Psychology of music

The study of sound and musical phenomena prior to the 19th century was focused primarily on the mathematical modelling of pitch and tone. The earliest recorded experiments date from the 6th century BCE, most notably in the work of Pythagoras and his establishment of the simple string length ratios that formed the consonances of the octave. This view that sound and music could be understood from a purely physical standpoint was echoed by such theorists as Anaxagoras and Boethius. An important early dissenter was Aristoxenus, who foreshadowed the modern psychology of music in his view that music could only be understood through human perception and its relation to human memory. Despite his views, the majority of musical education through the Middle Ages and Renaissance remained rooted in the Pythagorean tradition, particularly through the quadrivium of astronomy, geometry, arithmetic, and music.

Research by Vincenzo Galilei (father of Galileo) demonstrated that, when string length was held constant, varying its tension, thickness, or composition could alter perceived pitch. From this, he argued that simple ratios were not enough to account for musical phenomenon and that a perceptual approach was necessary. He also claimed that the differences between various tuning systems were not perceivable, thus the disputes were unnecessary.

Study of topics including vibration, consonance, the harmonic series, and resonance were furthered through the scientific revolution, including work by Galileo, Kepler, Mersenne, and Descartes. This included further speculation concerning the nature of the sense organs and higher-order processes, particularly by Savart, Helmholtz, and Koenig.

Image:Helmholtz resonator.jpg

The latter 19th century saw the development of the psychology of music alongside the emergence of a general empirical psychology, one which passed through similar stages of development. The first was structuralist psychology, led by Wilhelm Wundt, which sought to break down experience into its smallest definable parts. This expanded upon previous centuries of acoustic study, and included Helmholtz developing the resonator to isolate and understand pure and complex tones and their perception, the philosopher Carl Stumpf using church organs and his own musical experience to explore timbre and absolute pitch, and Wundt himself associating the experience of rhythm with kinesthetic tension and relaxation.{{cite book |chapter=Psychology of music |doi=10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.42574 |year=2001 |last1=Deutsch |first1=Diana |last2=Gabrielsson |first2=Alf |last3=Sloboda |first3=John |last4=Cross |first4=Ian |last5=Drake |first5=Carolyn |last6=Parncutt |first6=Richard |last7=McAdams |first7=Stephen |last8=Clarke |first8=Eric F. |last9=Trehub |first9=Sandra E. |last10=O'Neill |first10=Susan |last11=Hargreaves |first11=David |last12=Kemp |first12=Anthony |last13=North |first13=Adrian |last14=Zatorre |first14=Robert J. |title=Grove Music Online |isbn=978-1-56159-263-0 }}

As structuralism gave way to Gestalt psychology and behaviorism at the turn of the century, the psychology of music moved beyond the study of isolated tones and elements to the perception of their inter-relationships and human reactions to them, though work languished behind that of visual perception. In Europe Géza Révész and Albert Wellek developed a more complex understanding of musical pitch, and in the US the focus shifted to that of music education and the training and development of musical skill. Carl Seashore led this work, producing his The Measurement of Musical Talents and The Psychology of Musical Talent. Seashore used bespoke equipment and standardized tests to measure how performance deviated from indicated markings and how musical aptitude differed between students.

In 1963 F. Chrysander was the first one to use the term "science of music" when he was working on his "year book for musical knowledge". European musicology was found in Greek. They were focused on the philosophy, and the concepts of any relations with music. Greek's several theories rose later to Arab and the Christians theories. Although their theories survived, they were also corrupted along the way, in the Middle Ages of Europe.{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/art/musicology|title=Musicology|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en|access-date=2019-03-29}}

The psychology of music in the second half of the 20th century has expanded to cover a wide array of theoretical and applied areas. From the 1960s the field grew along with cognitive science, including such research areas as music perception (particularly of pitch, rhythm, harmony, and melody), musical development and aptitude, music performance, and affective responses to music.

This period has also seen the founding of journals, societies, conferences, research groups, centers, and degrees that each are specific to the psychology of music. This trend has brought research toward specific applications for music education, performance, and therapy.{{cite book |last=Ockelford |first=Adam |chapter=Beyond music psychology |editor1-last=Hallam |editor1-first=Susan |editor2-last=Cross |editor2-first=Ian |editor3-last=Thaut |editor3-first=Michael |title=The Oxford Handbook of Music Psychology |date=2009 |location=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-929845-7 |page=539}} While the techniques of cognitive psychology allowed for more objective examinations of musical behavior and experience, the theoretical and technological advancements of neuroscience have greatly shaped the direction of the field into the 21st century.{{cite book |last=Thaut |first=Micahel |chapter=History and research |editor1-last=Hallam |editor1-first=Susan |editor2-last=Cross |editor2-first=Ian |editor3-last=Thaut |editor3-first=Michael |title=The Oxford Handbook of Music Psychology |date=2009 |location=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-929845-7 |page=556}}

While the majority of research in the psychology of music has focused on music in a Western context, the field has expanded along with ethnomusicology to examine how the perception and practice of music differs between cultures.{{cite book |last=Thaut |first=Micahel |chapter=History and research |editor1-last=Hallam |editor1-first=Susan |editor2-last=Cross |editor2-first=Ian |editor3-last=Thaut |editor3-first=Michael |title=The Oxford Handbook of Music Psychology |date=2009 |location=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-929845-7 |page=559}}{{cite book |last1=Thompson |first1=William Forde |last2=Balkwill |first2=Laura-Lee |chapter=Cross-cultural similarities and differences |editor1-last=Juslin |editor1-first=Patrik |editor2-last=Sloboda |editor2-first=John |title=Handbook of Music and Emotion: Theory, Research, Applications (ch. 27) |date=2010 |location=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-960496-8 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/handbookofmusice0000unse/page/755 755–788] |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/handbookofmusice0000unse/page/755 }} It has also emerged into the public sphere. In recent years several bestselling popular science books have helped bring the field into public discussion, notably Daniel Levitin's This Is Your Brain On Music (2006) and The World in Six Songs (2008), Oliver Sacks' Musicophilia (2007), and Gary Marcus' Guitar Zero (2012). In addition, the controversial "Mozart effect" sparked lengthy debate among researchers, educators, politicians, and the public regarding the relationship between classical music listening, education, and intelligence.{{cite news |first=Alison |last=Abbott |title=Mozart doesn't make you clever |url=http://www.nature.com/news/2007/070413/full/news070409-13.html |publisher=Nature.com |access-date= 2014-04-22}}

Much work within the psychology of music seeks to understand the cognitive processes that support musical behaviors, including perception, comprehension, memory, attention, and performance. Originally arising in fields of psychoacoustics and sensation, cognitive theories of how people understand music more recently encompass neuroscience, cognitive science, music theory, music therapy, computer science, psychology, philosophy, and linguistics.{{cite book|title=The Psychology of Music, 3rd Edition |year=2013|publisher=Academic Press |location=San Diego, California |editor=Deutsch, Diana|isbn=978-0-12-381460-9}}{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia of Music in the Social and Behavioral Sciences |year=2014|publisher=Sage Press |location=New York, New York |editor=Thompson, William Forde |isbn= 978-1-4522-8303-6}}

{{Main|Music and emotion}}

Music has been shown to consistently elicit emotional responses in its listeners, and this relationship between human affect and music has been studied in depth. This includes isolating which specific features of a musical work or performance convey or elicit certain reactions, the nature of the reactions themselves, and how characteristics of the listener may determine which emotions are felt. The field draws upon and has significant implications for such areas as philosophy, musicology, and aesthetics, as well the acts of musical composition and performance. The implications for casual listeners are also great; research has shown that the pleasurable feelings associated with emotional music are the result of dopamine release in the striatum—the same anatomical areas that underpin the anticipatory and rewarding aspects of drug addiction.{{cite journal |last1=Salimpoor |first1=Valorie N |last2=Benovoy |first2=Mitchel |last3=Larcher |first3=Kevin |last4=Dagher |first4=Alain |last5=Zatorre |first5=Robert J |title=Anatomically distinct dopamine release during anticipation and experience of peak emotion to music |journal=Nature Neuroscience |date=February 2011 |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=257–262 |doi=10.1038/nn.2726 |pmid=21217764 |s2cid=205433454 }}

According to research, listening to music has been found to affect the mood of an individual. The main factors in whether it will affect that individual positively or negatively are based on the musics tempo and style. In addition, listening to music also increases cognitive functions, creativity, and decreases feelings of fatigue. All of these factors lead to better workflow and a more optimal result in the activity done while listening to music. This leads to the conclusion that listening to music while performing an activity is an excellent way of increasing productivity and the overall experience.{{cite journal |last1=Campion |first1=Maxine |last2=Levita |first2=Liat |title=Enhancing positive affect and divergent thinking abilities: Play some music and dance |journal=The Journal of Positive Psychology |date=4 March 2014 |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=137–145 |doi=10.1080/17439760.2013.848376 |s2cid=143123616 }} It has been proposed that the ability to understand the emotional meaning of music might rely on the existence of a common neural system for processing the affective meaning of voices/vocalizations and musical sounds.{{Cite journal|last1=Proverbio|first1=Alice Mado|last2=Benedetto|first2=Francesco De|last3=Guazzone|first3=Martina|date=2020|title=Shared neural mechanisms for processing emotions in music and vocalizations|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/ejn.14650|journal=European Journal of Neuroscience|language=en|volume=51|issue=9|pages=1987–2007|doi=10.1111/ejn.14650|pmid=31837173|hdl=10281/254609|s2cid=209357763|issn=1460-9568|hdl-access=free}}{{Cite journal|last1=Proverbio|first1=Alice Mado|last2=Santoni|first2=Sacha|last3=Adorni|first3=Roberta|date=2020-03-27|title=ERP Markers of Valence Coding in Emotional Speech Processing|journal=iScience|language=English|volume=23|issue=3|page=100933|doi=10.1016/j.isci.2020.100933|issn=2589-0042|pmid=32151976|pmc=7063241|bibcode=2020iSci...23j0933P}} In addition to emotional responses, music has influenced the lifestyles of individuals and changed people's perceptions of what "sexy" is. Although music cannot resolve all human beings needs, it is heavily relied on to alter the feelings and emotions.

{{Main|Cognitive neuroscience of music}}

A significant amount of research concerns brain-based mechanisms involved in the cognitive processes underlying music perception and performance. These behaviours include music listening, performing, composing, reading, writing, and ancillary activities. It also is increasingly concerned with the brain basis for musical aesthetics and musical emotion. Scientists working in this field may have training in cognitive neuroscience, neurology, neuroanatomy, psychology, music theory, computer science, and other allied fields, and use such techniques as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), magnetoencephalography (MEG), electroencephalography (EEG), and positron emission tomography (PET).

The cognitive process of performing music requires the interaction of neural mechanisms in both motor and auditory systems. Since every action expressed in a performance produces a sound that influences subsequent expression, this leads to impressive sensorimotor interplay.{{cite journal | last1 = Zatorre | first1 = Robert J. | last2 = Chen | first2 = Joyce L. | last3 = Penhune | first3 = Virginia B. | year = 2007 | title = When the Brain Plays Music: Auditory–motor Interactions in Music Perception and Production | journal = Nature Reviews Neuroscience | volume = 8 | issue = 7| pages = 547–58 | doi=10.1038/nrn2152| pmid = 17585307 | s2cid = 205503868 }}

File:Brodmann 41 42.png is one of the main areas associated with superior pitch resolution.]]

Perceived pitch typically depends on the fundamental frequency, though the dependence could be mediated solely by the presence of harmonics corresponding to that fundamental frequency. The perception of a pitch without the corresponding fundamental frequency in the physical stimulus is called the pitch of the missing fundamental. Neurons lateral to A1 in marmoset monkeys were found to be sensitive specifically to the fundamental frequency of a complex tone,{{cite journal | last1 = Bendor | first1 = D. | last2 = Wang | first2 = X. | year = 2005 | title = The neuronal representation of pitch in primate auditory cortex | journal = Nature | volume = 436 | issue = 7054| pages = 1161–1165 | doi=10.1038/nature03867 | pmid=16121182 | pmc=1780171| bibcode = 2005Natur.436.1161B }} suggesting that pitch constancy may be enabled by such a neural mechanism.

Pitch constancy refers to the ability to perceive pitch identity across changes in acoustical properties, such as loudness, temporal envelope, or timbre. The importance of cortical regions lateral to A1 for pitch coding is also supported by studies of human cortical lesions and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) of the brain.{{cite journal | last1 = Zatorre1 | first1 = R. J. | year = 1988 | title = Pitch perception of complex tones and human temporal-lobe function | journal = J. Acoust. Soc. Am. | volume = 84 | issue = 2| pages = 566–572 | doi=10.1121/1.396834| pmid = 3170948 | bibcode = 1988ASAJ...84..566Z }}{{cite journal | last1 = Johnsrude | first1 = I. S. | last2 = Penhune | first2 = V. B. | last3 = Zatorre | first3 = R. J. | year = 2000 | title = Functional specificity in the right human auditory cortex for perceiving pitch direction | journal = Brain | volume = 123 | pages = 155–163 | doi=10.1093/brain/123.1.155| pmid = 10611129 | doi-access = }}{{cite journal | last1 = Penagos | first1 = H. | last2 = Melcher | first2 = J. R. | last3 = Oxenham | first3 = A. J. | year = 2004 | title = A neural representation of pitch salience in nonprimary human auditory cortex revealed with functional magnetic resonance imaging | journal = J. Neurosci. | volume = 24 | issue = 30| pages = 6810–6815 | doi=10.1523/jneurosci.0383-04.2004| pmid = 15282286 | pmc = 1794212 }} These data suggest a hierarchical system for pitch processing, with more abstract properties of sound stimulus processed further along the processing pathways.

{{Main|Absolute pitch}}

Absolute pitch (AP) is the ability to identify the pitch of a musical tone or to produce a musical tone at a given pitch without the use of an external reference pitch.{{cite journal |doi=10.1037/0033-2909.113.2.345 |title=Absolute pitch |year=1993 |last1=Takeuchi |first1=Annie H. |last2=Hulse |first2=Stewart H. |journal=Psychological Bulletin |volume=113 |issue=2 |pages=345–61 |pmid=8451339}} Researchers estimate the occurrence of AP to be 1 in 10,000 people.{{cite journal |last1=Sacks |first1=O. |title=Musical ability |journal=Science |date=5 May 1995 |volume=268 |issue=5211 |pages=621–622 |doi=10.1126/science.7732360 |pmid=7732360 |bibcode=1995Sci...268..621S |s2cid=39114788 }} The extent to which this ability is innate or learned is debated, with evidence for both a genetic basis and for a "critical period" in which the ability can be learned, especially in conjunction with early musical training.{{cite journal |last1=Theusch |first1=Elizabeth |last2=Basu |first2=Analabha |last3=Gitschier |first3=Jane |title=Genome-wide Study of Families with Absolute Pitch Reveals Linkage to 8q24.21 and Locus Heterogeneity |journal=The American Journal of Human Genetics |date=July 2009 |volume=85 |issue=1 |pages=112–119 |doi=10.1016/j.ajhg.2009.06.010 |pmid=19576568 |pmc=2706961 }}{{cite book |last=Snyder |first=Bob |chapter=Memory for music |editor1-last=Hallam |editor1-first=Susan |editor2-last=Cross |editor2-first=Ian |editor3-last=Thaut |editor3-first=Michael |title=The Oxford Handbook of Music Psychology |date=2009 |location=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-929845-7 |page=111}}

Behavioural studies demonstrate that rhythm and pitch can be perceived separately,{{cite journal | last1 = Krumhansl | first1 = C. L. | year = 2000 | title = Rhythm and pitch in music cognition | journal = Psychol. Bull. | volume = 126 | issue = 1| pages = 159–179 | doi=10.1037/0033-2909.126.1.159| pmid = 10668354 }} but that they also interact{{Cite book

|last=Tanguiane (Tangian) |first=Andranick |date=1993

|title= Artificial Perception and Music Recognition

|series= Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence|volume=746

|publisher=Springer |location=Berlin-Heidelberg|isbn=978-3-540-57394-4}}{{page needed|date=March 2021}}{{Cite journal

|last=Tanguiane (Tangian)|first=Andranick |year=1994

|title= Principle of correlativity of perception and its applications to music recognition

|journal= Music Perception|volume=11|issue=4|pages=465–502

|doi = 10.2307/40285634 |jstor=40285634 }}{{cite journal |last1=Jones |first1=Mari Riess |last2=Moynihan |first2=Heather |last3=MacKenzie |first3=Noah |last4=Puente |first4=Jennifer |title=Temporal Aspects of Stimulus-Driven Attending in Dynamic Arrays |journal=Psychological Science |date=July 2002 |volume=13 |issue=4 |pages=313–319 |doi=10.1111/1467-9280.00458 |pmid=12137133 |s2cid=5110638 }} in creating a musical perception. Studies of auditory rhythm discrimination and reproduction in patients with brain injury have linked these functions to the auditory regions of the temporal lobe, but have shown no consistent localization or lateralization.{{cite journal | last1 = Penhune | first1 = V. B. | last2 = Zatorre | first2 = R. J. | last3 = Feindel | first3 = W. H. | year = 1999 | title = The role of auditory cortex in retention of rhythmic patterns in patients with temporal-lobe removals including Heschl's gyrus | journal = Neuropsychologia | volume = 37 | issue = 3| pages = 315–331 | doi=10.1016/s0028-3932(98)00075-x| pmid = 10199645 | s2cid = 677087 }}{{cite journal | last1 = Peretz | first1 = I. | year = 1990 | title = Processing of local & global musical information by unilateral brain-damaged patients | journal = Brain | volume = 113 | issue = 4| pages = 1185–1205 | doi=10.1093/brain/113.4.1185| pmid = 2397389 }}{{cite journal |last1=Kester |first1=D.Brian |last2=Saykin |first2=Andrew J. |last3=Sperling |first3=Michael R. |last4=O'Connor |first4=Michael J. |last5=Robinson |first5=Lindsey J. |last6=Gur |first6=Ruben C. |title=Acute effect of anterior temporal lobectomy on musical processing |journal=Neuropsychologia |date=January 1991 |volume=29 |issue=7 |pages=703–708 |doi=10.1016/0028-3932(91)90104-g |pmid=1944872 |s2cid=30437232 }} Neuropsychological and neuroimaging studies have shown that the motor regions of the brain contribute to both perception and production of rhythms.{{cite journal | last1 = Janata | first1 = P. | last2 = Grafton | first2 = S. T. | year = 2003 | title = Swinging in the brain: shared neural substrates for behaviors related to sequencing and music | journal = Nature Neuroscience | volume = 6 | issue = 7| pages = 682–687 | doi=10.1038/nn1081 | pmid=12830159| s2cid = 7605155 }}

Even in studies where subjects only listen to rhythms, the basal ganglia, cerebellum, dorsal premotor cortex (dPMC) and supplementary motor area (SMA) are often implicated.{{cite journal |last1=Sakai |first1=Katsuyuki |last2=Hikosaka |first2=Okihide |last3=Miyauchi |first3=Satoru |last4=Takino |first4=Ryousuke |last5=Tamada |first5=Tomoe |last6=Iwata |first6=Nobue Kobayashi |last7=Nielsen |first7=Mathew |title=Neural Representation of a Rhythm Depends on Its Interval Ratio |journal=The Journal of Neuroscience |date=15 November 1999 |volume=19 |issue=22 |pages=10074–10081 |doi=10.1523/JNEUROSCI.19-22-10074.1999 |pmid=10559415 |pmc=6782989 |doi-access=free }}{{cite journal | last1 = Grahn | first1 = J. A. | last2 = Brett | first2 = M. | year = 2007 | title = Rhythm and beat perception in motor areas of the brain | journal = J. Cogn. Neurosci. | volume = 19 | issue = 5| pages = 893–906 | doi=10.1162/jocn.2007.19.5.893| pmid = 17488212 | s2cid = 5992236 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.119.5718 }} The analysis of rhythm may depend on interactions between the auditory and motor systems.

Dynamics in music refers to the volume of the music, or how loud the music is. 25% of American adults have some form of hearing loss from exposure to loud noise excessively. Loud volume can cause hearing loss that can occur with one singular loud noise, or consistently listening to loud noises. High sound levels can damage the hairs in the inner ear that receive sound, which can cause permanent hearing loss.{{Cite journal |last=Burrows |first=David |date=1997-10-01 |title=A Dynamical Systems Perspective on Music |url=https://online.ucpress.edu/jm/article/15/4/529/63245/A-Dynamical-Systems-Perspective-on-Music |journal=Journal of Musicology |language=en |volume=15 |issue=4 |pages=529–545 |doi=10.2307/764006 |jstor=764006 |issn=0277-9269}}

Music at a lower volume can reduce anxiety and blood pressure while improving mood, alertness, and memory. Listening to music at a moderate volume can maximize the benefits of listening to music. This happens because you receive all of the positive benefits of listening to music, without the risk of permanently damaging the delicate aspects of the ear.{{Cite web |date=2022-04-13 |title=Keep Your Brain Young with Music |url=https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/wellness-and-prevention/keep-your-brain-young-with-music |access-date=2024-04-17 |website=www.hopkinsmedicine.org |language=en}}

Although auditory–motor interactions can be observed in people without formal musical training, musicians are an excellent population to study because of their long-established and rich associations between auditory and motor systems. Musicians have been shown to have anatomical adaptations that correlate with their training. Some neuroimaging studies have observed that musicians show lower levels of activity in motor regions than non-musicians during the performance of simple motor tasks, which may suggest a more efficient pattern of neural recruitment.{{cite journal | last1 = Hund-Georgiadis | first1 = M. | last2 = von Cramon | first2 = D. Y. | year = 1999 | title = Motorlearning-related changes in piano players and nonmusicians revealed by functional magnetic-resonance signals | journal = Exp Brain Res | volume = 125 | issue = 4| pages = 417–425 | doi=10.1007/s002210050698| pmid = 10323287 | s2cid = 1520500 }}{{cite journal | last1 = Jancke | first1 = L. | last2 = Shah | first2 = N. J. | last3 = Peters | first3 = M. | year = 2000 | title = Cortical activations in primary and secondary motor areas for complex bimanual movements in professional pianists | journal = Brain Res Cogn Brain Res | volume = 10 | issue = 1–2| pages = 177–183 | doi=10.1016/s0926-6410(00)00028-8| pmid = 10978706 }}{{cite journal |last1=Koeneke |first1=Susan |last2=Lutz |first2=Kai |last3=Wüstenberg |first3=Torsten |last4=Jäncke |first4=Lutz |title=Long-term training affects cerebellar processing in skilled keyboard players |journal=NeuroReport |date=June 2004 |volume=15 |issue=8 |pages=1279–1282 |doi=10.1097/01.wnr.0000127463.10147.e7 |pmid=15167549 |s2cid=14517466 }}{{cite journal |last1=Meister |first1=I.G |last2=Krings |first2=T |last3=Foltys |first3=H |last4=Boroojerdi |first4=B |last5=Müller |first5=M |last6=Töpper |first6=R |last7=Thron |first7=A |title=Playing piano in the mind—an fMRI study on music imagery and performance in pianists |journal=Cognitive Brain Research |date=May 2004 |volume=19 |issue=3 |pages=219–228 |doi=10.1016/j.cogbrainres.2003.12.005 |pmid=15062860 }} Other studies have shown that early musical training may positively affect word reading, by promoting the specialization of an extra right-sided "note visual area" to process spatially relevant visual information (i.e., pentagram, bars, etc.){{Cite journal|last1=Proverbio|first1=Alice Mado|last2=Manfredi|first2=Mirella|last3=Zani|first3=Alberto|last4=Adorni|first4=Roberta|date=2013-02-01|title=Musical expertise affects neural bases of letter recognition|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S002839321200509X|journal=Neuropsychologia|language=en|volume=51|issue=3|pages=538–549|doi=10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2012.12.001|pmid=23238370|s2cid=34342790|issn=0028-3932}} This neuroplastic effect might help prevent surface dyslexia. Music learning also involves the formation of novel audio visuomotor associations, which results in the ability to detect an incorrect association between sounds and the corresponding musical gestures,{{Cite journal|last1=Proverbio|first1=Alice M.|last2=Attardo|first2=Lapo|last3=Cozzi|first3=Matteo|last4=Zani|first4=Alberto|date=2015|title=The effect of musical practice on gesture/sound pairing|journal=Frontiers in Psychology|volume=6|page=376|doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00376|pmid=25883580|pmc=4382982|issn=1664-1078|doi-access=free}}{{Cite journal|last1=Proverbio|first1=Alice Mado|last2=Cozzi|first2=Matteo|last3=Orlandi|first3=Andrea|last4=Carminati|first4=Manuel|date=2017-03-27|title=Error-related negativity in the skilled brain of pianists reveals motor simulation|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S030645221730043X|journal=Neuroscience|language=en|volume=346|pages=309–319|doi=10.1016/j.neuroscience.2017.01.030|pmid=28153687|s2cid=26621367|issn=0306-4522}} also allowing to learn how to play a musical instrument.{{Cite journal|last1=Mado Proverbio|first1=Alice|last2=Calbi|first2=Marta|last3=Manfredi|first3=Mirella|last4=Zani|first4=Alberto|date=2014-07-29|title=Audio-visuomotor processing in the Musician's brain: an ERP study on professional violinists and clarinetists|journal=Scientific Reports|volume=4|page=5866|doi=10.1038/srep05866|issn=2045-2322|pmc=5376193|pmid=25070060|bibcode=2014NatSR...4.5866M}}

Previous neuroimaging studies have consistently reported activity in the SMA and premotor areas, as well as in auditory cortices, when non-musicians imagine hearing musical excerpts.{{cite journal | last1 = Zatorre | first1 = R. J. | last2 = Halpern | first2 = A. R. | year = 2005 | title = Mental concerts: musical imagery and auditory cortex | url = https://digitalcommons.bucknell.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2547&context=fac_journ| journal = Neuron | volume = 47 | issue = 1| pages = 9–12 | doi=10.1016/j.neuron.2005.06.013 | pmid=15996544| s2cid = 1613599 | doi-access = free }}

Recruitment of the SMA and premotor areas is also reported when musicians are asked to imagine performing.{{cite journal |last1=Langheim |first1=F |last2=Callicott |first2=JH |last3=Mattay |first3=VS |last4=Duyn |first4=JH |last5=Weinberger |first5=DR |title=Cortical Systems Associated with Covert Music Rehearsal |journal=NeuroImage |date=August 2002 |volume=16 |issue=4 |pages=901–908 |doi=10.1006/nimg.2002.1144 |pmid=12202078 |s2cid=18505370 }}

{{Main|Psychoacoustics}}

{{Further|Hearing (sense)|Auditory illusion}}

Psychoacoustics is the scientific study of sound perception. More specifically, it is the branch of science studying the psychological and physiological responses associated with sound (including speech and music). Topics of study include perception of the pitch, timbre, loudness and duration of musical sounds and the relevance of such studies for music cognition or the perceived structure of music; and auditory illusions and how humans localize sound, which can have relevance for musical composition and the design of venues for music performance. Psychoacoustics is a branch of psychophysics.

{{Main|Cognitive musicology}}

Cognitive musicology is a branch of cognitive science concerned with computationally modeling musical knowledge with the goal of understanding both music and cognition.{{cite book | last = Laske | first = Otto | title = Navigating New Musical Horizons (Contributions to the Study of Music and Dance) | publisher = Greenwood Press | location = Westport | year = 1999 | isbn = 978-0-313-30632-7 | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/ottolaskenavigat0000unse }}

Cognitive musicology can be differentiated from the fields of music cognition and cognitive neuroscience of music by a difference in methodological emphasis. Cognitive musicology uses computer modeling to study music-related knowledge representation and has roots in artificial intelligence and cognitive science. The use of computer models provides an exacting, interactive medium in which to formulate and test theories.{{cite journal |last1=Tanguiane |first1=Andranik |title=Towards axiomatization of music perception 1 ast; |journal=Journal of New Music Research |date=September 1995 |volume=24 |issue=3 |pages=247–281 |doi=10.1080/09298219508570685 }}Laske, O. (1999). AI and music: A cornerstone of cognitive musicology. In M. Balaban, K. Ebcioglu, & O. Laske (Eds.), Understanding music with AI: Perspectives on music cognition. Cambridge: The MIT Press.{{page needed|date=March 2021}}

This interdisciplinary field investigates topics such as the parallels between language and music in the brain. Biologically inspired models of computation are often included in research, such as neural networks and evolutionary programs.{{cite journal |last1=Graci |first1=Craig |title=A Brief Tour of the Learning Sciences via a Cognitive Tool for Investigating Melodic Phenomena |journal=Journal of Educational Technology Systems |date=December 2009 |volume=38 |issue=2 |pages=181–211 |doi=10.2190/ET.38.2.i |s2cid=62657981 }} This field seeks to model how musical knowledge is represented, stored, perceived, performed, and generated. By using a well-structured computer environment, the systematic structures of these cognitive phenomena can be investigated.Hamman, M., 1999. "Structure as Performance: Cognitive Musicology and the Objectification of Procedure," in Otto Laske: Navigating New Musical Horizons, ed. J. Tabor. New York: Greenwood Press.{{page needed|date=March 2021}}

{{Main|Evolutionary musicology}}

Evolutionary musicology concerns the "origin of music, the question of animal song, selection pressures underlying music evolution", and "music evolution and human evolution".{{cite book | last1=Wallin | first1=Nils Lennart | last2=Merker | first2=Björn | last3=Brown | first3=Steven | chapter=An Introduction to Evolutionary Musicology | editor-last=Wallin | editor-first=Nils Lennart | editor-last2=Merker | editor-first2=Björn | editor-last3=Brown | editor-first3=Steven | title=The origins of music | publisher=MIT Press | publication-place=Cambridge, MA | date=2000 | isbn=978-0-262-28569-8 | oclc=44963330 | pages=5–6}} It seeks to understand music perception and activity in the context of evolutionary theory. Charles Darwin speculated that music may have held an adaptive advantage and functioned as a protolanguage,{{Cite web|title=The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex|year=1871|url=http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext00/dscmn10.txt|access-date=2014-04-24|archive-date=2012-04-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120402225829/http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext00/dscmn10.txt}} Chapter III; Language a view which has spawned several competing theories of music evolution.{{cite book | editor-last=Wallin | editor-first=Nils Lennart | editor-last2=Merker | editor-first2=Björn | editor-last3=Brown | editor-first3=Steven | title=The origins of music | publisher=MIT Press | publication-place=Cambridge, MA | date=2000 | isbn=978-0-262-28569-8 | oclc=44963330}}Steven Mithen, The Singing Neanderthals: the Origins of Music, Language, Mind and Body, Harvard University Press, 2006.{{page needed|date=March 2021}}{{cite journal |last1=Hagen |first1=Edward H. |last2=Hammerstein |first2=Peter |title=Did Neanderthals and other early humans sing? Seeking the biological roots of music in the territorial advertisements of primates, lions, hyenas, and wolves |journal=Musicae Scientiae |date=September 2009 |volume=13 |issue=2_suppl |pages=291–320 |doi=10.1177/1029864909013002131 |s2cid=39481097 }} An alternate view sees music as a by-product of linguistic evolution; a type of "auditory cheesecake" that pleases the senses without providing any adaptive function.{{cite book |last=Pinker |first=Steven |date=1997 |title=How the Mind Works |location=New York |publisher= W. W. Norton |page=[https://archive.org/details/howmindworks00pink/page/534 534] |isbn=978-0-393-04535-2|title-link=How the Mind Works }} This view has been directly countered by numerous music researchers.{{cite journal |last1=Perlovsky |first1=Leonid |title=Cognitive function, origin, and evolution of musical emotions |journal=Musicae Scientiae |date=July 2012 |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=185–199 |doi=10.1177/1029864912448327 |s2cid=143982010 }}{{cite journal | last1 = Abbott | first1 = Alison | year = 2002 | title = Neurobiology: Music, maestro, please! | journal = Nature | volume = 416 | issue = 6876| pages = 12–14 | doi = 10.1038/416012a | pmid = 11882864 | bibcode = 2002Natur.416...12A | s2cid = 4420891 | doi-access = free }}{{cite journal |last1=Honing |first1=Henkjan |last2=Ploeger |first2=Annemie |title=Cognition and the Evolution of Music: Pitfalls and Prospects |journal=Topics in Cognitive Science |date=October 2012 |volume=4 |issue=4 |pages=513–524 |doi=10.1111/j.1756-8765.2012.01210.x |pmid=22760967 |s2cid=2466554 |doi-access=free }}

{{Main|Culture in music cognition}}

{{See also|Ethnomusicology}}

An individual's culture or ethnicity plays a role in their music cognition, including their preferences, emotional reaction, and musical memory. Musical preferences are biased toward culturally familiar musical traditions beginning in infancy, and adults' classification of the emotion of a musical piece depends on both culturally specific and universal structural features.{{cite journal |last1=Soley |first1=Gaye |last2=Hannon |first2=Erin E. |title=Infants prefer the musical meter of their own culture: A cross-cultural comparison |journal=Developmental Psychology |date=2010 |volume=46 |issue=1 |pages=286–292 |doi=10.1037/a0017555 |pmid=20053025 |s2cid=2868086 }}{{cite journal|last1=Balkwill|first1=L.|last2=Thompson|first2= W. F.|last3=Matsunaga|first3= R.|title=Recognition of emotion in Japanese, Western, and Hindustani music by Japanese listeners|journal=Japanese Psychological Research|year=2004|volume=46|issue=4|pages=337–349|doi=10.1111/j.1468-5584.2004.00265.x|doi-access=}}{{Cite journal |last1=Athanasopoulos |first1=George |last2=Eerola |first2=Tuomas |last3=Lahdelma |first3=Imre |last4=Kaliakatsos-Papakostas |first4=Maximos |date=2021-01-13 |title=Harmonic organisation conveys both universal and culture-specific cues for emotional expression in music |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=e0244964 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0244964 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=7806179 |pmid=33439887 |bibcode=2021PLoSO..1644964A |doi-access=free }}{{Cite journal |last1=Smit |first1=Eline Adrianne |last2=Milne |first2=Andrew J. |last3=Sarvasy |first3=Hannah S. |last4=Dean |first4=Roger T. |date=2022-06-29 |title=Emotional responses in Papua New Guinea show negligible evidence for a universal effect of major versus minor music |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=17 |issue=6 |pages=e0269597 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0269597 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=9242494 |pmid=35767551 |bibcode=2022PLoSO..1769597S |doi-access=free }} Additionally, individuals' musical memory abilities are greater for culturally familiar music than for culturally unfamiliar music.{{cite journal|last1=Demorest|first1=S. M.|last2=Morrison|first2= S. J.|last3=Beken|first3= M. N.|last4=Jungbluth|first4= D.|title=Lost in translation: An enculturation effect in music memory performance|journal=Music Perception|year=2008|volume=25|issue=3|pages=213–223|doi=10.1525/mp.2008.25.3.213}}{{cite journal |last1=Groussard |first1=M. |last2=Rauchs |first2=G. |last3=Landeau |first3=B. |last4=Viader |first4=F. |last5=Desgranges |first5=B. |last6=Eustache |first6=F. |last7=Platel |first7=H. |title=The neural substrates of musical memory revealed by fMRI and two semantic tasks |journal=NeuroImage |date=December 2010 |volume=53 |issue=4 |pages=1301–1309 |doi=10.1016/j.neuroimage.2010.07.013 |pmid=20627131 |s2cid=8955075 |url=https://www.hal.inserm.fr/inserm-00538633/file/Manuscript_Groussard_Neuroimage2010.pdf }}

{{Expand section|date=April 2014}}

Some areas of research in the psychology of music focus on the application of music in everyday life as well as the practices and experiences of the amateur and professional musician. Each topic may utilize knowledge and techniques derived from one or more of the areas described above. Such areas include:

Including:

• everyday music listening
• musical rituals and gatherings (e.g. religious, festive, sporting, political, etc.)
• the role of music in forming personal and group identities
• the relation between music and dancing
• social influences on musical preference (peers, family, experts, social background, etc.)

{{Main|Psychology of music preference}}

Consumers' choices in music have been studied as they relate to the Big Five personality traits: openness to experience, agreeableness, extraversion, neuroticism, and conscientiousness. In general, the plasticity traits (openness to experience and extraversion) affect music preference more than the stability traits (agreeableness, neuroticism, and conscientiousness).{{cite journal |last1=Miranda |first1=Dave |last2=Morizot |first2=Julien |last3=Gaudreau |first3=Patrick |title=Personality Metatraits and Music Preferences in Adolescence: A Pilot Study |journal=International Journal of Adolescence and Youth |date=January 2010 |volume=15 |issue=4 |pages=289–301 |doi=10.1080/02673843.2010.9748036 |s2cid=145681242 }} Gender has been shown to influence preference, with men choosing music for primarily cognitive reasons and women for emotional reasons.{{cite journal |last1=Chamorro-Premuzic |first1=Tomas |last2=Swami |first2=Viren |last3=Cermakova |first3=Blanka |title=Individual differences in music consumption are predicted by uses of music and age rather than emotional intelligence, neuroticism, extraversion or openness |journal=Psychology of Music |date=May 2012 |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=285–300 |doi=10.1177/0305735610381591 |s2cid=145730770 }} Relationships with music preference have also been found with mood{{cite journal |last1=Vuoskoski |first1=Jonna K. |last2=Eerola |first2=Tuomas |title=Measuring music-induced emotion: A comparison of emotion models, personality biases, and intensity of experiences |journal=Musicae Scientiae |date=July 2011 |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=159–173 |doi=10.1177/1029864911403367 |s2cid=144079608 }} and nostalgic association.{{cite journal |last1=Barrett |first1=Frederick S. |last2=Grimm |first2=Kevin J. |last3=Robins |first3=Richard W. |last4=Wildschut |first4=Tim |last5=Sedikides |first5=Constantine |last6=Janata |first6=Petr |title=Music-evoked nostalgia: Affect, memory, and personality |journal=Emotion |date=2010 |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=390–403 |doi=10.1037/a0019006 |pmid=20515227 |s2cid=17454039 }}

{{Main|Background music}}

The study of background music focuses on the impact of music with non-musical tasks, including changes in behavior in the presence of different types, settings, or styles of music.{{cite journal |last1=Kämpfe |first1=Juliane |last2=Sedlmeier |first2=Peter |last3=Renkewitz |first3=Frank |title=The impact of background music on adult listeners: A meta-analysis |journal=Psychology of Music |date=October 2011 |volume=39 |issue=4 |pages=424–448 |doi=10.1177/0305735610376261 |s2cid=145772362 }} In laboratory settings, music can affect performance on cognitive tasks (memory, attention, and comprehension), both positively and negatively. Used extensively as an advertising aid, music may also affect marketing strategies, ad comprehension, and consumer choices. Background music can influence learning,{{cite journal |last1=de Groot |first1=Annette M. B. |title=Effects of Stimulus Characteristics and Background Music on Foreign Language Vocabulary Learning and Forgetting: Language Learning |journal=Language Learning |date=September 2006 |volume=56 |issue=3 |pages=463–506 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-9922.2006.00374.x |s2cid=145797054 }}{{cite journal |last1=Aheadi |first1=Afshin |last2=Dixon |first2=Peter |last3=Glover |first3=Scott |title=A limiting feature of the Mozart effect: listening enhances mental rotation abilities in non-musicians but not musicians |journal=Psychology of Music |date=January 2010 |volume=38 |issue=1 |pages=107–117 |doi=10.1177/0305735609336057 |s2cid=145376995 }} working memory and recall,{{cite journal |last1=Alley |first1=Thomas R. |last2=Greene |first2=Marcie E. |title=The Relative and Perceived Impact of Irrelevant Speech, Vocal Music and Non-vocal Music on Working Memory |journal=Current Psychology |date=December 2008 |volume=27 |issue=4 |pages=277–289 |doi=10.1007/s12144-008-9040-z |s2cid=145460089 }}{{cite journal |last1=Cassidy |first1=Gianna |last2=MacDonald |first2=Raymond A.R. |title=The effect of background music and background noise on the task performance of introverts and extraverts |journal=Psychology of Music |date=July 2007 |volume=35 |issue=3 |pages=517–537 |doi=10.1177/0305735607076444 |s2cid=15449446 }} performance while working on tests,{{cite journal |last1=Patston |first1=Lucy L. M. |last2=Tippett |first2=Lynette J. |author-link2=Lynette Tippett |date=1 December 2011 |title=The Effect of Background Music on Cognitive Performance in Musicians and Nonmusicians |journal=Music Perception |volume=29 |issue=2 |pages=173–183 |doi=10.1525/mp.2011.29.2.173 |s2cid=53597018}}{{cite journal |last1=Avila |first1=Christina |last2=Furnham |first2=Adrian |last3=McClelland |first3=Alastair |title=The influence of distracting familiar vocal music on cognitive performance of introverts and extraverts |journal=Psychology of Music |date=January 2012 |volume=40 |issue=1 |pages=84–93 |doi=10.1177/0305735611422672 |s2cid=145340833 }} and attention in cognitive monitoring tasks.{{cite journal |last1=Olivers |first1=Christian N.L. |last2=Nieuwenhuis |first2=Sander |title=The Beneficial Effect of Concurrent Task-Irrelevant Mental Activity on Temporal Attention |journal=Psychological Science |date=April 2005 |volume=16 |issue=4 |pages=265–269 |doi=10.1111/j.0956-7976.2005.01526.x |pmid=15828972 |s2cid=1023921 |url=https://research.vu.nl/ws/files/2043913/178424.pdf }}{{cite journal |last1=Beanland |first1=Vanessa |last2=Allen |first2=Rosemary A. |last3=Pammer |first3=Kristen |title=Attending to music decreases inattentional blindness |journal=Consciousness and Cognition |date=December 2011 |volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=1282–1292 |doi=10.1016/j.concog.2011.04.009 |pmid=21555226 |s2cid=13142755 }} Background music can also be used as a way to relieve boredom, create positive moods, and maintain a private space.{{cite journal |last1=Schäfer |first1=Thomas |last2=Sedlmeier |first2=Peter |last3=Städtler |first3=Christine |last4=Huron |first4=David |title=The psychological functions of music listening |journal=Frontiers in Psychology |date=2013 |volume=4 |page=511 |doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00511 |pmid=23964257 |pmc=3741536 |doi-access=free }} Background music has been shown to put a restless mind at ease by presenting the listener with various melodies and tones. It has been shown that listening to different types of music may modulate differently psychological mood and physiological responses associated with the induced emotions.{{Cite journal|last1=Proverbio|first1=A. M.|last2=De Benedetto|first2=F.|date=2018-02-01|title=Auditory enhancement of visual memory encoding is driven by emotional content of the auditory material and mediated by superior frontal cortex|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301051117303447|journal=Biological Psychology|language=en|volume=132|pages=164–175|doi=10.1016/j.biopsycho.2017.12.003|pmid=29292233|s2cid=206111258|issn=0301-0511}} For example, listening to atonal music might result in reduced heart rate (fear bradycardia) and increased blood pressure (both diastolic and systolic), possibly reflecting an increase in alertness and attention, psychological tension, and anxiety.{{Cite journal|last1=Proverbio|first1=Alice M.|last2=Manfrin|first2=Luigi|last3=Arcari|first3=Laura A.|last4=De Benedetto|first4=Francesco|last5=Gazzola|first5=Martina|last6=Guardamagna|first6=Matteo|last7=Lozano Nasi|first7=Valentina|last8=Zani|first8=Alberto|date=2015|title=Non-expert listeners show decreased heart rate and increased blood pressure (fear bradycardia) in response to atonal music|journal=Frontiers in Psychology|volume=6|page=1646|doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01646|pmid=26579029|pmc=4623197|issn=1664-1078|doi-access=free}}

{{Main|Background music#Music in marketing}}

In both radio and television advertisements, music plays an integral role in content recall,{{cite journal |last1=Hahn |first1=Minhi |last2=Hwang |first2=Insuk |title=Effects of tempo and familiarity of background music on message processing in TV advertising: A resource-matching perspective |journal=Psychology & Marketing |date=1999 |volume=16 |issue=8 |pages=659–675 |doi=10.1002/(SICI)1520-6793(199912)16:8<659::AID-MAR3>3.0.CO;2-S }}{{cite journal |last1=Park |first1=C. Whan |last2=Young |first2=S. Mark |title=Consumer Response to Television Commercials: The Impact of Involvement and Background Music on Brand Attitude Formation |journal=Journal of Marketing Research |date=February 1986 |volume=23 |issue=1 |page=11 |doi=10.2307/3151772 |jstor=3151772 }}{{cite journal |last1=Oakes |first1=Steve |last2=North |first2=Adrian C. |title=The impact of background musical tempo and timbre congruity upon ad content recall and affective response |journal=Applied Cognitive Psychology |date=May 2006 |volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=505–520 |doi=10.1002/acp.1199 }} intentions to buy the product, and attitudes toward the advertisement and brand itself.{{cite journal |last1=Lalwani |first1=Ashok K. |last2=Lwin |first2=May O. |last3=Ling |first3=Pee Beng |title=Does Audiovisual Congruency in Advertisements Increase Persuasion? The Role of Cultural Music and Products |journal=Journal of Global Marketing |date=14 April 2009 |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=139–153 |doi=10.1080/08911760902765973 |s2cid=145718621 }}{{cite journal |last1=Zander |first1=Mark F. |title=Musical influences in advertising: how music modifies first impressions of product endorsers and brands |journal=Psychology of Music |date=October 2006 |volume=34 |issue=4 |pages=465–480 |doi=10.1177/0305735606067158 |s2cid=26523687 }}{{cite journal |last1=Lavack |first1=Anne M. |last2=Thakor |first2=Mrugank V. |last3=Bottausci |first3=Ingrid |title=Music-brand congruency in highand low-cognition radio advertising |journal=International Journal of Advertising |date=January 2008 |volume=27 |issue=4 |pages=549–568 |doi=10.2501/S0265048708080141 |s2cid=144130812 }} Music's effect on marketing has been studied in radio ads, TV ads, and physical retail settings.{{cite journal |last1=Eroglu |first1=Sevgin A. |last2=Machleit |first2=Karen A. |last3=Chebat |first3=Jean-Charles |title=The interaction of retail density and music tempo: Effects on shopper responses |journal=Psychology and Marketing |date=July 2005 |volume=22 |issue=7 |pages=577–589 |doi=10.1002/mar.20074 }}{{cite journal |last1=Chebat |first1=Jean-Charles |last2=Chebat |first2=Claire Gélinas |last3=Vaillant |first3=Dominique |title=Environmental background music and in-store selling |journal=Journal of Business Research |date=November 2001 |volume=54 |issue=2 |pages=115–123 |doi=10.1016/S0148-2963(99)00089-2 }}

One of the most important aspects of an advertisement's music is the "musical fit", or the degree of congruity between cues in the ad and song content.{{cite journal|last=OAKES|first=STEVE|title=Evaluating Empirical Research into Music in Advertising: A Congruity Perspective|journal=Journal of Advertising Research|date=1 January 2007|volume=47|issue=1|page=38|doi=10.2501/S0021849907070055|s2cid=167412833}} Advertisements and music can be congruous or incongruous for both lyrical and instrumental music. The timbre, tempo, lyrics, genre, mood, as well as any positive or negative associations elicited by certain music should fit the nature of the advertisement and product.

{{Main|Background music#Effects on cognitive performance}}

Several studies have recognized that listening to music while working affects the productivity of people performing complex cognitive tasks.{{Cite web|url=https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/conquering-cyber-overload/201305/is-background-music-boost-or-bummer|title=Is Background Music a Boost or a Bummer?|website=Psychology Today|language=en|access-date=2018-04-17}} One study suggested that listening to one's preferred genre of music can enhance productivity in the workplace,{{cite journal |last1=Lesiuk |first1=Teresa |title=The effect of music listening on work performance |journal=Psychology of Music |date=April 2005 |volume=33 |issue=2 |pages=173–191 |doi=10.1177/0305735605050650 |s2cid=146413962 }} though other research has found that listening to music while working can be a source of distraction, with loudness and lyrical content possibly playing a role.{{Cite web|url=http://musicatwork.net/music-at-work-distracting-or-beneficial/|title=Music at work: distracting or beneficial? - Anneli B. Haake PhD|website=musicatwork.net|language=en-US|access-date=2018-04-17}} Other factors proposed to affect the relationship between music listening and productivity include musical structure, task complexity, and degree of control over the choice and use of music.{{Cite news|url=https://www.inc.com/melissa-chu/research-shows-listening-to-music-increases-produc.html|title=Research Shows Listening to Music Increases Productivity (and Some Types of Music Are Super Effective)|date=2017-09-19|work=Inc.com|access-date=2018-04-17}}

{{Main|Music education}}

File:Suzuki violin recital.jpg

Including:

• optimizing music education
• development of musical behaviors and abilities throughout the lifespan
• the specific skills and processes involved in learning a musical instrument or singing
• activities and practices within a music school
• individual versus group learning of a musical instrument
• the effects of musical education on intelligence
• optimizing practice

Musical aptitude refers to a person's innate ability to acquire skills and knowledge required for musical activity, and may influence the speed at which learning can take place and the level that may be achieved. Study in this area focuses on whether aptitude can be broken into subsets or represented as a single construct, whether aptitude can be measured prior to significant achievement, whether high aptitude can predict achievement, to what extent aptitude is inherited, and what implications questions of aptitude have on educational principles.

It is an issue closely related to that of intelligence and IQ, and was pioneered by the work of Carl Seashore. While early tests of aptitude, such as Seashore's The Measurement of Musical Talent, sought to measure innate musical talent through discrimination tests of pitch, interval, rhythm, consonance, memory, etc., later research found these approaches to have little predictive power and to be influenced greatly by the test-taker's mood, motivation, confidence, fatigue, and boredom when taking the test.

{{See also|Performance science}}

Including:

• the physiology of performance
• music reading and sight-reading, including eye movement
• performing from memory and music-related memory
• acts of improvisation and composition
• flow experiences
• the interpersonal/social aspects of group performance
• music performance quality evaluation by an audience or evaluator(s) (e.g. audition or competition), including the influence of musical and non-musical factors
• audio engineering{{cite book |last1=Shelvock |first1=Matt |chapter=Gestalt Theory and Mixing Audio |pages=75–87 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1OLvDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA75 |editor1-last=Hepworth-Sawyer |editor1-first=R. |editor2-last=Hodgson |editor2-first=J. |editor3-last=Toulson |editor3-first=R. |editor4-last=Paterson |editor4-first=J. L. |title=Innovation in Music II |date=16 January 2017 |publisher=Lulu.com |isbn=978-1-911108-04-7 }}

Scientific studies suggest that singing can have positive effects on people's health. A preliminary study based on self-reported data from a survey of students participating in choral singing found perceived benefits including increased lung capacity, improved mood, stress reduction, as well as perceived social and spiritual benefits.{{cite journal

|last1=Clift |first1=SM |last2=Hancox |first2=G

|title=The perceived benefits of singing

|journal=The Journal of the Royal Society for the Promotion of Health

|volume=121

|issue=4

|pages=248–256

|year=2001

|doi=10.1177/146642400112100409

|pmid=11811096

|s2cid=21896613 }} However, one much older study of lung capacity compared those with professional vocal training to those without, and failed to back up the claims of increased lung capacity.{{cite journal

|last1=Heller |first1=Stanley S |last2=Hicks |first2=William R |last3=Root |first3=Walter S

|title=Lung volumes of singers

|journal=J Appl Physiol

|volume=15

|issue=1

|pages=40–42

|year=1960

|pmid=14400875

|doi=10.1152/jappl.1960.15.1.40 }} Singing may positively influence the immune system through the reduction of stress. One study found that both singing and listening to choral music reduces the level of stress hormones and increases immune function.{{Cite journal |last1= Kreutz |first1=Gunter |last2=Bongard |first2=Stephan |last3=Rohrmann |first3=Sonja |last4=Hodapp |first4=Volker |last5=Grebe |first5=Dorothee |title=Effects of choir singing or listening on secretory immunoglobulin A, cortisol, and emotional state

|journal=Journal of Behavioral Medicine |volume=27 |issue=6 |pages=623–635 |date=December 2004|doi=10.1007/s10865-004-0006-9 |pmid= 15669447

|s2cid=20330950 }}

A multinational collaboration to study the connection between singing and health was established in 2009, called Advancing Interdisciplinary Research in Singing (AIRS).{{cite news |url=http://singaana.com/doctors-prescription-2-arias-chorus/ |newspaper=The Globe and Mail |title=Doctor's prescription: 2 arias + a chorus |last=Mick |first=Hayley |date=19 June 2009 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20150118161443/http://singaana.com/doctors-prescription-2-arias-chorus/ |archive-date=18 January 2015 }} Singing provides physical, cognitive, and emotional benefits to participants. When they step on stage, many singers forget their worries and focus solely on the song. Singing is becoming a more widely known method of increasing an individual's overall health and wellness, in turn helping them to battle diseases such as cancer more effectively due to decreased stress, releasing of endorphins, and increased lung capacity.{{Cite news|title=Chronicle-Herald|last=Clarke|first=Heather Laura|date=20 June 2014|id = {{ProQuest|1774037978}}}}

John Daniel Scott, among others, have cited that "people who sing are more likely to be happy". This is because "singing elevates the levels of neurotransmitters which are associated with pleasure and well being". Humans have a long prehistory of music, especially singing; it is speculated that music was even used as an early form of social bonding.{{Cite journal |author=Patrick E. Savage |author2=Psyche Loui |author3=Bronwyn Tarr |author4=Adena Schachner |author5=Luke Glowacki |author6=Steven Mithen |author7=W. Tecumseh Fitch |date=2021 |title=Music as a Coevolved System for Social Bonding |url=https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X20000333 |url-access=subscription |access-date=20 September 2023 |journal=Behavioral and Brain Sciences|volume=44 |pages=e59 |doi=10.1017/S0140525X20000333 |pmid=32814608 }} As stated by Savage et al. (2020), Songs were also used to identify a socio-cultural connection between individuals, as songs typically vary. If two people knew the same song, they likely had a connection from previous generations (7), because song is often more memorable. Savage et al. continues by presenting evidence that music or singing may have evolved in humans even before language. Furthermore, Levitin, in his This is Your Brain on Music, argues that "music may be the activity that prepared our pre-human ancestors for speech communication" and that "singing ... might have helped our species to refine motor skills, paving the way for the development of the exquisitely fine muscle control required for vocal ... speech" (260).{{Cite book|title = This is Your Brain on Music: The Science of a Human Obsession|last = Levitin|first = Daniel J.|publisher = Plume|year = 2006|isbn = 978-0-452-28852-2|location = New York}} On the other hand, he cites Pinker, who "argued that language is an adaptation and music is its Spandrel ... an evolutionary accident piggybacking on language" (248).

Studies have found evidence suggesting the mental, as well as physical, benefits of singing. When conducting a study with 21 members of a choir at three different points over one year, three themes suggested three areas of benefits; the social impact (connectedness with others), personal impact (positive emotions, self-perception, etc.), and functional outcomes (health benefits of being in the choir). Findings showed that a sense of well-being is associated with singing, by uplifting the mood of the participants and releasing endorphins in the brain. Many singers also reported that singing helped them regulate stress and relax, allowing them to deal better with their daily lives. From a social perspective, approval from the audience, and interaction with other choir members in a positive manner is also beneficial.

Singing is beneficial for pregnant mothers. By giving them another medium of communication with their newborns, mothers in one study reported feelings of love and affection when singing to their unborn children. They also reported feeling more relaxed than ever before during their stressful pregnancy. A song can have nostalgic significance by reminding a singer of the past, and momentarily transport them, allowing them to focus on singing and embrace the activity as an escape from their daily lives and problems.{{Cite journal|last=Dingle|first=Genevieve|year=2012|title="To be heard": The social and mental health benefits of choir singing for disadvantaged adults|doi=10.1177/0305735611430081|journal=Psychology of Music|volume=41|issue=4|pages=405–421|s2cid=146401780|url=http://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:267353/UQ267353_post_print.pdf}}

A recent study by Tenovus Cancer Care found that singing in a choir for just one hour boosts levels of immune proteins in cancer patients and has a positive overall effect on the health of patients. The study explores the possibility that singing could help put patients in the best mental and physical shape to receive the treatment they need, by reducing stress hormones, and increasing quantities of cytokines—proteins of the immune system that can increase the body's ability to fight disease. "Singing gives you physical benefits like breath control and muscle movement and enunciation, as well as the learning benefits of processing information" says a musical director and accompanist in the study. The enunciation and speech benefits tie into the language benefits detailed below.{{cite news|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2016/04/160404221004.htm|title=Choir singing boosts immune system activity in cancer patients and carers, study shows|last=sciencedaily|first=ecancermedicalscience|date=4 April 2016|access-date=10 November 2016}}

Some have advocated, as in a 2011 article in the Toronto Star, that everyone sing, even if they are not musically talented, because of its health benefits. Singing lowers blood pressure by releasing pent up emotions, boosting relaxation, and reminding them of happy times. It also allows singers to breathe more easily. Patients with lung disease and chronic pulmonary disease experience relief from their symptoms from singing just two times a week. In addition to breathing related illness, singing also has numerous benefits for stroke victims when it comes to relearning the ability to speak and communicate by singing their thoughts. Singing activates the right side of the brain when the left side cannot function (the left side is the area of the brain responsible for speech), so it is easy to see how singing can be an excellent alternative to speech while the victim heals.{{cite news|url=https://www.thestar.com/life/health_wellness/2011/04/25/you_docs_5_reasons_to_sing_even_if_you_cant_carry_a_tune.html|title=You Docs: 5 reasons to sing – even if you can't carry a tune|author1=Dr. Oz|author2=Dr. Roizen|date=25 April 2011|work=The Star|access-date=25 November 2011|via=Proquest|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190328062517/https://www.thestar.com/life/health_wellness/2011/04/25/you_docs_5_reasons_to_sing_even_if_you_cant_carry_a_tune.html|archive-date=28 March 2019}}

1. Works the lungs, tones up the intercostals and diaphragm
2. Improves sleep
3. Benefits cardio function by improving aerobic capacity
4. Relaxes overall muscle tension
5. Improves posture
6. Opens up sinuses and respiratory tubes
7. With training, it could help decrease snoring
8. Boosts immune system
9. Helps patients manage pain
10. Helps improve physical balance in people affected by illnesses such as Parkinson's disease{{Cite web |last=Symblème |first=Catharine |date=2014-03-26 |title=21 Incredible Benefits of Singing That Will Impress You |url=https://www.lifehack.org/articles/lifestyle/21-incredible-benefits-singing-that-will-impress-you.html |access-date=2024-04-17 |website=Lifehack |language=en-US}} =====

1. Reduces cortisol and stress
2. Reduces blood pressure
3. Releases endorphins
4. Improves mood through release of dopamine and serotonin
5. Eases anxiety of upcoming challenges{{Cite web |title=Healing Benefits |url=https://www.listenforlife.org/healing-benefits.html |access-date=2024-04-17 |website=Listen4Life Foundation |language=en}} =====

{{See also|Music therapy|Music and sleep|Musicians' Medicine}}

Including:

• the effectiveness of music in healthcare and therapeutic settings
• music-specific disorders
• musicians' physical and mental health and well-being{{Cite book|last1=Musgrave|first1=George|url=https://uwestminsterpress.co.uk/site/books/m/10.16997/book43/|title=Can Music Make You Sick?|last2=Gross|first2=Sally Anne|date=2020-09-29|publisher=University of Westminster Press|isbn=978-1-912656-62-2|language=en|doi=10.16997/book43|s2cid=224842613}}
• music performance anxiety (MPA, or stage fright)
• motivation, burnout, and depression among musicians
• noise-induced hearing loss among musicians
• Sleep onset and maintenance insomnia

Music psychology journals include:

• Music Perception
• Musicae Scientiae
• Psychology of Music
• Psychomusicology: Music, Mind, and Brain
• Music & Science
• Jahrbuch Musikpsychologie{{cite web|url=http://www.music-psychology.de/|title=Dt. Gesellsch. f. Musikpsychologie|language=de|access-date=23 July 2012}}

Music psychologists also publish in a wide range of mainstream musicology, computational musicology, music theory/analysis, psychology, music education, music therapy, music medicine, and systematic musicology journals. The latter include for example:

• Acta Acustica United With Acustica
• Cognitive Systems Research
• Computer Music Journal
• Empirical Musicology Review
• Frontiers in Neuroscience
• Frontiers in Psychology
• Journal of the Audio Engineering Society
• Journal of New Music Research
• Journal of Mathematics and Music{{cite news|url=http://www.tandfonline.com/toc/tmam20/current | title=Journal of Mathematics and Music | newspaper=Taylor & Francis | access-date=6 April 2014}}
• Journal of the Acoustical Society of America
• Research Studies in Music Education

• Asia-Pacific Society for the Cognitive Sciences of Music (APSCOM)
• Australian Music & Psychology Society (AMPS)
• Deutsche Gesellschaft für Musikpsychologie (DGM)
• European Society for the Cognitive Sciences of Music (ESCOM)
• Japanese Society for Music Perception and Cognition (JSMPC)
• Society for Education, Music and Psychology Research (SEMPRE)
• Society for Music Perception and Cognition (SMPC)

{{Incomplete list|date=October 2021}}

{{div col|colwidth=35em}}

Australia:

• Music, Sound and Performance Lab, Macquarie University{{cite web|url=http://www.psy.mq.edu.au/me2/ | title=Macquarie University; Music, Sound and Performance Lab | access-date=6 April 2014| date=2002-05-22 }}
• Music, Mind and Wellbeing Initiative, Melbourne University{{cite web|url=http://cmmw.unimelb.edu.au | title=Melbourne University; Music, Music, Mind and Wellbeing Initiative | access-date=9 April 2014}}
• Empirical Musicology Group, University of New South Wales{{cite web|url=https://sam.arts.unsw.edu.au/research/our-research/empirical-musicology/ | title=UNSW; Empirical Musicology Group | access-date=8 December 2014}}
• ARC Centre of Excellence for the History of Emotion, University of Western Australia{{cite web |url=http://www.historyofemotions.org.au/research/research-programs/performance.aspx |title=University of Western Australia; ARC Centre of Excellence for the History of Emotion |access-date=8 December 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180403152242/http://historyofemotions.org.au/research/research-programs/performance.aspx |archive-date=3 April 2018 }}
• The MARCS Institute, University of Western Sydney{{cite web |url=http://marcs.uws.edu.au/research |title=University of Western Sydney; The MARCS Institute |access-date=9 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150418013125/http://marcs.uws.edu.au/research |archive-date=18 April 2015 }}

Austria:

• Centre for Systematic Musicology, University of Graz{{cite web |url=http://systematische-musikwissenschaft.uni-graz.at/en/zentrum/ |title=University of Graz; Centre for Systematic Musicology |access-date=6 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304003227/http://systematische-musikwissenschaft.uni-graz.at/en/zentrum/ |archive-date=4 March 2016 }}
• Cognitive Psychology Unit, University of Klagenfurt{{cite web|url=http://cognition.aau.at/index.php?page=home&lang=english | title=University of Klagenfurt; Cognitive Psychology Unit| access-date=8 April 2014}}
• Wiener Klangstil, University of Music and Performing Arts Vienna{{cite web|url=https://iwk.mdw.ac.at/ | title=University of Music and Performing Arts Vienna; Wiener Klangstil| access-date=11 November 2022}}

Belgium:

• Institute for Psychoacoustics and Electronic Music, Ghent University{{cite web|url=http://www.ipem.ugent.be | title=Ghent University; Institute for Psychoacoustics and Electronic Music | access-date=9 April 2014}}

Canada:

• Centre for Interdisciplinary Research in Music and Media and Technology, McGill University{{cite web|url=http://www.cirmmt.org/home | title=McGill University; CIRMMT | access-date=6 April 2014}}
• Music and Health Research Collaboratory, University of Toronto{{cite web |url=http://www.music.utoronto.ca/about/MaHRChome.htm |title=University of Toronto; MaHRC |access-date=6 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150128071726/http://www.music.utoronto.ca/about/MaHRChome.htm |archive-date=28 January 2015 }}
• Music Cognition Lab, Queen's University{{cite web |url=http://www.queensu.ca/psychology/mcl.html |title=Queens University; Music Cognition Lab |access-date=6 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141207145336/http://www.queensu.ca/psychology/mcl.html |archive-date=7 December 2014 }}
• Auditory Perception and Music Cognition Research and Training Laboratory, University of Prince Edward Island{{cite web|url=http://www.upei.ca/%7Emusicog/ | title=University of PEI; Auditory Perception and Music Cognition Research and Training Laboratory | access-date=6 April 2014}}
• SMART Lab, Toronto Metropolitan University{{cite web |url=http://www.ryerson.ca/smart/ |title=Ryerson University; SMART Lab |access-date=6 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150419140747/http://www.ryerson.ca/smart/ |archive-date=19 April 2015 }}
• The Music, Acoustics, Perception, and LEarning (MAPLE) Lab, McMaster University{{cite web|url=http://maplelab.net | title=McMaster University; MAPLE Lab | access-date=17 January 2015}}
• The Digital Music Lab (DML), McMaster University{{cite web|url=https://digitalmusiclab.org/ | title=McMaster University; Digital Music Lab | access-date=24 June 2021}}
• McMaster Institute for Music and the Mind, McMaster University{{cite web|url=http://mimm.mcmaster.ca | title=McMaster University; MIMM | access-date=6 April 2014}}
• BRAMS - International Laboratory for Brain, Music, and Sound Research, University of Montreal and McGill University{{cite web|url=http://www.brams.org/en/ | title=BRAMS - International Laboratory for Brain, Music, and Sound Research | access-date=6 April 2014}}
• Centre for Research on Brain, Language and Music, University of Montreal{{cite web|url=http://www.crblm.ca | title=University of Montreal; Centre for Research on Brain, Language and Music | access-date=6 April 2014}}
• Music and Neuroscience Lab, University of Western Ontario{{cite web|url=http://www.jessicagrahn.com | title=University of Western Ontario; Music and Neuroscience Lab | access-date=9 April 2014}}

Denmark:

• Center for Music in the Brain, Aarhus University{{cite web|url=http://musicinthebrain.au.dk/ | title=Aarhus University; Center for Music in the brain | access-date=17 October 2017}}

Finland:

• Centre of Excellence in Music, Mind, Body and Brain, University of Jyväskylä{{cite web|url=https://twitter.com/CoE_MMBB | title=University of Jyväskylä, Centre of Excellence in Music, Mind, Body and Brain | access-date=24 January 2022}}

France:

• Auditory Cognition and Psychoacoustics team, Claude Bernard University Lyon 1{{cite web |url=http://www-crnl.univ-lyon1.fr/spip.php?article89&lang=fr |title=Claude Bernard University Lyon 1; CAP |access-date=9 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140413141821/http://www-crnl.univ-lyon1.fr/spip.php?article89&lang=fr |archive-date=13 April 2014 }}
• University of Burgundy
• IRCAM, Centre Pompidou{{cite web |url=http://www.ircam.fr/recherche.html?L=1 |title=Centre Pompidou; IRCAM; Research |access-date=19 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160416210438/http://www.ircam.fr/recherche.html?L=1 |archive-date=16 April 2016 }}

Germany:

• University of Halle-Wittenberg
• Institute for Systematic Musicology, Universität Hamburg{{cite web|url=https://www.fbkultur.uni-hamburg.de/en/sm.html | title=Institute for Systematic Musicology, Universität Hamburg | access-date=15 December 2017}}
• Institute of Music Physiology and Musicians' Medicine, Hochschule für Musik, Theater und Medien Hannover{{cite web|url=http://www.immm.hmtm-hannover.de/en/ | title=HMTMH; Institute of Music Physiology and Musicians' Medicine | access-date=9 April 2014}}
• Hanover Music Lab, Hochschule für Musik, Theater und Medien Hannover{{cite web|url=http://www.hml.hmtm-hannover.de/en/ | title=HMTMH; Hanover Music Lab | access-date=15 December 2017}}
• Cologne Systematic Musicology Lab, Institute of Musicology, University of Cologne{{cite web|url=https://musikwissenschaft.phil-fak.uni-koeln.de/leitbild-und-institutsstruktur/professuren/cologne-systematic-musicology-lab-csml | title=Cologne Systematic Musicology Lab (CSML) | access-date=26 February 2025}}
• University of Oldenburg
• Hochschule für Musik Würzburg
• Technische Universität Chemnitz

Iceland:

• Centre for Music Research, University of Iceland{{cite web |url=http://english.hi.is/school_of_education/research_units |title=University of Iceland, Research Units |access-date=19 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170227065511/http://english.hi.is/school_of_education/research_units |archive-date=27 February 2017 }}

Ireland:

• University of Limerick

Italy:

• Bicocca ERP Lab, University of Milano-Bicocca{{cite web |url=https://bicoccaerplab.wordpress.com/|title=University of Milano-Bicocca;}}

Japan:

• Kyushu University

Korea:

• Seoul National University

Netherlands:

• Music Cognition Group, University of Amsterdam{{cite web |url=http://www.mcg.uva.nl|title=University of Amsterdam; Music Cognition Group |access-date=1 Feb 2024 }}

New Zealand:

• The Music Lab, School of Psychology, University of Auckland.{{cite web|url=https://www.themusiclab.org/|title=The Music Lab|access-date=23 September 2024}}

Norway:

• RITMO Centre for Interdisciplinary Studies in Rhythm, Time, and Motion, University of Oslo{{cite web |url=https://www.uio.no/ritmo/english/ |title=University of Oslo, RITMO |access-date=8 September 2024 }}
• Centre for Music and Health, Norwegian Academy of Music{{cite web |url=http://nmh.no/en/research_and_artistic_development/Centre_for_Music_and_Health |title=Norwegian Academy of Music; Centre for Music and Health |access-date=21 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140423042529/http://nmh.no/en/research_and_artistic_development/Centre_for_Music_and_Health |archive-date=23 April 2014 }}

Poland:

• Unit of Psychology of Music, Fryderyk Chopin University of Music{{cite web |url=http://www.chopin.edu.pl/en/departments-of-the-university/unit-of-psychology-of-music/ |title=FC University of Music; Unit of Psychology of Music |access-date=6 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160920040717/http://www.chopin.edu.pl/en/departments-of-the-university/unit-of-psychology-of-music/ |archive-date=20 September 2016 }}
• Music Performance and Brain Lab, University of Economics and Human Sciences in Warsaw{{cite web|url=http://www.mpblab.vizja.pl | title=University of Finance and Management in Warsaw; Music Performance and Brain Lab | access-date=21 April 2014}}

Singapore:

• Music Cognition Group, Social and Cognitive Computing Department, Institute of High Performance Computing, A*STAR{{cite web |url=http://www.a-star.edu.sg/ihpc/Research/Social-Cognitive-Computing-SCC/Music-Cognition/ |title=Institute of High Performance Computing, A*STAR; Music Cognition Group |access-date=15 Jan 2018}}

Spain:

• Music Technology Group, Pompeu Fabra University{{cite web|url=http://mtg.upf.edu | title=Pompeu Fabra University; Music Technology Group | access-date=23 April 2014}}

Sweden:

• Speech, Music and Hearing, Royal Institute of Technology{{cite web|url=http://www.kth.se/en/csc/forskning/tmh | title=Royal Institute of Technology, Speech, Music and Hearing | access-date=6 April 2014}}
• Music Psychology Group, Uppsala University{{cite web |url=http://www.psyk.uu.se/research/researchgroups/musicpsychology/ |title=Uppsala University; Music Psychology Group |access-date=21 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160214133014/http://www.psyk.uu.se/research/researchgroups/musicpsychology/ |archive-date=14 February 2016 }}

United Kingdom:

• Centre for Music and Science, Cambridge University{{cite web|url=http://cms.mus.cam.ac.uk | title=Cambridge University; Centre for Music and Science | access-date=6 April 2014}}
• Music and the Human Sciences Group, University of Edinburgh{{cite web|url=http://www.eca.ed.ac.uk/reid-school-of-music/research/themes | title=University of Edinburgh; Music and the Human Sciences | access-date=6 April 2014}}
• Centre for Psychological Research, Keele University{{cite web|url=http://www.keele.ac.uk/risocsci/researchcentres/psychologicalresearch/| title=Keele University; Centre for Psychological Research | access-date=6 April 2014}}
• Music and Science Lab, Durham University{{cite web|url=https://musicscience.net| title=Durham University; Music and Science Lab | access-date=10 December 2017}}
• Interdisciplinary Centre for Scientific Research in Music, University of Leeds{{cite web |url=http://www.leeds.ac.uk/icsrim/ |title=University of Leeds; ICSRiM |access-date=6 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190330070355/http://www.leeds.ac.uk/icsrim/ |archive-date=30 March 2019 }}
• Social and Applied Psychology Group, University of Leicester{{cite web|url=http://www2.le.ac.uk/Members/bc45/experimentalarea/psychnet/research-groups/social-and-applied-psychology/social-and-applied-psychology/ | title=University of Leicester; Social and Applied Psychology Group | access-date=6 April 2014}}
• Music, Mind and Brain Group, Goldsmiths, University College London{{cite web|url=http://www.gold.ac.uk/music-mind-brain/ | title=Goldsmiths; Music, Mind and Brain | access-date=6 April 2014}}
• International Music Education Research Centre, UCL Institute of Education, University College London{{cite web|url=http://www.imerc.org/ | title=UCL Institute of Education; International Music Education Research Centre | access-date=6 April 2014}}
• Music Cognition Lab, Queen Mary University of London{{cite web|url=http://webprojects.eecs.qmul.ac.uk/marcusp/lab/ | title=Queen Mary University of London; Music Cognition Lab | access-date= 22 April 2014}}
• Faculty of Music, University of Oxford{{cite web|url=http://www.music.ox.ac.uk/research/disciplines/psychology-of-music// | title=University of Oxford; Psychology of Music | access-date=12 April 2014}}
• Applied Music Research Centre, University of Roehampton{{cite web|url=http://www.roehampton.ac.uk/Research-Centres/Applied-Music-Research-Centre/ | title=University of Roehampton; Applied Music Research Centre | access-date=6 April 2014}}
• Centre for Performance Science, Royal College of Music{{cite web|url=http://www.rcm.ac.uk/cps | title=Royal College of Music; Centre for Performance Science | access-date=6 April 2014}}
• Centre for Music Performance Research, Royal Northern College of Music{{cite web |url=http://www.rncm.ac.uk/research/performance-research/ |title=Royal Northern College of Music; Centre for Music Performance Research |work=RNCM |access-date=6 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170629055245/https://www.rncm.ac.uk/research/performance-research/ |archive-date=29 June 2017 }}
• Department of Music, Sheffield University{{cite web|url=http://www.sheffield.ac.uk/music/research/psychology | title=Sheffield University; Department of Music, Psychology of Music Research | access-date=6 April 2014}}

United States:

• Music and Neuroimaging Laboratory, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center and Harvard Medical School{{cite web|url=http://www.musicianbrain.com/#index | title=Music and Neuroimaging Laboratory | access-date=28 April 2014}}
• Auditory Perception & Action Lab, University at Buffalo{{cite web|url=https://pfordresher.wordpress.com | title=University at Buffalo; Auditory Perception & Action Lab| access-date=29 April 2014}}
• Janata Lab, University of California, Davis{{cite web|url=http://atonal.ucdavis.edu | title=UCD; Janata Lab | access-date=29 April 2014}}
• Systematic Musicology Lab, University of California, Los Angeles{{cite web|url=http://www.schoolofmusic.ucla.edu/roger-kendall-bio|title=UCLA; Roger Kendall Bio|access-date=21 April 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200110141815/https://www.schoolofmusic.ucla.edu/roger-kendall-bio|archive-date=10 January 2020}}
• Department of Psychology, University of California, San Diego{{cite web|url=http://www.psychology.ucsd.edu/people/profiles/ddeutsch.html | title=UCSD; Diana Deutsch profile | access-date=29 April 2014}}
• UCSB Music Cognition Lab, University of California, Santa Barbara{{cite web|url=https://ucsbmusiccognitionlab.weebly.com/ | title=UCSB Music Cognition Lab | access-date=26 March 2019}}
• Music Dynamics Lab, University of Connecticut{{cite web|last=Foran|first=Sheila|title=Theoretical Neuroscientist Ed Large Joins UConn Faculty|url=http://today.uconn.edu/blog/2014/02/theoretical-neuroscientist-ed-large-joins-uconn-faculty/|publisher=UConn Today|access-date=4 May 2014|date=2014-02-03}}
• The Music Cognition Laboratory, Cornell University{{cite web|url=http://music.psych.cornell.edu/index.html | title=Cornell University; The Music Cognition Laboratory| access-date=28 April 2014}}
• Music Cognition at Eastman School of Music, University of Rochester{{cite web |url=http://theory.esm.rochester.edu/music-cognition/ |title=University of Rochester; Music Cognition at Eastman School of Music |access-date=8 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170304205953/http://www.theory.esm.rochester.edu/music-cognition/ |archive-date=4 March 2017 }}
• Center for Music Research, Florida State University{{cite web|url=http://www.music.fsu.edu/Music-Research-Centers/Center-for-Music-Research | title=Florida State University; Center for Music Research | access-date=21 April 2014}}
• Music Cognition and Computation Lab, Louisiana State University{{cite web |url=https://musiccog.lsu.edu/ |title=Louisiana State University; Music Cognition and Computation Lab |access-date=29 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181129170229/https://musiccog.lsu.edu/ |archive-date=29 November 2018 }}
• Language and Music Cognition Lab, University of Maryland{{cite web|url=http://lmcl.umd.edu | title=University of Maryland; Language and Music Cognition Lab | access-date=29 April 2014}}
• Auditory Cognition and Development Lab, University of Nevada, Las Vegas{{cite web|url=https://faculty.unlv.edu/ehannon/Home.html | title=UNLV; Auditory Cognition and Development Lab | access-date=29 April 2014}}
• Auditory Neuroscience Laboratory, Northwestern University{{cite web|url=http://www.soc.northwestern.edu/brainvolts/ | title=Northwestern University; Auditory Neuroscience Laboratory| access-date=29 April 2014}}
• Music Theory and Cognition Program, Northwestern University{{cite web|url=http://www.music.northwestern.edu/academics/areas-of-study/music-theory-and-cognition/index.html | title=Northwestern University; Music Theory and Cognition Program | access-date=21 April 2014}}
• Music Cognition Lab, Princeton University{{cite web|url=http://www.elizabethmargulis.com/about-music-cognition-lab | title=Princeton University; Music Cognition Lab | access-date=19 August 2019}}
• Cognitive and Systematic Musicology Laboratory, Ohio State University{{cite web |url=http://musiccog.ohio-state.edu/home/index.php/Home |title=Ohio State University; Cognitive and Systematic Musicology Laboratory |access-date=8 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170815081110/http://musiccog.ohio-state.edu/home/index.php/Home |archive-date=15 August 2017 }}
• Music Learning, Perception, and Cognition Focus Group, University of Oregon{{cite web|url=http://icds.uoregon.edu/groups/focus/music-learning-perception-and-cognition-focus-group/ | title=University of Oregon; Music Learning, Perception, and Cognition Focus Group | access-date=21 April 2014}}
• Center for Computer Research in Music and Acoustics, Stanford University{{cite web|url=https://ccrma.stanford.edu | title=Stanford University; Center for Computer Research in Music and Acoustics | access-date=6 April 2014}}
• Dowling Laboratory, University of Texas at Dallas{{cite web |url=http://bbs.utdallas.edu/psysciphd/labs.html |title=University of Texas at Dallas; Dowling Laboratory |access-date=21 April 2014 |archive-date=4 October 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161004135530/http://bbs.utdallas.edu/psysciphd/labs.html }}
• Institute for Music Research, University of Texas at San Antonio{{cite web|url=http://music.utsa.edu/index.php/areas/imr | title=University of Texas at San Antonio; Institute for Music Research | access-date=21 April 2014}}
• Laboratory for Music Cognition, Culture & Learning, University of Washington{{cite web|url=https://depts.washington.edu/mccl/Home.html | title=University of Washington; MCCL | access-date=28 April 2014}}
• Music, Imaging, and Neural Dynamics (MIND) Laboratory, Wesleyan University{{cite web|url=http://mindlab.research.wesleyan.edu| title=Wesleyan University; MIND Lab | access-date=28 October 2014}}
• Brain Research and Interdisciplinary Neurosciences Lab, Western Michigan University{{cite web|url=http://www.wmich.edu/brain/ | title=Western Michigan University; BRAIN Lab | access-date=29 April 2014}}

{{div col end}}

{{Portal|Music}}

• Cognitive musicology
• Cognitive neuroscience of music
• Performance science
• Psychoacoustics
• Psychoanalysis and music
• Music and emotion
• Music-specific disorders
• Music therapy

{{reflist|30em}}

{{Further reading cleanup|date=September 2022}}

• Palmer, Caroline & Melissa K. Jungers (2003): Music Cognition. In: Lynn Nadel: Encyclopedia of Cognitive Science, Vol. 3, London: Nature Publishing Group, pp. 155–158.
• Deutsch, Diana (2013): Music. In Oxford Bibliographies in Music. Edited by Dunn, D.S. New York: Oxford University Press. 2013, [http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780199828340/obo-9780199828340-0065.xml Web Link]
• Thompson, William Forde (2014): "[http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20150308013318/http://www.sagepub.com/refbooks/Book240878 Music in the Social and Behavioral Sciences, An Encyclopedia]". Sage Publications Inc., New York. {{ISBN|978-1-4522-8303-6}}

• Day, Kingsley (October 21, 2004). "Music and the Mind: Turning the Cognition Key". Observer online.
• Jourdain, Robert (1997). Music, the Brain, and Ecstasy: How Music Captures Our Imagination. New York: William Morrow and Company. {{ISBN|0-688-14236-2}}.
• Honing, Henkjan (2013). "Musical Cognition. A Science of Listening (2nd edition)." New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Publishers. {{ISBN|978-1-4128-5292-0}}.
• Levitin, D. J. (2006). [https://web.archive.org/web/20111001065809/http://www.yourbrainonmusic.com/ "This Is Your Brain on Music: The Science of a Human Obsession."] New York: Dutton. {{ISBN|0-525-94969-0}}
• Margulis, Elizabeth Hellmuth. (2018). [https://global.oup.com/academic/product/the-psychology-of-music-a-very-short-introduction-9780190640156?cc=us&lang=en& The Psychology of Music: A Very Short Introduction.] New York, NY: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-19-064015-6}}.
• Margulis, Elizabeth Hellmuth. (2013). [http://global.oup.com/academic/product/on-repeat-9780199990825 On Repeat: How Music Plays the Mind.] New York, NY: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-19-999082-5}}.
• {{cite journal | last1 = Purwins | last2 = Hardoon | year = 2009 | title = Trends and Perspectives in Music Cognition Research and Technology | url = http://www.mtg.upf.es/files/publications/PurwinsHardoonEditorialCS.pdf | journal = Connection Science | volume = 21 | issue = 2–3 | pages = 85–88 | doi = 10.1080/09540090902734549 | hdl = 10230/43628 | s2cid = 9294128 | doi-access = free | access-date = 2014-04-11 | archive-date = 2020-06-26 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200626145717/http://www.mtg.upf.es/files/publications/PurwinsHardoonEditorialCS.pdf }}
• Snyder, Bob (2000). "Music and Memory: an introduction" The MIT Press. {{ISBN|0-262-69237-6}}.
• J.P.E. Harper-Scott and Jim Samson 'An Introduction to Music Studies', Chapter 4: John Rink,The Psychology of Music, (Cambridge University Press, 2009), pp. 60.
• {{cite book

| last=Deutsch

| first=D.

| title=Musical Illusions and Phantom Words: How Music and Speech Unlock Mysteries of the Brain

| year=2019

| url=https://global.oup.com/academic/product/musical-illusions-and-phantom-words-9780190206833

| publisher=Oxford University Press

| lccn=2018051786

| author-link=Diana Deutsch

|isbn=978-0-19-020683-3 }}

• Deutsch, D. (Ed.) (1982). The Psychology of Music, 1st Edition. New York: Academic Press. {{ISBN|0-12-213562-8}}.
• Deutsch, D. (Ed.) (1999). The Psychology of Music, 2nd Edition. San Diego: Academic Press. {{ISBN|0-12-213565-2}}.
• Deutsch, D. (Ed.) (2013). The Psychology of Music, 3rd Edition. San Diego: Academic Press. {{ISBN|0-12-381460-X}}.
• Dowling, W. Jay and Harwood, Dane L. (1986). Music Cognition. San Diego: Academic Press. {{ISBN|0-12-221430-7}}.
• Hallam, Cross, & Thaut, (eds.) (2008). The Oxford Handbook of Music Psychology. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• Krumhansl, Carol L. (2001). Cognitive Foundations of Musical Pitch. Oxford: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-514836-3}}.
• Patel, Anirrudh D. (2010). [https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195123753 Music, language, and the brain]. New York: Oxford University Press.
• Parncutt, R. (1989). [https://web.archive.org/web/20060503032115/http://www-gewi.uni-graz.at/staff/parncutt/hapa.html Harmony: A Psychoacoustical Approach.] Berlin: Springer.
• Proverbio, A.M. (2019). Neuroscienze Cognitive della Musica: Il cervello musicale tra Arte e Scienza, Zanichelli, Bologna.
• Sloboda, John A. (1985). The Musical Mind: The Cognitive Psychology of Music. Oxford: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-852128-6}}.
• Lerdahl, F. and Jackendoff, R. (²1996) A Generative Theory of Tonal Music. The MIT Press. {{ISBN|978-0-262-62107-6}}.
• Jackendoff, Ray (1987): Consciousness and the Computational Mind. Cambridge: MIT Press. Chapter 11: "Levels of Musical Structure", section 11.1: "What is Musical Cognition?"
• Temperley, D. (2004). The Cognition of Basic Musical Structures. The MIT Press. {{ISBN|978-0-262-70105-1}}.
• Thompson, W. F. (2009). Music, Thought, and Feeling: Understanding the Psychology of Music New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-19-537707-1}}.
• Zbikowski, Lawrence M. (2004). Conceptualizing Music: Cognitive Structure, Theory, and Analysis. Oxford University Press, USA. {{ISBN|978-0-19-514023-1}}.
• North, A.C. & Hargreaves, D.J. (2008). The Social and Applied Psychology of Music. Oxford: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-19-856742-4}}.

• {{Commons category-inline}}

{{Music psychology |state=expanded}}

{{Music topics |state=collapsed}}

{{Psychology |state=collapsed}}

{{Authority control}}

Category:Musicology