡bʷɪŋ/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|mtp}}|Mwotlap language}} /k͡pʷʊŋ/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|lmg}}|Lemerig language}} /k͡pʷøŋ/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|vra}}|Vera'a language}} /k͡pʷʊŋ/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|vrs}}|Vurës language}} /k͡pʷøŋ/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|msn}}|Mwesen language}} /k͡pʷʊŋ/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|mta}}|Mota language}} /k͡pʷoŋ/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|num}}|Nume language}} /k͡pʷʊŋ/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|drg}}|Dorig language}} /k͡pʷʊŋ/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|kro}}|Koro language (Vanuatu)}} /k͡pʷʊŋ/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|lkn}}|Lakon language}} /k͡pʷɪŋ/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|mrl}}|Mwerlap language}} /kʷʊŋ/ |
| rowspan="2" |*ⁿd / *ⁿdr
| rowspan="2" |*ⁿd | (in onset position of modern syllable) | - POc *ⁿdraRaq "blood" > {{abbr|{{sc|ptb}}|Proto-Torres–Banks}} *ⁿdara > {{abbrlink|{{sc|hiw}}|Hiw language}} /tag͡ʟə/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|ltg}}|Lo-Toga language}} /ʈ͡ʂarə/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|lhi}}|Lehali language}} /n-ⁿdaj/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|lyp}}|Löyöp language}} /n-ⁿdaj/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|vlw}}|Volow language}} /n-ⁿdaj/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|mtp}}|Mwotlap language}} /na-ⁿdaj/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|lmg}}|Lemerig language}} /tɒr/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|vra}}|Vera'a language}} /ⁿdara/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|vrs}}|Vurës language}} /ⁿdar/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|msn}}|Mwesen language}} /nar/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|mta}}|Mota language}} /nara/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|num}}|Nume language}} /ⁿdar/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|drg}}|Dorig language}} /ⁿdar/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|kro}}|Koro language (Vanuatu)}} /ⁿdar/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|olr}}|Olrat language}} /t͡ʃaj/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|lkn}}|Lakon language}} /t͡ʃæː/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|mrl}}|Mwerlap language}} /na-ⁿdar/ |
| (in coda position of modern syllable) /ⁿd/ in {{abbrlink|{{sc|drg}}|Dorig language}} /t/ in {{abbrlink|{{sc|hiw}}|Hiw language}}, {{abbrlink|{{sc|ltg}}|Lo-Toga language}}, {{abbrlink|{{sc|lmg}}|Lemerig language}} /t͡ʃ/ in {{abbrlink|{{sc|olr}}|Olrat language}} and {{abbrlink|{{sc|lkn}}|Lakon language}} /n/ in all other Torres–Banks languages | - POc *kita "{{abbrlink|1 incl:pl|Inclusive we}}" > {{abbr|{{sc|ptb}}|Proto-Torres–Banks}} *ɣiⁿda > {{abbrlink|{{sc|hiw}}|Hiw language}} /titə/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|ltg}}|Lo-Toga language}} /ɣiʈ͡ʂə/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|lhi}}|Lehali language}} /ɣɛn/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|lyp}}|Löyöp language}} /jɛn/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|vlw}}|Volow language}} /ɣɪn/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|mtp}}|Mwotlap language}} /ɣɪn/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|lmg}}|Lemerig language}} /ɣæt/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|vra}}|Vera'a language}} /ɣiⁿdɪ/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|vrs}}|Vurës language}} /nin/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|msn}}|Mwesen language}} /nin/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|mta}}|Mota language}} /nina/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|num}}|Nume language}} /ɣin/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|drg}}|Dorig language}} /ɣɪⁿd/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|kro}}|Koro language (Vanuatu)}} /ɣin/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|olr}}|Olrat language}} /ɣɪt͡ʃ/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|lkn}}|Lakon language}} /ɣɪt͡ʃ/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|mrl}}|Mwerlap language}} /ɣɛ͡an/François (2016): 33-35). |
| rowspan="2" |*ᵑg
| rowspan="2" |*ᵑg | (in onset position of modern syllable) | - POc *kuRiap "dolphin" > {{abbr|{{sc|ptb}}|Proto-Torres–Banks}} *ᵑg[ur]io |
| (in coda position of modern syllable) /ŋ/ in {{abbrlink|{{sc|lyp}}|Löyöp language}} and {{abbrlink|{{sc|vlw}}|Volow language}} /k/ in all other daughter languages. | POc *[i]ko[e] "thou" > {{abbr|{{sc|ptb}}|Proto-Torres–Banks}} *[n]iᵑgo > {{abbrlink|{{sc|hiw}}|Hiw language}} /ikə/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|ltg}}|Lo-Toga language}} /nikə/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|lhi}}|Lehali language}} /nɛk/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|lyp}}|Löyöp language}} /niŋ/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|vlw}}|Volow language}} /nɪŋ/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|mtp}}|Mwotlap language}} /nɪk/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|lmg}}|Lemerig language}} /næk/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|vra}}|Vera'a language}} /nikɪ/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|vrs}}|Vurës language}} /nɪk/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|msn}}|Mwesen language}} /nɪk/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|mta}}|Mota language}} /niko/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|num}}|Nume language}} /nik/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|drg}}|Dorig language}} /nɪk/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|kro}}|Koro language (Vanuatu)}} /nɪk/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|olr}}|Olrat language}} /nɪk/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|lkn}}|Lakon language}} /nɪk/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|mrl}}|Mwerlap language}} /nɛ͡ak/ |
| *mʷ
|*mʷ {{nowrap|(>*ŋ͡mʷ)}} |> /ŋ͡mʷ/ in most daughter languages. | - POc *mʷata "snake" > {{abbr|{{sc|ptb}}|Proto-Torres–Banks}} *mʷata > *ŋ͡mʷata > {{abbrlink|{{sc|hiw}}|Hiw language}} /ŋʷatə/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|ltg}}|Lo-Toga language}} /ŋʷetə/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|lhi}}|Lehali language}} /ŋʷat/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|lyp}}|Löyöp language}} /ŋ͡mʷat/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|vlw}}|Volow language}} /n-ŋ͡mʷat/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|mtp}}|Mwotlap language}} /na-ŋ͡mʷat/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|lmg}}|Lemerig language}} /ŋ͡mʷaʔ/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|vra}}|Vera'a language}} /ŋ͡mʷaʔa/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|vrs}}|Vurës language}} /ŋ͡mʷat/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|msn}}|Mwesen language}} /ŋ͡mʷat/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|mta}}|Mota language}} /ŋ͡mʷata/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|num}}|Nume language}} /ŋ͡mʷat/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|drg}}|Dorig language}} /ŋ͡mʷat/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|kro}}|Koro language (Vanuatu)}} /ŋ͡mʷa/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|lkn}}|Lakon language}} /ŋ͡mʷat/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|mrl}}|Mwerlap language}} /ŋʷat/ | |
| rowspan="2" |*m
|*m |> /m/ in all daughter languages. | - POc *mate "die, dead" > {{abbr|{{sc|ptb}}|Proto-Torres–Banks}} *mate > {{abbrlink|{{sc|hiw}}|Hiw language}} /met/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|ltg}}|Lo-Toga language}} /met/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|lhi}}|Lehali language}} /mat/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|lyp}}|Löyöp language}} /mat/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|vlw}}|Volow language}} /mat/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|mtp}}|Mwotlap language}} /mat/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|lmg}}|Lemerig language}} /maʔ/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|vra}}|Vera'a language}} /maʔ/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|vrs}}|Vurës language}} /mi͡at/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|msn}}|Mwesen language}} /mat/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|mta}}|Mota language}} /mate/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|num}}|Nume language}} /mat/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|drg}}|Dorig language}} /mat/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|kro}}|Koro language (Vanuatu)}} /mat/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|olr}}|Olrat language}} /mat/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|lkn}}|Lakon language}} /mæt/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|mrl}}|Mwerlap language}} /mɛt/ | |
| *mʷ
| *m before a rounded vowel → same reflexes as with *mʷ (often, though not always; mostly in northern languages). | - POc *mule "return" > {{abbr|{{sc|ptb}}|Proto-Torres–Banks}} *m[ʷ]ule | |
| *n / *ñ
|*n |> /n/ in all daughter languages. | - POc *ñatuq "Burckella" > {{abbr|{{sc|ptb}}|Proto-Torres–Banks}} *natu > {{abbrlink|{{sc|hiw}}|Hiw language}} /nɔt/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|mtp}}|Mwotlap language}} /nɛ-nɛt/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|vra}}|Vera'a language}} /nɛʔ/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|vrs}}|Vurës language}} /nœt/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|mta}}|Mota language}} /natu/, | |
| *ŋ
|*ŋ |> /ŋ/ in all daughter languages. | - POc *qaŋaRi "Canarium" > {{abbr|{{sc|ptb}}|Proto-Torres–Banks}} *[a]ŋa[r]i | |
| *s / *c / *j
|*s |Usually /s/ in the daughter languages, but can debuccalize or disappear under uncertain conditions: | - POc *sake "up" > {{abbr|{{sc|ptb}}|Proto-Torres–Banks}} *saɣe > {{abbrlink|{{sc|hiw}}|Hiw language}} /aɣ/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|ltg}}|Lo-Toga language}} /[i]aɣ/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|lhi}}|Lehali language}} /ha/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|lyp}}|Löyöp language}} /sa/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|vlw}}|Volow language}} /ha/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|mtp}}|Mwotlap language}} /haɣ/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|lmg}}|Lemerig language}} /saɣ/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|vra}}|Vera'a language}} /saɣ/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|vrs}}|Vurës language}} /si͡aɣ/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|msn}}|Mwesen language}} /saɣ/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|mta}}|Mota language}} /saɣe/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|num}}|Nume language}} /sa/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|drg}}|Dorig language}} /saɣ/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|kro}}|Koro language (Vanuatu)}} /sa[ɣ]/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|olr}}|Olrat language}} /saː/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|lkn}}|Lakon language}} /haɣ/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|mrl}}|Mwerlap language}} /sɛ͡aɣ/ |
| *l
|*l |> /l/ in all daughter languages except: | - POc *lalo-ᵑgu "my inside" > {{abbr|{{sc|ptb}}|Proto-Torres–Banks}} *lolo-ᵑgu "my mind" > {{abbrlink|{{sc|hiw}}|Hiw language}} /jɵ-k/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|ltg}}|Lo-Toga language}} /lio-k/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|lhi}}|Lehali language}} /n-lɪ-k/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|lyp}}|Löyöp language}} /n-lø-k/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|vlw}}|Volow language}} /n-lɪ-ŋ/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|mtp}}|Mwotlap language}} /na-lɪ-k/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|lmg}}|Lemerig language}} /n-lø-k/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|vra}}|Vera'a language}} /lʊ-k/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|vrs}}|Vurës language}} /lølø-k/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|msn}}|Mwesen language}} /lʊlʊ-k/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|mta}}|Mota language}} /lolo-k/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|num}}|Nume language}} /na-llɔ-k/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|drg}}|Dorig language}} /na-llʊ-k/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|kro}}|Koro language (Vanuatu)}} /na-llʊ-k/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|olr}}|Olrat language}} /lʊlʊ-k/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|lkn}}|Lakon language}} /lɔlɔ-k/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|mrl}}|Mwerlap language}} /lɵ-k/ |
| *r
|*r |Preserved as an alveolar trill /r/ in most daughter languages, except: | - POc *roŋoR "to hear" > {{abbr|{{sc|ptb}}|Proto-Torres–Banks}} *roŋo > {{abbrlink|{{sc|hiw}}|Hiw language}} /g͡ʟoŋ/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|ltg}}|Lo-Toga language}} /roŋ/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|lhi}}|Lehali language}} /jɛŋ/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|lyp}}|Löyöp language}} /jɔŋ/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|vlw}}|Volow language}} /jɔŋ-tɛɣ/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|mtp}}|Mwotlap language}} /jɔŋ-tɛɣ/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|lmg}}|Lemerig language}} /rɔŋ/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|vra}}|Vera'a language}} /rʊŋ/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|vrs}}|Vurës language}} /roŋ-tɛɣ/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|msn}}|Mwesen language}} /rɔŋ-tɛ/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|mta}}|Mota language}} /roŋo/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|num}}|Nume language}} /rɔŋɔ-tɛ/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|drg}}|Dorig language}} /rɔŋ/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|kro}}|Koro language (Vanuatu)}} /rɔŋ/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|olr}}|Olrat language}} /rɔŋ/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|lkn}}|Lakon language}} /rɔŋ-tæɣ/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|mrl}}|Mwerlap language}} /rɔŋ/{{rp|482}} | |
| *R
| *r / Ø |In most cases the reflexes are consistent across Torres–Banks languages: either they all lost *R, or all reflect them as *r. However, for about 20 words, the reflexes are inconsistent, with *R preserved in northern languages vs. lost further south; this is evidence that {{abbr|{{sc|ptb}}|Proto-Torres–Banks}} formed a network of separated dialects.François (2011). | - POc *qaŋaRi "Canarium" > {{abbr|{{sc|ptb}}|Proto-Torres–Banks}} *[a]ŋa[r]i |
| *q
|Ø (hiatus) |Sequences of identical vowels that resulted after its loss were reduced to a single vowel, as in POc *saqat-i "bad" > {{abbr|{{sc|ptb}}|Proto-Torres–Banks}} *sati. | - POc *saqat "bad" > {{abbr|{{sc|ptb}}|Proto-Torres–Banks}} *saa[ti] | |
| *w
|*w | Generally preserved only in the Torres languages and lost in the Banks languages. | - POc *waᵑga "canoe" > {{abbr|{{sc|ptb}}|Proto-Torres–Banks}} *waᵑga > {{abbrlink|{{sc|hiw}}|Hiw language}} /wakə/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|ltg}}|Lo-Toga language}} /ekə/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|lhi}}|Lehali language}} /n-ɒk/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|lyp}}|Löyöp language}} /n-ɔŋ/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|vlw}}|Volow language}} /n-ɔk/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|mtp}}|Mwotlap language}} /n-ɔk/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|vra}}|Vera'a language}} /naka/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|vrs}}|Vurës language}} /ak/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|msn}}|Mwesen language}} /ak/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|mta}}|Mota language}} /aka/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|num}}|Nume language}} /w-ak/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|drg}}|Dorig language}} /ak/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|olr}}|Olrat language}} /n-ak/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|lkn}}|Lakon language}} /n-ak/ | |
| *y
|*y |Generally lost in the daughter languages. Cases such as {{abbr|{{sc|pncv}}|Proto-North‒Central Vanuatu}} *maraya "eel" > {{abbr|{{sc|ptb}}|Proto-Torres–Banks}} *maraya, where reflexes such as {{abbrlink|{{sc|mta}}|Mota language}} /marea/ and {{abbrlink|{{sc|lkn}}|Lakon language}} /marɛ/ presuppose *marea, but {{abbrlink|{{sc|mtp}}|Mwotlap language}} /na-mja/ presupposes *maraa, can be taken as evidence that {{abbr|{{sc|ptb}}|Proto-Torres–Banks}} had not yet lost the phoneme. | - POc *kawaR "potent root" > *kawa > *kaya (irregular change) > {{abbr|{{sc|ptb}}|Proto-Torres–Banks}} *ɣaya > {{abbrlink|{{sc|hiw}}|Hiw language}} /ɣa/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|ltg}}|Lo-Toga language}} /ɣi/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|lyp}}|Löyöp language}} /n-ɣa/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|vlw}}|Volow language}} /na-ɣa/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|mtp}}|Mwotlap language}} /na-ɣa/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|lmg}}|Lemerig language}} /n-ɣa/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|vra}}|Vera'a language}} /ɣiɛ/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|vrs}}|Vurës language}} /ɣɪ/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|msn}}|Mwesen language}} /ɣɛ/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|mta}}|Mota language}} /ɣea/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|num}}|Nume language}} /ɣɛ/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|drg}}|Dorig language}} /ɣɛ/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|kro}}|Koro language (Vanuatu)}} /ɣɛ/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|olr}}|Olrat language}} /ɣɛ/, {{abbrlink|{{sc|lkn}}|Lakon language}} /ɣɛ/ | |
Grammar
=Pronouns=
The pronouns of Proto-Torres–Banks are (from François 2016: 33-35):
| class="wikitable" |
| colspan="2" |
! Singular ! Dual ! Trial ! Plural |
|---|
| rowspan="2" | 1st person
! exclusive | rowspan="2" | *nau | *[ɣ,ᵑg]amarua | *[ɣ,ᵑg]amatolu | *[ɣ,ᵑg]ama[m]i |
| inclusive
| *ɣiⁿdarua | *ɣiⁿdatolu | *ɣiⁿda |
| colspan="2" | 2nd person
| *[n]iᵑgo | *[ɣ,ᵑg]amurua | *[ɣ,ᵑg]amutolu | *[ɣ,ᵑg]amuyu |
| colspan="2" | 3rd person
| *nia | *[i]rarua | *[i]ratolu | *[ɣ,ᵑg]ira |
=Numbers=
The following are reconstructions for numbers 1–10 for PTB:{{refnec|date=November 2023}}
- *tea, *tuwale
- *rua
- *tolu
- *βati
- *taβea-lima
- *laβea-tea
- *laβea-rua
- *laβea-tolu
- *laβea-βati
- *saŋaβulu
=Example sentence=
A reconstructed sentence (from François 2009:191):
{{interlinear|indent=3|lang=und|abbreviations=AO:aorist
|*Nau ᵑgu{{=}} mule ᵑgu{{=}} maturu.
|1SG AO:1SG{{=}} return AO:1SG{{=}} sleep
|'So I went back and slept.'/'Let me go back and sleep!'
}}
Notes
References
- {{citation
| last=François
| first=Alexandre
| year=2005
| title=Unraveling the history of the vowels of seventeen northern Vanuatu languages
| journal=Oceanic Linguistics
| volume=44
| issue=2
| pages=443–504
| s2cid=131668754
| doi=10.1353/ol.2005.0034
| url=http://alex.francois.online.fr/data/AlexFrancois_VowelsNorthernVanuatu_OL44-2.pdf
| ref = vowels
}}
- {{Citation
| last = François
| first = Alexandre
| author-link =
| contribution = Verbal aspect and personal pronouns: The history of aorist markers in north Vanuatu
| editor1-last = Pawley
| editor1-first = Andrew
| editor2-last = Adelaar
| editor2-first = Alexander
| title = Austronesian historical linguistics and culture history: A festschrift for Bob Blust
| volume = 601
| pages = 179–195
| publisher = Pacific Linguistics
| place = Canberra
| year = 2009
| series =
| isbn =
| contribution-url= http://alex.francois.online.fr/data/AlexFrancois_2009_Aorist-pronouns_Festschrift-Blust.pdf
| ref=aorist
}}
- {{citation
|doi=10.1353/ol.2011.0009
|last=François
|first=Alexandre
|year=2011
|title=Where *R they all? The history and geography of *R loss in Southern Oceanic
|journal=Oceanic Linguistics
|volume=50
|issue=1
|pages=142–199
|s2cid=55766987
|url=http://alex.francois.online.fr/data/AlexFrancois_R-in-Southern-Oceanic_OL50-1_2011-published.pdf
|ref=rhotic
}}
- {{Citation
| last = François
| first = Alexandre
| author-link =
| contribution = Shadows of bygone lives: The histories of spiritual words in northern Vanuatu
| editor1-last = Mailhammer
| editor1-first = Robert
| title = Lexical and structural etymology: Beyond word histories
| volume = 11
| pages = 185–244
| publisher = DeGruyter Mouton
| place = Berlin
| year = 2013
| series = Studies in Language Change
| doi =10.1515/9781614510581.185
| isbn = 978-1-61451-059-8
| url = https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-00869690/file/AlexFrancois_2013_Shadows-of-bygone-lives-The-histories-of-spiritual-words-in-northern-Vanuatu_1_.pdf
| contribution-url= http://alex.francois.online.fr/data/AlexFrancois_2013_Shadows-of-bygone-lives-The-histories-of-spiritual-words-in-northern-Vanuatu.pdf
| ref=shadows
}}
- {{Cite book
| publisher = Asia-Pacific Linguistics
| isbn = 978-1-922185-23-5
| pages = 137–195
|editor1= Alexandre François |editor2=Sébastien Lacrampe |editor3=Michael Franjieh |editor4=Stefan Schnell
| last = François
| first = Alexandre
| title = The languages of Vanuatu: Unity and diversity
| chapter = The ins and outs of up and down: Disentangling the nine geocentric space systems of Torres and Banks languages
| location = Canberra
| series = Studies in the Languages of Island Melanesia
| url = http://hdl.handle.net/1885/14819
| contribution-url= http://alex.francois.online.fr/data/AlexFrancois_2015_North-Vanuatu-space-directionals.pdf
| date = 2015
| hdl = 1885/14819
| ref = updown }}
- {{citation
| last=François
| first=Alexandre
| year=2016
| contribution = The historical morphology of personal pronouns in northern Vanuatu
| editor1-last = Pozdniakov
| editor1-first = Konstantin
| title = Comparatisme et reconstruction : tendances actuelles
| volume = 47
| pages = 25–60
| publisher = Peter Lang
| place = Bern
| series = Faits de Langues
| contribution-url= http://alex.francois.online.fr/data/AlexFrancois_2016_History-personal-pronouns_north-Vanuatu_published.pdf
| ref=pronouns
| doi = 10.1163/19589514-047-01-900000003
| s2cid=171459404
| url=https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-01382593/file/AlexFrancois_2016_History-personal-pronouns_north-Vanuatu.pdf
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Proto-Torres–Banks language}}