Rice#Harvesting.2C drying and milling

The rice plant can grow to over {{cvt|1|m|ft|0}} tall; if in deep water, it can reach a length of {{cvt|5|m|ft|0}}. From seed to harvest, it takes about six months.{{cite web|url=https://wholegrainscouncil.org/whole-grains-101/easy-ways-enjoy-whole-grains/grain-month-calendar/wild-rice-september-grain-month-0|title=Types of rice|website=Oldways Whole Grains Council|access-date=April 17, 2025|archive-date=January 17, 2025|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250117165613/https://wholegrainscouncil.org/whole-grains-101/easy-ways-enjoy-whole-grains/grain-month-calendar/wild-rice-september-grain-month-0|url-status=live}} A single plant may have several leafy stems or tillers. The upright stem is jointed with nodes along its length; a long slender leaf arises from each node.{{Cite web |title=Oryza sativa L. |url=https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:316812-2/general-information |access-date=December 6, 2023 |publisher=Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew |archive-date=December 7, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231207180149/https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:316812-2/general-information |url-status=live }} The self-fertile flowers are produced in a panicle, a branched inflorescence which arises from the last internode on the stem. There can be up to 350 spikelets in a panicle, each containing male and female flower parts (anthers and ovule). A fertilised ovule develops into the edible grain or caryopsis.{{cite web |title=The Rice Plant |url=http://www.ricehub.org/RT/crop-establishment/-the-rice-plant/ |website=Rice Hub |access-date=December 6, 2023 |archive-date=December 5, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231205124935/http://www.ricehub.org/RT/crop-establishment/-the-rice-plant/ |url-status=live }}

Rice is a cereal belonging to the family Poaceae. As a tropical crop, it can be grown during the two distinct seasons (dry and wet) of the year provided that sufficient water is made available.{{cite journal |last1=Kawure |first1=S. |last2=Garba |first2=A.A. |last3=Fagam |first3=A.S. |last4=Shuaibu |first4=Y.M. |last5=Sabo |first5=M.U. |last6=Bala |first6=R.A. |title=Performance of Lowland Rice (Oryza sativa L.) as Influenced by Combine Effect of Season and Sowing Pattern in Zigau |journal=Journal of Rice Research and Developments |date=31 December 2022 |volume=5 |issue=2 |doi=10.36959/973/440 |doi-access=free }} It is normally an annual, but in the tropics it can survive as a perennial, producing a ratoon crop.{{Cite web |title=The Rice Plant and How it Grows |url=http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/riceIPM/IPM_Information/PestEcologyBasics/CropGrowthAndPestDamage/RicePlantHowItGrows/The_Rice_plant_and_How_it_Grows.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090106224427/http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/riceIPM/IPM_Information/PestEcologyBasics/CropGrowthAndPestDamage/RicePlantHowItGrows/The_Rice_plant_and_How_it_Grows.htm |archive-date=January 6, 2009 |website=International Rice Research Institute}}

File:Koeh-232.jpg|Anatomy of rice flowers: spikelet (left), plant with tillers (centre), caryopsis (top right), panicle (right)

File:Oryza sativa of Kadavoor.jpg|Detail of rice plant showing flowers grouped in panicle. Male anthers protrude into the air where they can disperse their pollen.

Like all crops, rice depends for its growth on both biotic and abiotic environmental factors. The principal biotic factors are crop variety, pests, and plant diseases. Abiotic factors include the soil type, whether lowland or upland, amount of rain or irrigation water, temperature, day length, and intensity of sunlight.{{cite book |last=Beighley |first=Donn H. |title=Soils, Plant Growth and Crop Production Volume II |chapter=Growth and Production of Rice |editor-last=Verheye |editor-first=Willy H. |date=2010 |publisher=EOLSS Publishers |isbn=978-1-84826-368-0 |url=https://www.eolss.net/ebooklib/bookinfo/soils-plant-growth-crop-production.aspx |page=49 |archive-date=May 11, 2021 |access-date=November 28, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210511044506/https://www.eolss.net/ebooklib/bookinfo/soils-plant-growth-crop-production.aspx |url-status=live }}

Rice grains can be planted directly into the field where they will grow, or seedlings can be grown in a seedbed and transplanted into the field. Direct seeding needs some 60 to 80 kg of grain per hectare, while transplanting needs less, around 40 kg per hectare, but requires far more labour.{{cite web |url=http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/step-by-step-production/growth/planting |title=How to plant rice |publisher=International Rice Research Institute |access-date=December 29, 2023 }} Most rice in Asia is transplanted by hand. Mechanical transplanting takes less time but requires a carefully-prepared field and seedlings raised on mats or in trays to fit the machine.{{cite web |url=http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/step-by-step-production/growth/planting/transplanting |title=Transplanting |publisher=International Rice Research Institute |access-date=December 29, 2023 }} Rice does not thrive if continuously submerged.{{cite web |last=Uphoff |first=Norman |url=http://ciifad.cornell.edu/sri/extmats/philmanual.pdf |title=More rice with less water through SRI - the System of Rice Intensification |publisher=Cornell University |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111226111455/https://ciifad.cornell.edu/sri/extmats/philmanual.pdf |archive-date=December 26, 2011 |access-date=May 13, 2012 }} Rice can be grown in different environments, depending upon water availability. The usual arrangement is for lowland fields to be surrounded by bunds and flooded to a depth of a few centimetres until around a week before harvest time; this requires a large amount of water. The "alternate wetting and drying" technique uses less water. One form of this is to flood the field to a depth of 5 cm (2 in), then to let the water level drop to 15 cm (6 in) below surface level, as measured by looking into a perforated field water tube sunk into the soil, and then repeating the cycle.{{cite web |url=http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/step-by-step-production/growth/water-management |title=Water Management |publisher=International Rice Research Institute |access-date=November 4, 2023 |archive-date=November 4, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231104113412/http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/step-by-step-production/growth/water-management |url-status=live }} Deepwater rice varieties tolerate flooding to a depth of over 50 centimetres for at least a month.{{cite book |last=Catling |first=David |chapter=Deepwater Rice Cultures in the Ganges-Brahmaputra Basin |title=Rice in Deep Water |publisher=International Rice Research Institute |year=1992 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N5JxwKx1RAgC&pg=PA230 |isbn=978-971-22-0005-2 |page=2}} Upland rice is grown without flooding, in hilly or mountainous regions; it is rainfed like wheat or maize.{{cite book |last1=Gupta |first1=Phool Chand |last2=O'Toole |first2=J. C. O'Toole |year=1986 |title=Upland Rice: A Global Perspective |publisher=International Rice Research Institute |isbn=978-971-10-4172-4}}

{{multiple image |align=center |caption_align=center |total_width=840 |image_gap=10 |image_style=border:none;

|image1=Kerbau Jawa.jpg |caption1=Ploughing a rice terrace with water buffaloes in Java

|image2=Cambodian farmers planting rice.jpg |caption2=Farmers planting rice by hand in Cambodia

|image3=Rice-planting-machine 2,katori-city,japan.JPG |caption3=Mechanised rice planting in Japan

|image4=Pana Banaue Rice Terraces (Cropped).jpg |caption4=Ancient mountainside rice terraces at Banaue, Philippines

}}

Across Asia, unmilled rice or "paddy" (Indonesian and Malay {{lang|id|padi}}), was traditionally the product of smallholder agriculture, with manual harvesting. Larger farms make use of machines such as combine harvesters to reduce the input of labour.{{cite web |title=Harvesting systems |url=http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/step-by-step-production/postharvest/harvesting/harvesting-systems |publisher=International Rice Research Institute |access-date=January 3, 2024 |archive-date=January 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240103095241/http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/step-by-step-production/postharvest/harvesting/harvesting-systems |url-status=live }} The grain is ready to harvest when the moisture content is 20–25%. Harvesting involves reaping, stacking the cut stalks, threshing to separate the grain, and cleaning by winnowing or screening.{{cite web |title=Harvesting |url=http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/step-by-step-production/postharvest/harvesting#guidelines-on-proper-harvesting |publisher=International Rice Research Institute |access-date=December 6, 2023 |archive-date=December 6, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231206070736/http://knowledgebank.irri.org/step-by-step-production/postharvest/harvesting#guidelines-on-proper-harvesting |url-status=live }} The rice grain is dried as soon as possible to bring the moisture content down to a level that is safe from mould fungi. Traditional drying relies on the heat of the sun, with the grain spread out on mats or on pavements.{{cite web |title=Drying |url=http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/step-by-step-production/postharvest/drying |publisher=International Rice Research Institute |access-date=December 6, 2023}}

{{multiple image |align=center |caption_align=center |total_width=840 |image_gap=10 |image_style=border:none;

|image1=Rice-combine-harvester, Katori-city, Japan.jpg |caption1=Rice combine harvester in Chiba Prefecture, Japan

|image2=Rice farmers Mae Wang Chiang Mai Province.jpg |caption2=After the harvest, rice straw is gathered in the traditional way from small paddy fields in Mae Wang, Thailand

|image3=NP India burning 48 (6315309342).jpg |caption3=Burning of rice residues to prepare the land for wheat planting in Sangrur, India

|image4=Nellu.JPG |caption4=Drying rice in Peravoor, India

}}

{{further|Oryza sativa}}

The edible rice species are members of the BOP clade within the grass family, the Poaceae. The rice subfamily, Oryzoideae, is sister to the bamboos, Bambusoideae, and the cereal subfamily Pooideae. The rice genus Oryza is one of eleven in the Oryzeae; it is sister to the Phyllorachideae. The edible rice species O. sativa and O. glaberrima are among some 300 species or subspecies in the genus.{{cite journal |last1=Soreng |first1=Robert J. |last2=Peterson |first2=Paul M. |last3=Romaschenko |first3=Konstantin |last4=Davidse |first4=Gerrit |last5=Teisher |first5=Jordan K. |last6=Clark |first6=Lynn G. |last7=Barberá |first7=Patricia |last8=Gillespie |first8=Lynn J. |last9=Zuloaga |first9=Fernando O. |title=A worldwide phylogenetic classification of the Poaceae (Gramineae) II: An update and a comparison of two 2015 classifications |journal=Journal of Systematics and Evolution |volume=55 |issue=4 |year=2017 |pages=259–290 |doi=10.1111/jse.12262 |doi-access=free |hdl=10261/240149 |hdl-access=free }}

{{clade

|label1=Poaceae

|1={{clade

|1=other grasses

|2={{clade

|label1=PACMAD clade

|1=(inc. the C4 grasses, maize, sorghum)

|label2=BOP clade

|2={{clade

|label1=Oryzoideae

|1={{clade

|1=Streptogyneae

|2={{clade

|1=Ehrharteae

|2={{clade

|1=Phyllorachideae

|label2=Oryzeae

|2={{clade

|1=Wild rices inc. Zizania

|label2=Oryza

|2={{clade

|1=other rice species and subspecies

|2=O. sativa (Asian rice)

|3=O. glaberrima (African rice)

}}

}}

}}

}}

}}

|2={{clade

|1=Bambusoideae (bamboos)

|2=Pooideae (grasses and cereals inc. wheat, barley)

}}

}}

}}

}}

}}

{{Anchor|Domestication}}

{{main |History of rice cultivation}}

File:KITLV_40091_-_Kassian_Céphas_-_Relief_of_the_hidden_base_of_Borobudur_-_1890-1891.jpg in Indonesia describes rice barns and rice plants infested by mice.]]

Oryza sativa rice was first domesticated in China 9,000 years ago,{{cite journal |last1=Fornasiero |first1=Alice |last2=Wing |first2=Rod A. |last3=Ronald |first3=Pamela |title=Rice domestication |journal=Current Biology |date=January 2022 |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=R20–R24 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2021.11.025 |pmid=35015986 |bibcode=2022CBio...32..R20F }} by people of Neolithic cultures in the Upper and Lower Yangtze, associated with Hmong-Mien-speakers and pre-Austronesians, respectively.{{cite journal |last1=Bellwood |first1=Peter |title=The Checkered Prehistory of Rice Movement Southwards as a Domesticated Cereal—from the Yangzi to the Equator |journal=Rice |date=December 2011 |volume=4 |issue=3–4 |pages=93–103 |doi=10.1007/s12284-011-9068-9 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2011Rice....4...93B |hdl=1885/58842 |hdl-access=free }}{{cite journal |last1=He |first1=Keyang |last2=Lu |first2=Houyuan |last3=Zhang |first3=Jianping |last4=Wang |first4=Can |last5=Huan |first5=Xiujia |title=Prehistoric evolution of the dualistic structure mixed rice and millet farming in China |journal=The Holocene |date=December 2017 |volume=27 |issue=12 |pages=1885–1898 |doi=10.1177/0959683617708455 }}{{cite journal |last1=Hsieh |first1=Jaw-shu |last2=Hsing |first2=Yue-ie Caroline |last3=Hsu |first3=Tze-fu |last4=Li |first4=Paul Jen-kuei |last5=Li |first5=Kuang-ti |last6=Tsang |first6=Cheng-hwa |date=December 24, 2011 |title=Studies on Ancient Rice—Where Botanists, Agronomists, Archeologists, Linguists, and Ethnologists Meet |journal=Rice |volume=4 |issue=3–4 |pages=178–183 |doi=10.1007/s12284-011-9075-x |doi-access=free |bibcode=2011Rice....4..178H }}{{cite journal |last1=Chi |first1=Zhang |last2=Hung |first2=Hsiao-Chun |title=The Neolithic of Southern China—Origin, Development, and Dispersal |journal=Asian Perspectives |date=2008 |volume=47 |issue=2 |pages=299–329 |id={{Gale|A191316867}} {{Project MUSE|257900}} |jstor=42928744 |doi=10.1353/asi.0.0004 |hdl=10125/17291 |hdl-access=free }} The functional allele for nonshattering, the critical indicator of domestication in grains, as well as five other single-nucleotide polymorphisms, is identical in both indica and japonica. This implies a single domestication event for O. sativa. Both indica and japonica forms of Asian rice sprang from a single domestication event in China from the wild rice Oryza rufipogon.{{Cite journal |last1=Molina |first1=J. |last2=Sikora |first2=M. |last3=Garud |first3=N. |last4=Flowers |first4=J. M. |last5=Rubinstein |first5=S. |last6=Reynolds |first6=A. |last7=Huang |first7=P. |last8=Jackson |first8=S. |last9=Schaal |first9=B. A. |last10=Bustamante |first10=C. D. |last11=Boyko |first11=A. R. |display-authors=5 |year=2011 |title=Molecular evidence for a single evolutionary origin of domesticated rice |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=108 |issue=20 |pages=8351–8356 |bibcode=2011PNAS..108.8351M |doi=10.1073/pnas.1104686108 |pmc=3101000 |pmid=21536870 |last12=Purugganan |first12=M. D. |doi-access=free }}{{cite journal |last1=Vaughan |first1=Duncan A. |last2=Lu |first2=Bao-Rong |last3=Tomooka |first3=Norihiko |title=The evolving story of rice evolution |journal=Plant Science |date=April 2008 |volume=174 |issue=4 |pages=394–408 |doi=10.1016/j.plantsci.2008.01.016 }} Despite this evidence, it appears that indica rice arose when japonica arrived in India about 4,500 years ago and hybridised with another rice, whether an undomesticated proto-indica or wild O. nivara.{{cite journal |last=Choi |first=Jae |display-authors=etal |year=2017 |title=The Rice Paradox: Multiple Origins but Single Domestication in Asian Rice |journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution |volume=34 |issue=4 |pages=969–979 |doi=10.1093/molbev/msx049 |pmc=5400379 |pmid=28087768}}

Rice was introduced early into Sino-Tibetan cultures in northern China by around 6000 to 5600 years ago,{{cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=Jianping |last2=Lu |first2=Houyuan |last3=Gu |first3=Wanfa |last4=Wu |first4=Naiqin |last5=Zhou |first5=Kunshu |last6=Hu |first6=Yayi |last7=Xin |first7=Yingjun |last8=Wang |first8=Can |last9=Kashkush |first9=Khalil |display-authors=5 |date=December 17, 2012 |title=Early Mixed Farming of Millet and Rice 7800 Years Ago in the Middle Yellow River Region, China |journal=PLOS One |volume=7 |issue=12 |pages=e52146 |bibcode=2012PLoSO...752146Z |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0052146 |pmc=3524165 |pmid=23284907 |doi-access=free }}{{cite journal |last1=Fuller |first1=Dorian Q. |title=Pathways to Asian Civilizations: Tracing the Origins and Spread of Rice and Rice Cultures |journal=Rice |date=December 2011 |volume=4 |issue=3–4 |pages=78–92 |doi=10.1007/s12284-011-9078-7 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2011Rice....4...78F }} and to the Korean peninsula and Japan by around 5500 to 3200 years ago.{{cite journal |last1=Crawford |last2=Shen |year=1998 |title=The Origins of rice agriculture: recent progress in East Asia |journal=Antiquity |volume=72 |issue=278 |pages=858–866 |doi=10.1017/S0003598X00087494 |s2cid=162486123 }}{{cite journal |last1=Crawford |first1=G. W. |last2=Lee |first2=G.-A. |date=March 2003 |title=Agricultural Origins in the Korean Peninsula |journal=Antiquity |volume=77 |issue=295 |pages=87–95 |doi=10.1017/s0003598x00061378 |s2cid=163060564 |name-list-style=amp}} It was also carried into Taiwan by the Dapenkeng culture by 5500 to 4000 years ago, before spreading southwards via the Austronesian migrations to Island Southeast Asia, Madagascar, and Guam, but did not survive the voyage to the rest of the Pacific.{{cite journal |last1=Beaujard |first1=Philippe |title=The first migrants to Madagascar and their introduction of plants: linguistic and ethnological evidence |journal=Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa |date=August 2011 |volume=46 |issue=2 |pages=169–189 |doi=10.1080/0067270X.2011.580142 |url=https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-00706173/file/Beaujard.azania2.pdf |archive-date=July 31, 2019 |access-date=June 19, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190731163547/https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-00706173/file/Beaujard.azania2.pdf |url-status=live }}{{cite journal |last1=Carson |first1=Mike T. |date=2012 |title=An overview of latte period archaeology |url=https://micronesica.org/sites/default/files/1_carson1-79sm.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Micronesica |volume=42 |issue=1/2 |pages=1–79 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190412090641/https://micronesica.org/sites/default/files/1_carson1-79sm.pdf |archive-date=April 12, 2019 |access-date=January 25, 2019}} It reached Austroasiatic and Kra-Dai-speakers in Mainland Southeast Asia and southern China by 5000 years ago.{{cite journal |last1=Higham |first1=Charles F. W. |last2=Douka |first2=Katerina |last3=Higham |first3=Thomas F. G. |last4=Hart |first4=John P. |date=September 18, 2015 |title=A New Chronology for the Bronze Age of Northeastern Thailand and Its Implications for Southeast Asian Prehistory |journal=PLOS One |volume=10 |issue=9 |pages=e0137542 |bibcode=2015PLoSO..1037542H |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0137542 |pmc=4575132 |pmid=26384011 |doi-access=free }}

Rice spread around the rest of the world through cultivation, migration and trade, eventually to the Americas as part of the Columbian exchange after 1492. The now less common Oryza glaberrima (African rice) was independently domesticated in Africa around 3,000 years ago,{{Cite journal |last=Choi |first=Jae Young |date=March 7, 2019 |title=The complex geography of domestication of the African rice Oryza glaberrima |journal=PLOS Genetics |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages=e1007414 |doi=10.1371/journal.pgen.1007414 |pmc=6424484 |pmid=30845217 |doi-access=free }} and introduced to the Americas by the Spanish.{{cite book |author=National Research Council |url=http://books.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=2305 |title=Lost Crops of Africa: Volume I: Grains |publisher=National Academies Press |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-309-04990-0 |volume=1 |chapter=African Rice |doi=10.17226/2305 |access-date=July 18, 2008 |chapter-url=http://books.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=2305&page=17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090122104044/http://books.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=2305 |archive-date=January 22, 2009 |url-status=live}} In British North America by the time of the start of the American War of Independence, rice had become the fourth most valuable export commodity behind only tobacco, wheat, and fish.{{Cite journal |last=Morgan |first=Kenneth |date=July 1995 |title=The Organization of the Colonial American Rice Trade |journal=The William and Mary Quarterly |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=433–452 |doi=10.2307/2947294 |jstor=2947294 }}

{{ See also |List of countries by rice production }}

In 2021, world production of rice was 787 million tonnes, led by China and India with a combined 52% of the total. This placed rice fourth in the list of crops by production, after sugarcane, maize, and wheat. Other major producers were Bangladesh, Indonesia and Vietnam. 90% of world production is from Asia.

File:Production of rice (2019).svg|Production of rice (2021){{cite book |title=World Food and Agriculture – Statistical Yearbook 2021 |url=https://www.fao.org/documents/card/en/c/cb4477en/ |access-date=December 10, 2021 |publisher=United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization |year=2021 |doi=10.4060/cb4477en |isbn=978-92-5-134332-6 |s2cid=240163091 |archive-date=November 19, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211119012037/https://www.fao.org/documents/card/en/c/cb4477en/ |url-status=live }}

File:World Production Of Primary Crops, Main Commodities.svg|Since 2000, rice production (orange) has increased,
but its share of total crop production has fallen.

The average world yield for rice was {{convert|4.7|MT/ha|ST/acre|abbr=off}}, in 2022.{{cite web |title=FAOSTAT: Production-Crops, 2022 data |publisher=United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization |year=2022 |url=http://faostat.fao.org/site/567/DesktopDefault.aspx?PageID=567#ancor |access-date=January 12, 2012 |archive-date=June 19, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120619130038/http://faostat.fao.org/site/567/DesktopDefault.aspx?PageID=567#ancor |url-status=dead }} Yuan Longping of China's National Hybrid Rice Research and Development Center set a world record for rice yield in 1999 at {{convert|17.1|MT/ha|ST/acre|abbr=off}} on a demonstration plot. This employed specially developed hybrid rice and the System of Rice Intensification (SRI), an innovation in rice farming.{{cite web |title=A Scientist's Perspective on Experience with SRI in China for Raising the Yields of Super Hybrid Rice |year=2010 |last=Yuan |first=Longping |author-link=Yuan Longping |publisher=Cornell University |url=http://ciifad.cornell.edu/sri/proc1/sri_06.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111120010557/http://ciifad.cornell.edu/sri/proc1/sri_06.pdf |archive-date=November 20, 2011}}

Rice is a major food staple in Asia, Latin America, and some parts of Africa,{{cite web |title=Food Staple |url=https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/food-staple/ |publisher=National Geographic Education |access-date=December 6, 2023 |archive-date=August 31, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230831171422/https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/food-staple/ |url-status=live }} feeding over half the world's population.{{cite journal |last1=Fukagawa |first1=Naomi K. |last2=Ziska |first2=Lewis H. |title=Rice: Importance for Global Nutrition |journal=Journal of Nutritional Science and Vitaminology |volume=65 |issue=Supplement |date=October 11, 2019 |doi=10.3177/jnsv.65.S2 |pages=S2–S3 |pmid=31619630 |doi-access=free }} However, a substantial part of the crop can be lost post-harvest through inefficient transportation, storage, and milling. A quarter of the crop in Nigeria is lost after harvest. Storage losses include damage by mould fungi if the rice is not dried sufficiently. In China, losses in modern metal silos were just 0.2%, compared to 7–13% when rice was stored by rural households.{{cite journal |last1=Kumar |first1=Deepak |last2=Kalita |first2=Prasanta |title=Reducing Postharvest Losses during Storage of Grain Crops to Strengthen Food Security in Developing Countries |journal=Foods |volume=6 |issue=1 |date=January 15, 2017 |pmid=28231087 |pmc=5296677 |doi=10.3390/foods6010008 |doi-access=free |page=8}}

=== Processing ===

The dry grain is milled to remove the outer layers, namely the husk and bran. These can be removed in a single step, in two steps, or as in commercial milling in a multi-step process of cleaning, dehusking, separation, polishing, grading, and weighing.{{cite web |title=Milling |url=http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/step-by-step-production/postharvest/milling |publisher=International Rice Research Institute |access-date=January 4, 2024 |archive-date=December 15, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231215150726/http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/step-by-step-production/postharvest/milling |url-status=live }} Brown rice only has the inedible husk removed. Further milling removes bran and the germ to create successively whiter products. Parboiled rice is subjected to a steaming process before it is milled. This makes the grain harder, and moves some of the grain's vitamins and minerals into the white part of the rice so these are retained after milling.{{cite web |title=Types of rice |publisher=Rice Association |url=http://www.riceassociation.org.uk/content/1/10/varieties.html |access-date=August 2, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180802162740/http://www.riceassociation.org.uk/content/1/10/varieties.html |archive-date=August 2, 2018 |url-status=dead}} Rice does not contain gluten, so is suitable for people on a gluten-free diet.{{cite journal |last1=Penagini |first1=Francesca |last2=Dilillo |first2=Dario |last3=Meneghin |first3=Fabio |last4=Mameli |first4=Chiara |last5=Fabiano |first5=Valentina |last6=Zuccotti |first6=Gian |title=Gluten-Free Diet in Children: An Approach to a Nutritionally Adequate and Balanced Diet |journal=Nutrients |publisher=MDPI AG |volume=5 |issue=11 |date=November 18, 2013 |doi=10.3390/nu5114553 |pages=4553–4565 |pmid=24253052 |pmc=3847748 |doi-access=free }} Rice is a good source of protein and a staple food in many parts of the world, but it is not a complete protein as it does not contain all of the essential amino acids in sufficient amounts for good health.{{cite journal |last1=Wu |first1=Jianguo G. |last2=Shi |first2=Chunhai |last3=Zhang |first3=Xiaoming |title=Estimating the amino acid composition in milled rice by near-infrared reflectance spectroscopy |journal=Field Crops Research |date=March 2002 |volume=75 |issue=1 |pages=1–7 |doi=10.1016/s0378-4290(02)00006-0 |bibcode=2002FCrRe..75....1W }}

File:Stages of rice milling.jpg|Unmilled to milled Japanese rice, from left to right, brown rice, rice with germ, white rice

World trade figures are much smaller than those for production, as less than 8% of rice produced is traded internationally. China, an exporter of rice in the early 2000s, had become the world's largest importer of rice by 2013.{{cite web |last=Cendrowski |first=Scott |date=July 25, 2013 |title=The Rice Rush |website=Fortune |url=https://fortune.com/2013/07/25/the-rice-rush/ |access-date=January 4, 2024 |archive-date=January 4, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240104154303/https://fortune.com/2013/07/25/the-rice-rush/ |url-status=live }} Developing countries are the main players in the world rice trade; by 2012, India was the largest exporter of rice, with Thailand and Vietnam the other largest exporters.{{cite news |url=http://blogs.ft.com/beyond-brics/2012/10/30/india-and-the-price-of-rice/#axzz2d3SGzLpN |last=Chilkoti |first=A. |title=India and the Price of Rice |newspaper=Financial Times |location=London |date=October 30, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130120052047/http://blogs.ft.com/beyond-brics/2012/10/30/india-and-the-price-of-rice/#axzz2d3SGzLpN |archive-date=January 20, 2013 }}

As of 2016, the countries that consumed the most rice were China (29% of total), India, and Indonesia.{{cite web |title=Global rice consumption continues to grow |url=https://www.graincentral.com/cropping/global-rice-consumption-continues-to-grow/ |publisher=Grain Central |access-date=December 5, 2023 |date=March 26, 2018}} By 2020, Bangladesh had taken third place from Indonesia. On an annual average from 2020 to 2023, China consumed 154 million tonnes of rice, India consumed 109 million tonnes, and Bangladesh and Indonesia consumed about 36 million tonnes each. Across the world, rice consumption per capita fell in the 21st century as people in Asia and elsewhere ate less grain and more meat. An exception is Sub-Saharan Africa, where both per capita consumption of rice and population are increasing.{{cite web |title=Rice Sector at a Glance |url=https://www.ers.usda.gov/topics/crops/rice/rice-sector-at-a-glance/#Global |publisher=Economic Research Service, US Department of Agriculture |access-date=December 5, 2023 |date=September 27, 2023 |archive-date=December 4, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231204155014/https://ers.usda.gov/topics/crops/rice/rice-sector-at-a-glance/#Global |url-status=live }}

{{Infobox nutritional value

| name=Cooked white rice, medium-grain, unenriched

| water=69 g

| kJ=544

| protein=2.4 g

| fat=0.2 g

| carbs=28.6 g

| calcium_mg=3

| iron_mg=0.2

| magnesium_mg=13

| phosphorus_mg=37

| potassium_mg=29

| sodium_mg=0

| zinc_mg=0.4

| manganese_mg=0.38

| thiamin_mg=0.02

| riboflavin_mg=0.02

| niacin_mg=0.4

| pantothenic_mg=0.41

| vitB6_mg=0.05

| folate_ug=2

| note=[https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/food-details/168930/nutrients FoodData Central entry]}}

{{main|Rice as food}}

Rice is a commonly-eaten food around the world. The varieties of rice are typically classified as short-, medium-, and long-grained. Oryza sativa indica varieties are usually long-grained; Oryza sativa japonica varieties are usually short- or medium-grained. Short-grain rice, with the exception of Spanish Bomba, is usually sticky when cooked, and is suitable for puddings. Thai Jasmine rice is aromatic, and unusually for a long-grain rice has some stickiness, with a soft texture. Indian Basmati rice is very long-grained and aromatic. Italian Arborio rice, used for risotto, is of medium length, oval, and quite sticky. Japanese sushi rice is a sticky short-grain variety.{{cite web |title=Types of rice |url=https://www.riceassociation.org.uk/types-of-rice |publisher=The Rice Association |access-date=March 24, 2024 |archive-date=March 24, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240324115843/https://www.riceassociation.org.uk/types-of-rice |url-status=live }}

Cooked white rice is 69% water, 29% carbohydrates, 2% protein, and contains negligible fat (table). In a reference serving of {{convert|100|g}}, cooked white rice provides 130 calories of food energy, and contains moderate levels of manganese (18% DV), with no other micronutrients in significant content (all less than 10% of the Daily Value).{{cite web |title=FoodData Central: Rice, white, medium-grain, cooked, unenriched |url=https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/food-details/168930/nutrients |publisher=US Department of Agriculture |access-date=December 5, 2023 |date=April 2018 |archive-date=May 23, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230523232832/https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/food-details/168930/nutrients |url-status=dead }}

In 2018, the World Health Organization strongly recommended fortifying rice with iron, and conditionally recommended fortifying it with vitamin A and with folic acid.{{cite book |last1=L. M. |first1=De-Regil |last2=J. P. |first2=Peña-Rosas |last3=A. |first3=Laillou |last4=R. |first4=Moench-Pfanner |last5=L. A. |first5=Mejia |last6=A. M. |first6=Bower |last7=S. |first7=de Pee |last8=L. M. |first8=De-Regil |last9=P. S. |first9=Suchdev |last10=G. E. |first10=Vist |last11=S. |first11=Walleser |last12=J. P. |first12=Peña-Rosas |last13=N. B. |first13=Piccoli |last14=N. |first14=Grede |last15=S. |first15=de Pee |last16=A. |first16=Singhkumarwong |last17=E. |first17=Roks |last18=R. |first18=Moench-Pfanner |last19=M. W. |first19=Bloem |display-authors=5 |title=Guideline: Fortification of Rice with Vitamins and Minerals as a Public Health Strategy |publisher=World Health Organization |date=2018 |pmid=30307723 |isbn=978-92-4-155029-1 |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK531762/ |access-date=December 5, 2023 |archive-date=March 21, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210321173909/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK531762/ |url-status=live }}

{{main|Golden rice}}

Golden rice is a variety produced through genetic engineering to synthesize beta-carotene, a precursor of vitamin A, in the endosperm of the rice grain. It is intended to be grown and eaten in parts of the world where Vitamin A deficiency is prevalent.{{cite web |title=Golden Rice Q&A |url=http://www.goldenrice.org/Content3-Why/why3_FAQ.php#Solution |publisher=Golden Rice Project |access-date=January 3, 2024 |archive-date=February 14, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220214011041/https://www.goldenrice.org/Content3-Why/why3_FAQ.php#Solution |url-status=live }}{{cite journal |last1=Ye |first1=Xudong |last2=Al-Babili |first2=Salim |last3=Klöti |first3=Andreas |last4=Zhang |first4=Jing |last5=Lucca |first5=Paola |last6=Beyer |first6=Peter |last7=Potrykus |first7=Ingo |author7-link=Ingo Potrykus |display-authors=5 |title=Engineering the Provitamin A (β-Carotene) Biosynthetic Pathway into (Carotenoid-Free) Rice Endosperm |journal=Science |volume=287 |issue=5451 |date=January 14, 2000 |doi=10.1126/science.287.5451.303 |pages=303–305 |pmid=10634784 |bibcode=2000Sci...287..303Y |s2cid=40258379 }} Golden rice has been opposed by activists, such as in the Philippines.{{cite web |last=Lynas |first=Mark |date=August 26, 2013 |title=Anti-GMO Activists Lie About Attack on Rice Crop (and About So Many Other Things) |url=https://slate.com/technology/2013/08/golden-rice-attack-in-philippines-anti-gmo-activists-lie-about-protest-and-safety.html |access-date=August 21, 2021 |website=Slate Magazine |archive-date=September 1, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210901014927/https://slate.com/technology/2013/08/golden-rice-attack-in-philippines-anti-gmo-activists-lie-about-protest-and-safety.html |url-status=live }} In 2016 more than 100 Nobel laureates encouraged the use of genetically modified organisms, such as golden rice, for the benefits these could bring.{{cite journal |last=Roberts |first=Richard J. |title=The Nobel Laureates' Campaign Supporting GMOs |journal=Journal of Innovation & Knowledge |volume=3 |issue=2 |date=2018 |doi=10.1016/j.jik.2017.12.006 |pages=61–65 |doi-access=free }}

File:NP Rice Emissions18 (5687953086).jpg

In 2022, greenhouse gas emissions from rice cultivation were estimated at 5.7 billion tonnes CO2eq, representing 1.2% of total emissions.{{Cite web |title=Sectors: Rice cultivation |url=https://climatetrace.org/sectors |access-date=December 7, 2023 |website=climatetrace.org |archive-date=December 6, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231206062151/https://climatetrace.org/sectors |url-status=live }} Within the agriculture sector, rice produces almost half the greenhouse gas emissions from croplands,{{Cite journal |last1=Qian |first1=Haoyu |last2=Zhu |first2=Xiangchen |last3=Huang |first3=Shan |last4=Linquist |first4=Bruce |last5=Kuzyakov |first5=Yakov |last6=Wassmann |first6=Reiner |last7=Minamikawa |first7=Kazunori |last8=Martinez-Eixarch |first8=Maite |last9=Yan |first9=Xiaoyuan |last10=Zhou |first10=Feng |last11=Sander |first11=Bjoern Ole |last12=Zhang |first12=Weijian |last13=Shang |first13=Ziyin |last14=Zou |first14=Jianwen |last15=Zheng |first15=Xunhua |display-authors=5 |date=October 2023 |title=Greenhouse gas emissions and mitigation in rice agriculture |journal=Nature Reviews Earth & Environment |volume=4 |issue=10 |pages=716–732 |doi=10.1038/s43017-023-00482-1 |bibcode=2023NRvEE...4..716Q |s2cid=263197017 |quote=Rice paddies …. account for ≈48% of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from croplands.|hdl=20.500.12327/2431 |hdl-access=free }} some 30% of agricultural methane emissions, and 11% of agricultural nitrous oxide emissions.{{cite journal |last1=Gupta |first1=Khushboo |last2=Kumar |first2=Raushan |last3=Baruah |first3=Kushal Kumar |last4=Hazarika |first4=Samarendra |last5=Karmakar |first5=Susmita |last6=Bordoloi |first6=Nirmali |title=Greenhouse gas emission from rice fields: a review from Indian context |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research International |volume=28 |issue=24 |pages=30551–30572 |date=June 2021 |pmid=33905059 |doi=10.1007/s11356-021-13935-1 |bibcode=2021ESPR...2830551G |s2cid=233403787 }} Methane is released from rice fields subject to long-term flooding, as this inhibits the soil from absorbing atmospheric oxygen, resulting in anaerobic fermentation of organic matter in the soil.{{cite journal |last1=Neue |first1=Heinz-Ulrich |title=Methane Emission from Rice Fields |journal=BioScience |date=1993 |volume=43 |issue=7 |pages=466–474 |doi=10.2307/1311906 |jstor=1311906 }} Emissions can be limited by planting new varieties, not flooding continuously, and removing straw.{{Cite journal |last1=Qian |first1=Haoyu |last2=Zhu |first2=Xiangchen |last3=Huang |first3=Shan |last4=Linquist |first4=Bruce |last5=Kuzyakov |first5=Yakov |last6=Wassmann |first6=Reiner |last7=Minamikawa |first7=Kazunori |last8=Martinez-Eixarch |first8=Maite |last9=Yan |first9=Xiaoyuan |last10=Zhou |first10=Feng |last11=Sander |first11=Bjoern Ole |last12=Zhang |first12=Weijian |last13=Shang |first13=Ziyin |last14=Zou |first14=Jianwen |last15=Zheng |first15=Xunhua |display-authors=5 |date=October 2023 |title=Greenhouse gas emissions and mitigation in rice agriculture |journal=Nature Reviews Earth & Environment |volume=4 |issue=10 |pages=716–732 |doi=10.1038/s43017-023-00482-1 |bibcode=2023NRvEE...4..716Q |s2cid=263197017 |hdl=20.500.12327/2431 |hdl-access=free }}

It is possible to cut methane emissions in rice cultivation by improved water management, combining dry seeding and one drawdown, or executing a sequence of wetting and drying. This results in emission reductions of up to 90% compared to full flooding and even increased yields.{{cite web |last1=Searchinger |first1=Tim |last2=Adhya |first2=Tapan K. |year=2014 |title=Wetting and Drying: Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Saving Water from Rice Production |url=https://www.wri.org/research/wetting-and-drying-reducing-greenhouse-gas-emissions-and-saving-water-rice-production |publisher=World Resources Institute |access-date=May 3, 2024 |archive-date=June 19, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230619223001/https://www.wri.org/research/wetting-and-drying-reducing-greenhouse-gas-emissions-and-saving-water-rice-production |url-status=live }}

Predictions of climate change's effects on rice cultivation vary. Global rice yield has been projected to decrease by around 3.2% with each 1 °C increase in global average temperature{{Cite journal |last1=Zhao |first1=Chuang |last2=Liu |first2=Bing |last3=Piao |first3=Shilong |last4=Wang |first4=Xuhui |last5=Lobell |first5=David B. |last6=Huang |first6=Yao |last7=Huang |first7=Mengtian |last8=Yao |first8=Yitong |last9=Bassu |first9=Simona |last10=Ciais |first10=Philippe |last11=Durand |first11=Jean-Louis |last12=Elliott |first12=Joshua |last13=Ewert |first13=Frank |last14=Janssens |first14=Ivan A. |last15=Li |first15=Tao |display-authors=5 |date=August 29, 2017 |title=Temperature increase reduces global yields of major crops in four independent estimates |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=114 |issue=35 |pages=9326–9331 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1701762114 |doi-access=free |pmc=5584412 |pmid=28811375 |bibcode=2017PNAS..114.9326Z }} while another study predicts global rice cultivation will increase initially, plateauing at about 3 °C warming (2091–2100 relative to 1850–1900).{{Cite journal |last1=Iizumi |first1=Toshichika |last2=Furuya |first2=Jun |last3=Shen |first3=Zhihong |last4=Kim |first4=Wonsik |last5=Okada |first5=Masashi |last6=Fujimori |first6=Shinichiro |last7=Hasegawa |first7=Tomoko |last8=Nishimori |first8=Motoki |display-authors=5 |date=August 10, 2017 |title=Responses of crop yield growth to global temperature and socioeconomic changes |journal=Scientific Reports |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=7800 |doi=10.1038/s41598-017-08214-4 |pmid=28798370 |pmc=5552729 |bibcode=2017NatSR...7.7800I}}

The impacts of climate change on rice cultivation vary across geographic location and socioeconomic context. For example, rising temperatures and decreasing solar radiation during the later years of the 20th century decreased rice yield by between 10% and 20% across 200 farms in seven Asian countries. This may have been caused by increased night-time respiration.{{cite journal |last1=Welch |first1=Jarrod R. |last2=Vincent |first2=Jeffrey R. |last3=Auffhammer |first3=Maximilian |last4=Moya |first4=Piedad F. |last5=Dobermann |first5=Achim |last6=Dawe |first6=David |title=Rice yields in tropical/subtropical Asia exhibit large but opposing sensitivities to minimum and maximum temperatures |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=107 |issue=33 |date=August 9, 2010 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1001222107 |pages=14562–14567 |pmid=20696908 |pmc=2930450 |doi-access=free }}{{cite web |last=Black |first=Richard |date=August 9, 2010 |title=Rice yields falling under global warming |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-10918591 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180405034821/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-10918591 |archive-date=April 5, 2018 |access-date=August 9, 2010 |work=BBC News: Science & Environment}} IRRI has predicted that Asian rice yields will fall by some 20% per 1°C rise in global mean temperature. Further, rice is unable to yield grain if the flowers experience a temperature of 35°C or more for over one hour, so the crop would be lost under these conditions.{{cite journal |last=Singh |first=S.K. |date=2016 |title=Climate Change: Impact on Indian Agriculture & its Mitigation |journal=Journal of Basic and Applied Engineering Research |volume=3 |issue=10 |pages=857–859}}{{cite book |last1=Rao |first1=Prakash |last2=Patil |first2=Y. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=st52DQAAQBAJ&pg=PA330 |title=Reconsidering the Impact of Climate Change on Global Water Supply, Use, and Management |publisher=IGI Global |year=2017 |isbn=978-1-5225-1047-5 |page=330}}

In the Po Valley in Italy, the arborio and carnaroli risotto rice varieties have suffered poor harvests through drought in the 21st century. The {{ill|Ente Nazionale Risi|it}} is developing drought-resistant varieties; its nuovo prometeo variety has deep roots that enable it to tolerate drought, but is not suitable for risotto.{{cite news |last=Spaggiari |first=Ottavia |title=Risotto crisis: the fight to save Italy's beloved dish from extinction |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2024/feb/29/risotto-crisis-the-fight-to-save-italys-beloved-dish-from-extinction-aoe |work=The Guardian |date=February 29, 2024}}

{{Anchor|Pests}}

File:Chinese rice grasshopper (Oxya chinensis).jpg)]]

Rice yield can be reduced by weed growth, and a wide variety of pests including insects, nematodes, rodents such as rats, snails, and birds.{{cite web |title=Pests and diseases management |url=http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/training/fact-sheets/pest-management |publisher=International Rice Research Institute |access-date=January 4, 2024}} Major rice insect pests include armyworms, rice bugs, black bugs, cutworms, field crickets, grasshoppers, leafhoppers, mealybugs, and planthoppers.{{cite web |title=Insects |url=http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/training/fact-sheets/pest-management/insects |publisher=International Rice Research Institute |access-date=January 4, 2024}} High rates of nitrogen fertiliser application may worsen aphid outbreaks.{{cite journal |last1=Jahn |first1=Gary C. |last2=Almazan |first2=Liberty P. |last3=Pacia |first3=Jocelyn B. |doi=10.1603/0046-225X-34.4.938 |title=Effect of Nitrogen Fertilizer on the Intrinsic Rate of Increase of Hysteroneura setariae (Thomas) (Homoptera: Aphididae) on Rice (Oryza sativa L.) |year=2005 |s2cid=1941852 |journal=Environmental Entomology |volume=34 |issue=4 |page=938 |doi-access=free}}

Weather conditions can contribute to pest outbreaks: rice gall midge outbreaks are worsened by high rainfall in the wet season, while thrips outbreaks are associated with drought.{{cite book |last1=Douangboupha |first1=B. |last2=Khamphoukeo |first2=K. |last3=Inthavong |first3=S. |last4=Schiller |first4=J.M. |last5=Jahn |first5=G.C. |date=2006 |chapter-url=http://aciar.gov.au/files/node/756/Rice%20In%20Laos%20chapter%2016-25.pdf |chapter=Chapter 17: Pests and diseases of the rice production systems of Laos |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120403052249/http://aciar.gov.au/files/node/756/Rice%20In%20Laos%20chapter%2016-25.pdf |archive-date=April 3, 2012 |pages=265–281 |editor-last=Schiller |editor-first=J.M. |editor2=Chanphengxay, M.B. |editor3=Linquist, B. |editor4=Rao, S.A. |title=Rice in Laos |publisher=International Rice Research Institute |location=Los Baños, Philippines |isbn=978-971-22-0211-7 }}

{{main|:Category:Insect pests of rice}}

{{main|List of rice diseases}}

File:Rice blast.jpg ]]

Rice blast, caused by the fungus Magnaporthe grisea, is the most serious disease of growing rice.{{cite journal |display-authors=3 |last1=Dean |first1=Ralph A. |last2=Talbot |first2=Nicholas J. |last3=Ebbole |first3=Daniel J. |last4=Farman |first4=Mark L. |last5=Mitchell |first5=Thomas K. |last6=Orbach |first6=Marc J. |last7=Thon |first7=Michael |last8=Kulkarni |first8=Resham |last9=Xu |first9=Jin-Rong |last10=Pan |first10=Huaqin |title=The genome sequence of the rice blast fungus Magnaporthe grisea |journal=Nature |volume=434 |issue=7036 |pages=980–986 |date=April 2005 |pmid=15846337 |doi=10.1038/nature03449 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2005Natur.434..980D }}

It and bacterial leaf streak (caused by Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae) are perennially the two worst rice diseases worldwide; they are both among the ten most important diseases of all crop plants.{{cite journal |last1=Liu |first1=Wende |last2=Liu |first2=Jinling |last3=Triplett |first3=Lindsay |last4=Leach |first4=Jan E. |last5=Wang |first5=Guo-Liang |title=Novel Insights into Rice Innate Immunity Against Bacterial and Fungal Pathogens |journal=Annual Review of Phytopathology |volume=52 |issue=1 |date=August 4, 2014 |doi=10.1146/annurev-phyto-102313-045926 |pages=213–241|pmid=24906128 }} Other major rice diseases include sheath blight (caused by Rhizoctonia solani), false smut (Ustilaginoidea virens), and bacterial panicle blight (Burkholderia glumae). Viral diseases include rice bunchy stunt, rice dwarf, rice tungro, and rice yellow mottle.{{cite journal |last=Hibino |first=H. |title=Biology and epidemiology of rice viruses |journal=Annual Review of Phytopathology|volume=34 |issue=1 |pages=249–274 |year=1996 |pmid=15012543 |doi=10.1146/annurev.phyto.34.1.249 |publisher=Annual Reviews }}

{{further|Integrated pest management|rice-duck farming}}

Crop protection scientists are developing sustainable techniques for managing rice pests.{{cite book |last1=Jahn |first1=Gary C. |author2=Khiev, B. |author3=Pol, C. |author4=Chhorn, N. |author5=Pheng, S. |author6=Preap, V. |date=2001 |chapter=Developing sustainable pest management for rice in Cambodia |pages=243–258 |editor1=Suthipradit, S. |editor2=Kuntha, C. |editor3=Lorlowhakarn, S. |editor4=Rakngan, J. |title=Sustainable Agriculture: Possibility and Direction |location=Bangkok (Thailand) |publisher=National Science and Technology Development Agency }} Sustainable pest management is based on four principles: biodiversity, host plant resistance, landscape ecology, and hierarchies in a landscape—from biological to social.{{cite journal |last1=Savary |first1=S. |last2=Horgan |first2=F. |last3=Willocquet |first3=L. |last4=Heong |title=A review of principles for sustainable pest management in rice |year=2012 |journal=Crop Protection |volume=32 |page=54 |doi=10.1016/j.cropro.2011.10.012|bibcode=2012CrPro..32...54S }} Farmers' pesticide applications are often unnecessary.{{cite web |url=http://www.scidev.net/Features/index.cfm?fuseaction=readfeatures&itemid=306&language=1 |title=Bangladeshi farmers banish insecticides |work=SCIDEV.net |date=July 30, 2004 |access-date=May 13, 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080126115934/http://www.scidev.net/Features/index.cfm?fuseaction=readfeatures&itemid=306&language=1 |archive-date=January 26, 2008 }} Pesticides may actually induce resurgence of populations of rice pests such as the brown planthopper, both by destroying beneficial insects and by enhancing the pest's reproduction.{{cite journal |last1=Wu |first1=Jincai |last2=Ge |first2=Linquan |last3=Liu |first3=Fang |last4=Song |first4=Qisheng |last5=Stanley |first5=David |title=Pesticide-Induced Planthopper Population Resurgence in Rice Cropping Systems |journal=Annual Review of Entomology |volume=65 |issue=1 |date=January 7, 2020 |doi=10.1146/annurev-ento-011019-025215 |pages=409–429 |pmid=31610135 |s2cid=204702698 }} The International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) demonstrated in 1993 that an 87.5% reduction in pesticide use can lead to an overall drop in pest numbers.{{cite web |title=The pesticide paradox |last=Hamilton |first=Henry Sackville |publisher=International Rice Research Institute |date=January 18, 2008 |url=http://irri.org/knowledge/publications/rice-today/special-reports/science-shorts/the-pesticide-paradox |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120119053923/http://irri.org/knowledge/publications/rice-today/special-reports/science-shorts/the-pesticide-paradox |archive-date=January 19, 2012}}

File:Penggembala Bebek.jpg in paddy fields, Central Java]]

Farmers in China, Indonesia and the Philippines have traditionally managed weeds and pests by the polycultural practice of raising ducks and sometimes fish in their rice paddies. These produce valuable additional crops, eat small pest animals, manure the rice, and in the case of ducks also control weeds.{{cite web |last=Bezemer |first=Marjolein |date=October 23, 2022 |title=Mixed farming increases rice yield |url=https://www.renature.co/articles/mixed-farming-increase-rice-yield/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191011124422/https://renaturefoundation.nl/2018/12/12/mixed-farming-increase-rice-yield/ |archive-date=October 11, 2019 |access-date=January 2, 2024 |website=reNature Foundation}}{{cite journal |last1=Cagauan |first1=A. G. |last2=Branckaert |first2=R. D. |last3=Van Hove |first3=C. |title=Integrating fish and azolla into rice-duck farming in Asia |journal=Naga (ICLARM Quarterly) |volume=23 |issue=1 |pages=4–10 |year=2000 |url=https://aquadocs.org/bitstream/handle/1834/25720/na_2359.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |archive-date=March 14, 2024 |access-date=January 5, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240314081726/https://aquadocs.org/bitstream/handle/1834/25720/na_2359.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |url-status=live }}

Rice plants produce their own chemical defences to protect themselves from pest attacks. Some synthetic chemicals, such as the herbicide 2,4-D, cause the plant to increase the production of certain defensive chemicals and thereby increase the plant's resistance to some types of pests.{{cite journal |last1=Xin |first1=Zhaojun |last2=Yu |first2=Zhaonan |last3=Erb |first3=Matthias |last4=Turlings |first4=Ted C. J. |last5=Wang |first5=Baohui |last6=Qi |first6=Jinfeng |last7=Liu |first7=Shengning |last8=Lou |first8=Yonggen |display-authors=5 |title=The broad-leaf herbicide 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid turns rice into a living trap for a major insect pest and a parasitic wasp |journal=New Phytologist |volume=194 |issue=2 |pages=498–510 |date=April 2012 |pmid=22313362 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-8137.2012.04057.x |doi-access= }} Conversely, other chemicals, such as the insecticide imidacloprid, appear to induce changes in the gene expression of the rice that make the plant more susceptible to certain pests.{{cite journal |last1=Cheng |first1=Yao |last2=Shi |first2=Zhao-Peng |last3=Jiang |first3=Li-Ben |last4=Ge |first4=Lin-Quan |last5=Wu |first5=Jin-Cai |last6=Jahn |first6=Gary C. |title=Possible connection between imidacloprid-induced changes in rice gene transcription profiles and susceptibility to the brown plant hopper Nilaparvatalugens Stål (Hemiptera: Delphacidae) |journal=Pesticide Biochemistry and Physiology |volume=102 |issue=3 |pages=213–219 |date=March 2012 |pmid=22544984 |pmc=3334832 |doi=10.1016/j.pestbp.2012.01.003 |bibcode=2012PBioP.102..213C }}

Plant breeders have created rice cultivars incorporating resistance to various insect pests. Conventional plant breeding of resistant varieties has been limited by challenges such as rearing insect pests for testing, and the great diversity and continuous evolution of pests. Resistance genes are being sought from wild species of rice, and genetic engineering techniques are being applied.{{cite journal |last1=Makkar |first1=Gurpreet Singh |last2=Bhatia |first2=Dharminder |last3=Suri |first3=K.S. |last4=Kaur |first4=Simranjeet |title=Insect resistance in Rice (Oryza sativa L.): overview on current breeding interventions |journal=International Journal of Tropical Insect Science |volume=39 |issue=4 |date=2019 |doi=10.1007/s42690-019-00038-1 |pages=259–272|s2cid=202011174 }}

{{Anchor|Ecotypes|Ecotype|Cultivars|Cultivar}}

{{ Main |List of rice cultivars }}

File:Rice diversity.jpg's rice seed collection ]]

The International Rice Research Institute maintains the International Rice Genebank, which holds over 100,000 rice varieties.{{cite web |url=http://irri.org/index.php?option=com_k2&view=item&id=9960&lang=en |title=The International Rice Genebank – conserving rice |publisher=International Rice Research Institute |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121023054703/http://irri.org/index.php?option=com_k2&view=item&id=9960&lang=en |archive-date=October 23, 2012 }}{{cite journal |last=Jackson |first=M. T. |title=Conservation of rice genetic resources: the role of the International Rice Genebank at IRRI |journal=Plant Molecular Biology |volume=35 |issue=1–2 |pages=61–67 |date=September 1997 |pmid=9291960 |doi=10.1023/A:1005709332130 |s2cid=3360337 }} Much of southeast Asia grows sticky or glutinous rice varieties.{{Cite journal |last=Sattaka |first=Patcha |date=December 27, 2016 |title=Geographical Distribution of Glutinous Rice in the Greater Mekong Sub-region |url=https://so03.tci-thaijo.org/index.php/mekongjournal/article/view/73311 |journal=Journal of Mekong Societies |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=27–48 |archive-date=November 8, 2021 |access-date=November 8, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211108105756/https://so03.tci-thaijo.org/index.php/mekongjournal/article/view/73311 |url-status=live }} High-yield cultivars of rice suitable for cultivation in Africa, called the New Rice for Africa (NERICA), have been developed to improve food security and alleviate poverty in Sub-Saharan Africa.{{cite web |title=NERICA: Rice for Life |publisher=Africa Rice Center (WARDA) |year=2001 |url=http://www.warda.cgiar.org/publications/NERICA8.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031204153208/http://www.warda.cgiar.org/publications/NERICA8.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=December 4, 2003 |accessdate=July 7, 2008}}

The complete genome of rice was sequenced in 2005, making it the first crop plant to reach this status.{{cite news |last=Gillis |first=Justin |date=August 11, 2005 |title=Rice Genome Fully Mapped |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/08/10/AR2005081001054.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170330212346/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/08/10/AR2005081001054.html |archive-date=March 30, 2017 |access-date=September 10, 2017 |newspaper=The Washington Post}}

Since then, the genomes of hundreds of types of rice, both wild and cultivated, and including both Asian and African rice species, have been sequenced.{{Cite journal |last1=Shang |first1=Lianguang |last2=Li |first2=Xiaoxia |last3=He |first3=Huiying |last4=Yuan |first4=Qiaoling |last5=Song |first5=Yanni |last6=Wei |first6=Zhaoran |last7=Lin |first7=Hai |last8=Hu |first8=Min |last9=Zhao |first9=Fengli |last10=Zhang |first10=Chao |last11=Li |first11=Yuhua |last12=Gao |first12=Hongsheng |last13=Wang |first13=Tianyi |last14=Liu |first14=Xiangpei |last15=Zhang |first15=Hong |display-authors=5 |date=2022 |title=A super pan-genomic landscape of rice |journal=Cell Research |volume=32 |issue=10 |pages=878–896 |doi=10.1038/s41422-022-00685-z |pmc=9525306 |pmid=35821092}}

{{main|Green revolution}}

The high-yielding varieties are a group of crops created during the Green Revolution to increase global food production radically. The first Green Revolution rice variety, IR8, was produced in 1966 at the International Rice Research Institute through a cross between an Indonesian variety named "Peta" and a Chinese variety named "Dee Geo Woo Gen".{{cite web |last=Hettel |first=Gene |title=IR8—a rice variety for the ages |url=https://ricetoday.irri.org/ir8-a-rice-variety-for-the-ages/ |website=Rice Today |access-date=December 29, 2023 |date=November 18, 2016 |archive-date=December 29, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231229205451/https://ricetoday.irri.org/ir8-a-rice-variety-for-the-ages/ |url-status=live }} Green Revolution varieties were bred to have short strong stems so that the rice would not lodge or fall over. This enabled them to stay upright and productive even with heavy applications of fertiliser.

Ventria Bioscience has genetically modified rice to express lactoferrin and lysozyme which are proteins usually found in breast milk, and human serum albumin. These proteins have antiviral, antibacterial, and antifungal effects.{{cite journal |last=Marris |first=E. |title=Rice with human proteins to take root in Kansas |journal=Nature |date=May 18, 2007 |s2cid=84688423 |doi=10.1038/news070514-17}} Rice containing these added proteins can be used as a component in oral rehydration solutions to treat diarrheal diseases, thereby shortening their duration and reducing recurrence. Such supplements may also help reverse anemia.{{cite journal |last1=Bethell |first1=D.R. |last2=Huang |first2=J. |title=Recombinant human lactoferrin treatment for global health issues: iron deficiency and acute diarrhea |journal=BioMetals |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=337–342 |date=June 2004 |pmid=15222487 |doi=10.1023/B:BIOM.0000027714.56331.b8 |s2cid=3106602 }}

{{Main|Deepwater rice}}

File:Researchers checking deep water rice.jpg in the Philippines ]]

In areas subject to flooding, farmers have long planted flood tolerant varieties known as deepwater rice. In South and South East Asia, flooding affects some {{convert|20|e6ha|e6acre|abbr=off}} each year.{{cite journal |last1=Debrata |first1=Panda |last2=Sarkar |first2=Ramani Kumar |year=2012 |title=Role of Non-Structural Carbohydrate and its Catabolism Associated with Sub 1 QTL in Rice Subjected to Complete Submergence |journal=Experimental Agriculture |volume=48 |issue=4|pages=502–512 |doi=10.1017/S0014479712000397 |s2cid=86192842 }}

Flooding has historically led to massive losses in yields, such as in the Philippines, where in 2006, rice crops worth $65 million were lost to flooding."{{cite web |url=http://irri.org/index.php?option=com_k2&view=item&id=9148&lang=en |title=Climate change-ready rice |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121028234824/http://irri.org/index.php?option=com_k2&view=item&id=9148&lang=en |archive-date=October 28, 2012 |publisher=International Rice Research Institute |access-date=October 31, 2013 }}

Standard rice varieties cannot withstand stagnant flooding for more than about a week, since it disallows the plant access to necessary requirements such as sunlight and gas exchange. The Swarna Sub1 cultivar can tolerate week-long submergence, consuming carbohydrates efficiently and continuing to grow. So-called "scuba rice"{{cite web |last1=Gautam |first1=Priyanka |display-authors=etal |title=Nutrient Management for Enhancing Submergence Tolerance in Rice |url=https://krishi.icar.gov.in/jspui/bitstream/123456789/8940/1/Research%20Bulletin-13.pdf |publisher=National Rice Research Institute |location=Cuttack, Odisha, India |page=3 |date=2017 |quote=NRRI Research Bulletin No. 13 |access-date=May 13, 2024 |archive-date=June 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240603200729/https://krishi.icar.gov.in/jspui/bitstream/123456789/8940/1/Research%20Bulletin-13.pdf |url-status=live }} with the Sub1A transgene is robustly tolerant of submergence for as long as two weeks, offering much improved flood survival for farmers' crops. IRRI has created Sub1A varieties and distributed them to Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, Nepal, and the Philippines.{{cite journal |last1=Emerick |first1=Kyle |last2=Ronald |first2=Pamela C. |title=Sub1 Rice: Engineering Rice for Climate Change |journal=Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology |volume=11 |issue=12 |date=2019 |pmid=31182543 |pmc=6886445 |doi=10.1101/cshperspect.a034637 |page=a034637}}

Drought represents a significant environmental stress for rice production, with {{convert|19-23|e6ha|e6acre|abbr=off}} of rainfed rice production in South and South East Asia often at risk.{{cite web |url=http://irri.org/index.php?option=com_k2&view=item&id=9952:drought-submergence-an |title=Drought, submergence and salinity management |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131101131821/http://irri.org/index.php?option=com_k2&view=item&id=9952%3Adrought-submergence-an |archive-date=November 1, 2013 |work=International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) |access-date=September 29, 2013 }}"{{cite web |url=http://irri.org/our-work/research/better-rice-varieties/climate-change-ready-rice |title=Climate change-ready rice |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140314033307/http://irri.org/our-work/research/better-rice-varieties/climate-change-ready-rice |archive-date=March 14, 2014 |publisher=International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) |access-date=September 29, 2013 }} Under drought conditions, without sufficient water to afford them the ability to obtain the required levels of nutrients from the soil, conventional commercial rice varieties can be severely affected—as happened for example in India early in the 21st century.{{cite web |url=http://www.ciatnews.cgiar.org/2013/08/06/newly-discovered-rice-gene-goes-to-the-root-of-drought-resistance/ |title=Newly-discovered rice gene goes to the root of drought resistance |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131103182251/http://www.ciatnews.cgiar.org/2013/08/06/newly-discovered-rice-gene-goes-to-the-root-of-drought-resistance/ |archive-date=November 3, 2013 |last=Palmer |first=Neil |date=2013 |publisher=International Center for Tropical Agriculture |access-date=September 29, 2013 }}

The International Rice Research Institute conducts research into developing drought-tolerant rice varieties, including the varieties Sahbhagi Dhan, Sahod Ulan, and Sookha dhan, currently being employed by farmers in India, the Philippines, and Nepal respectively. In addition, in 2013 the Japanese National Institute for Agrobiological Sciences led a team which successfully inserted the DEEPER ROOTING 1 (DRO1) gene, from the Philippine upland rice variety Kinandang Patong, into the popular commercial rice variety IR64, giving rise to a far deeper root system in the resulting plants. This facilitates an improved ability for the rice plant to derive its required nutrients in times of drought via accessing deeper layers of soil, a feature demonstrated by trials which saw the IR64 + DRO1 rice yields drop by 10% under moderate drought conditions, compared to 60% for the unmodified IR64 variety.{{cite web |url=http://phys.org/news/2013-08-roots-breakthrough-drought-resistant-rice.html |title=Roots breakthrough for drought resistant rice |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131102113839/http://phys.org/news/2013-08-roots-breakthrough-drought-resistant-rice.html |archive-date=November 2, 2013 |work=Phys.org |date=2013 |access-date=September 30, 2013 }}

{{further|Crop tolerance to seawater}}

Soil salinity poses a major threat to rice crop productivity, particularly along low-lying coastal areas during the dry season.{{cite web |work=International Rice Research Institute |title=Rice Breeding Course, Breeding for salt tolerance in rice, on line |url= http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/ricebreedingcourse/Breeding_for_salt_tolerance.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170505220950/http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/ricebreedingcourse/Breeding_for_salt_tolerance.htm |archive-date=May 5, 2017 }} For example, roughly {{convert|1|e6ha|e6acre|abbr=off}} of the coastal areas of Bangladesh are affected by saline soils."{{cite web |url=http://irri.org/index.php?option=com_k2&view=item&id=10379&Itemid=100242&lang=en |title=Less salt, please |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131101133710/http://irri.org/index.php?option=com_k2&view=item&id=10379&Itemid=100242&lang=en |archive-date= 1 November 2013 |last=Fredenburg |first=P. |date=2007 |access-date=30 September 2013 |publisher=International Rice Research Institute }} These high concentrations of salt can severely affect rice plants' physiology, especially during early stages of growth, and as such farmers are often forced to abandon these areas."{{cite web |url=https://ricetoday.irri.org/wild-parent-spawns-super-salt-tolerant-rice/ |title=Wild parent spawns super salt tolerant rice | last = Barona-Edna | first = Liz | date = April 15, 2013 | accessdate = January 3, 2024 | work=Rice Today }}

Progress has been made in developing rice varieties capable of tolerating such conditions; the hybrid created from the cross between the commercial rice variety IR56 and the wild rice species Oryza coarctata is one example."{{cite web |url=https://www.integratedbreeding.net/news/breakthrough-salt-resistant-rice-research-single-baby-rice-plant-may-hold-future-extending-rice |title=Breakthrough in salt-resistant rice research—single baby rice plant may hold the future to extending rice farming |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131102081913/https://www.integratedbreeding.net/news/breakthrough-salt-resistant-rice-research-single-baby-rice-plant-may-hold-future-extending-rice |archive-date=November 2, 2013 |work=Integrated Breeding Platform (IBP) |date=2013 |access-date=October 6, 2013 }} O. coarctata can grow in soils with double the limit of salinity of normal varieties, but does not produce edible rice. Developed by the International Rice Research Institute, the hybrid variety utilises specialised leaf glands that remove salt into the atmosphere. It was produced from one successful embryo out of 34,000 crosses between the two species; this was then backcrossed to IR56 with the aim of preserving the genes responsible for salt tolerance that were inherited from O. coarctata.

Rice is sensitive to temperatures below 12C. Sowing takes place once the daily average temperature is reliably above this limit. Average temperatures below that reduce growth; if sustained for over four days, germination and seedling growth are harmed and seedlings may die. In larger plants subjected to cold, rice blast is encouraged, seriously reducing yield. As of 2022, researchers continue to study the mechanisms of chilling tolerance in rice and its genetic basis.{{cite journal | last1=Li | first1=Junhua | last2=Zhang | first2=Zeyong | last3=Chong | first3=Kang | last4=Xu | first4=Yunyuan | title=Chilling tolerance in rice: Past and present | journal=Journal of Plant Physiology | volume=268 | date=2022 | doi=10.1016/j.jplph.2021.153576 | page=153576| pmid=34875419 | bibcode=2022JPPhy.26853576L }}

Producing rice in paddies is harmful for the environment due to the release of methane by methanogenic bacteria. These bacteria live in the anaerobic waterlogged soil, consuming nutrients released by rice roots. Putting the barley gene SUSIBA2 into rice creates a shift in biomass production from root to shoot, decreasing the methanogen population, and resulting in a reduction of methane emissions of up to 97%. Further, the modification increases the amount of rice grains.{{cite journal |last1=Su |first1=J. |last2=Hu |first2=C. |last3=Yan |first3=X. |last4=Jin |first4=Y. |last5=Chen |first5=Z. |last6=Guan |first6=Q. |last7=Wang |first7=Y. |last8=Zhong |first8=D. |last9=Jansson |first9=C. |last10=Wang |first10=F. |last11=Schnürer |first11=A. |last12=Sun |first12=C. |display-authors=5 |title=Expression of barley SUSIBA2 transcription factor yields high-starch low-methane rice |journal=Nature |volume=523 |issue=7562 |pages=602–606 |date=July 2015 |pmid=26200336 |doi=10.1038/nature14673 |s2cid=4454200 |bibcode=2015Natur.523..602S }}{{cite web |last=Gerry |first=C. |title=Feeding the World One Genetically Modified Tomato at a Time: A Scientific Perspective |url=http://sitn.hms.harvard.edu/flash/2015/feeding-the-world/ |publisher=Harvard University |access-date=September 11, 2015 |date=August 9, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910164510/http://sitn.hms.harvard.edu/flash/2015/feeding-the-world/ |archive-date=September 10, 2015 |url-status=live}}

C4 rice is a proposed rice that uses C4 photosynthesis.{{cite web |title=The C4 Rice Project |url=https://c4rice.com |website=c4rice.com |language=en}} It is currently in development by the C4 Rice Consortium.{{Cite journal|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1220177|title=The Development of C4 Rice: Current Progress and Future Challenges|first1=Susanne|last1=von Caemmerer|first2=W. Paul|last2=Quick|first3=Robert T.|last3=Furbank|date=June 29, 2012|journal=Science|volume=336|issue=6089|pages=1671–1672|via=science.org (Atypon)|doi=10.1126/science.1220177}}{{Cite web|url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/innovation/is-hacking-photosynthesis-the-key-to-increasing-crop-yields-180981144/|title=Is Hacking Photosynthesis the Key to Increasing Crop Yields?|first=Kurt|last=Kleiner|website=Smithsonian Magazine}}

Rice is used as a model organism for investigating the mechanisms of meiosis and DNA repair in higher plants.{{cite journal |last1=Luo |first1=Qiong |last2=Li |first2=Yafei |last3=Shen |first3=Yi |last4=Cheng |first4=Zhukuan |title=Ten years of gene discovery for meiotic event control in rice |journal=Journal of Genetics and Genomics |volume=41 |issue=3 |pages=125–137 |date=March 2014 |pmid=24656233 |doi=10.1016/j.jgg.2014.02.002 |doi-access=free }} For example, study using rice has shown that the gene OsRAD51C is necessary for the accurate repair of DNA double-strand breaks during meiosis.{{cite journal |last1=Tang |first1=Ding |last2=Miao |first2=Chunbo |last3=Li |first3=Yafei |last4=Wang |first4=Hongjun |last5=Liu |first5=Xiaofei |last6=Yu |first6=Hengxiu |last7=Cheng |first7=Zhukuan |title=OsRAD51C is essential for double-strand break repair in rice meiosis |journal=Frontiers in Plant Science |volume=5 |page=167 |year=2014 |pmid=24847337 |pmc=4019848 |doi=10.3389/fpls.2014.00167 |doi-access=free }}

{{Anchor|Culture}}

File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Beeld van Dewi Sri de rijstgodin TMnr 60016918.jpg{{Cite web |author=Agus Dermawan T |date=2021-09-25 |title=Menjumpai Dewi Sri pada Hari Tani |url=https://www.kompas.id/baca/opini/2021/09/26/menjumpai-dewi-sri-pada-hari-tani |access-date=2023-02-14 |website=kompas.id |language=id |archive-date=February 14, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230214161521/https://www.kompas.id/baca/opini/2021/09/26/menjumpai-dewi-sri-pada-hari-tani |url-status=live }} from Java ({{Circa|9th century}}) ]]

Rice plays an important role in certain religions and popular beliefs. In Hindu wedding ceremonies, rice, denoting fertility, prosperity, and purity, is thrown into the sacred fire, a custom modified in Western weddings, where people throw rice over the wedded couple.{{cite journal |last1=Ahuja |first1=Subhash C. |last2=Ahuja |first2=Uma |title=Rice in religion and tradition |journal=2nd International Rice Congress, October 9–13, 2006 |year=2006 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/321334487 |location=New Delhi |pages=45–52 }} In Malay weddings, rice features in multiple special wedding foods such as sweet glutinous rice.{{cite journal |last1=Muhammad |first1=Rosmaliza |last2=Zahari |first2=Mohd Salehuddin Mohd |last3=Ramly |first3=Alina Shuhaida Muhammad |last4=Ahmad |first4=Roslina |title=The Roles and Symbolism of Foods in Malay Wedding Ceremony |journal=Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences |volume=101 |year=2013 |doi=10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.07.200 |pages=268–276 |doi-access=free }} In Japan and the Philippines, rice wine is used for weddings and other celebrations.{{cite journal |last1=Ahuja |first1=Uma |last2=Thakrar |first2=Rashmi |last3=Ahuja |first3=S. C. |year=2001 |title=Alcoholic rice beverages |journal=Asian Agri-History |volume=5 |issue=4 |pages=309–319 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301948904}} Dewi Sri is a goddess of the Indo-Malaysian archipelago, who in myth is transformed into rice or other crops.{{cite journal |last=Wessing |first=Robert |title=Sri and Sedana and Sita and Rama: Myths of Fertility and Generation |journal=Asian Folklore Studies |volume=49 |issue=2 |date=1990 |pages=235–257 |doi=10.2307/1178035 |jstor=1178035 }} The start of the rice planting season is marked in Asian countries including Nepal and Cambodia with a Royal Ploughing Ceremony.{{cite news |title=Cambodia marks beginning of farming season with royal ploughing ceremony |work=Xinhua |date=March 21, 2017 |url=http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2018-05/03/c_137153698.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180503130501/http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2018-05/03/c_137153698.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=May 3, 2018 |language=en |access-date=December 6, 2021}}{{cite web |title=Ceremony Predicts Good Year |website=Khmer Times |date=May 23, 2016 |url=http://www.khmertimeskh.com/24156/ceremony-predicts-good-year/ |access-date=December 6, 2021}}{{cite web |last=Sen |first=S. |title=Ancient royal paddy planting ceremony marked |website=The Himalayan Times |date=July 2, 2019 |url=http://thehimalayantimes.com/nepal/ancient-royal-paddy-planting-ceremony-marked |access-date=December 6, 2021 |archive-date=December 6, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211206222219/https://thehimalayantimes.com/nepal/ancient-royal-paddy-planting-ceremony-marked |url-status=live }}

• Artificial rice
• Direct seeded rice
• List of rice dishes
• Rice Belt

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• {{cite journal |last1=Liu |first1=Wende |last2=Liu |first2=Jinling |last3=Triplett |first3=Lindsay |last4=Leach |first4=Jan E. |last5=Wang |first5=Guo-Liang |title=Novel insights into rice innate immunity against bacterial and fungal pathogens |journal=Annual Review of Phytopathology |volume=52 |issue=1 |pages=213–241 |date=August 4, 2014 |pmid=24906128 |doi=10.1146/annurev-phyto-102313-045926 |publisher=Annual Reviews |s2cid=9244874 |ref=none}}
• {{cite journal |last=Deb |first=D. |title=Restoring Rice Biodiversity |journal=Scientific American |volume=321 |issue=4 |date=October 2019 |pages=54–61 |doi=10.1038/scientificamerican1019-54 |pmid=39010400 |quote=India originally possessed some 110,000 landraces of rice with diverse and valuable properties. These include enrichment in vital nutrients and the ability to withstand flood, drought, salinity or pest infestations. The Green Revolution covered fields with a few high-yielding varieties, so that roughly 90 percent of the landraces vanished from farmers' collections. High-yielding varieties require expensive inputs. They perform abysmally on marginal farms or in adverse environmental conditions, forcing poor farmers into debt. |ref=none}}
• {{cite book |last=Singh |first=B. N. |date=2018 |title=Global Rice Cultivation & Cultivars |url=http://www.studiumpress.in/global-rice-cultivation-cultivars.html |location=New Delhi |publisher=Studium Press |isbn= 978-1-62699-107-1 |access-date=March 14, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180314175208/http://www.studiumpress.in/global-rice-cultivation-cultivars.html |archive-date=March 14, 2018 |url-status=dead |ref=none}}

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{{Varieties of rice}}

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Rice

Category:Crops originating from China

Category:Grasses of Asia

Category:Plant models

Category:Types of food

Category:Tropical agriculture