Russia–Syria relations#1966–2010
{{Infobox bilateral relations|Russia–Syria|Russia|Syria|filetype=svg|mission1=Embassy of Russia, Damascus|mission2=Embassy of Syria, Moscow|flagvariant2=revolution}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2025}}
Russia–Syria relations ({{langx|ru|Российско-сирийские отношения}}; {{langx|ar|العلاقات الروسية السورية}}) are the bilateral relations between Russia and Syria. Russia has an embassy in Damascus and Syria has an embassy in Moscow. Russia enjoys a historically strong, stable, and friendly relationship with Syria, as it did with most countries within the Arab World up until the Arab Spring.[http://www.dailypioneer.com/columnists/item/51047-russia-clings-on-to-last-outpost-in-west-asia.html?tmpl=component&print=1 Russia clings on to last outpost in West Asia]| Pioneer| 3 February 2012 Russia's only Mediterranean naval base for its Black Sea Fleet is located in the Syrian port city of Tartus.[http://www.tnr.com/article/world/100565/syria-symposium-assad-arab-league-intervention contribution to ‘What Should the United States Do About Syria?: A TNR Symposium.’]| Daniel W. Drezner| tnr.com| 9 February 2012 Today the relationship is unclear after Fall of the Assad regime, Russia was allowed to keep their bases in Syria.
Diplomatic relations between the Soviet Union and the First Syrian Republic were established in July 1944, and an agreement was signed in February 1946 ensuring Soviet support for Syrian independence ahead of the evacuation of French troops in April 1946.{{cite journal|last1=Ginat|first1=Rami|title=The Soviet Union and the Syrian Ba'th Regime: From Hesitation to Rapprochement|journal=Middle Eastern Studies|date=Apr 2000|volume=36|issue=2|pages=150–171|doi=10.1080/00263200008701312|s2cid=144922816}} During World War II, both countries found themselves on the Allied side, fighting against the Axis powers.Aron Lund, "From cold war to civil war: 75 years of Russian-Syrian relations." (Swedish Institute of International Affairs, 2019) [https://www.ui.se/globalassets/ui.se-eng/publications/ui-publications/2019/ui-paper-no.-7-2019.pdf online]
In 1971, under an agreement with President Hafez al-Assad, the Soviet Union opened its naval military base in Tartus,International New York Times, 3 October 2015.{{cite book | last1 = Breslauer | first1 = George W. | title = Soviet Strategy in the Middle East | year = 1990 | location = Boston, Massachusetts }} a facility the former Soviet republic continues to use to this day. On 8 October 1980, Syria and the Soviet Union signed a Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation.{{cite book | last1 = Lea | first1 = David | title = A Political Chronology of the Middle East | publisher = Europa Publications | year = 2001 | location = London }} The treaty runs for twenty years and has automatic five-year extensions unless one of the parties terminates the agreement. It provides for regular consultations on bilateral and multilateral issues of interest, coordination of responses in the event of a crisis, and military cooperation,[http://countrystudies.us/syria/68.htm Relations with the Soviet Union] and remains in force to this day. In January 1992, the Syrian government recognized the Russian Federation as the legal successor to the Soviet Union.
Russia in 2011 and 2012 used its veto power in the United Nations Security Council against resolutions promoted by Western and Arab countries with the intention of preventing possible sanctions or military intervention against the Syrian government, and Russia continued supplying large amounts of arms that Syria's government had earlier contracted to buy and which were used to fight Western-backed rebels.{{cite web|url=http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Europe/2012/0119/Why-Russia-is-willing-to-sell-arms-to-Syria|title=Why Russia is willing to sell arms to Syria|first=Fred|last=Weir|work=The Christian Science Monitor|date=19 January 2012|access-date=22 February 2022}} On 30 September 2015, Russia began a military intervention in the Syrian Civil War in support of the Syrian government, consisting of intensive air and cruise missile strikes against several terrorist groups, including ISIS and the Al-Nusra Front (Al-Qaeda's official affiliate in Syria).
In February 2022, the Syrian Foreign Minister Faisal Mekdad announced that Syria supports the decision of its ally Russia to recognise the two breakaway regions of Luhansk and Donetsk in eastern Ukraine.{{Cite news |date=22 February 2022 |title=Syria supports Putin's recognition of Ukraine breakaway regions |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/syria-supports-putins-recognition-ukraine-breakaway-regions-fm-2022-02-22/ |access-date=23 May 2022}} In March 2022, Syria was the only Middle Eastern country (and one of 5 countries in the world) to vote against United Nations General Assembly Resolution ES-11/1, denouncing the Russian invasion of Ukraine and demanding a full withdrawal of Russian forces.{{Cite web |title=The UN Resolution on Ukraine: How Did the Middle East Vote? |url=https://www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/un-resolution-ukraine-how-did-middle-east-vote |access-date=23 May 2022 |website=The Washington Institute |language=en}} On 29 June 2022, Syria announced that it will recognize the "independence and sovereignty" of the two breakaway regions of Luhansk and Donetsk in eastern Ukraine.{{Cite news |title=Syria to recognize Ukraine's Luhansk and Donetsk regions |work=AP News|date=29 June 2022|access-date=24 July 2022|url=https://apnews.com/article/russia-ukraine-middle-east-syria-moscow-c5505e965d7d354b2b1f408385197829}}{{Cite news |date=29 June 2022 |title=Syria recognizes independence, sovereignty of Donetsk, Luhansk -state news agency |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/syria-recognizes-independence-sovereignty-donetsk-luhansk-state-news-agency-2022-06-29/ |access-date=30 June 2022}} On 20 July 2022, Syria announced its formal breaking of diplomatic ties with Ukraine, in response to a similar move by Ukraine.{{Cite news |date=20 July 2022 |title=Syria formally breaks diplomatic ties with Ukraine |work=AP News |url=https://apnews.com/article/russia-ukraine-kyiv-syria-bashar-assad-33546347143be95e2be7b9b602fb1c26 |access-date=20 July 2022}}
When the Assad regime collapsed on 8 December 2024, Assad fled to Russia to seek asylum while Russian troops began to pull back from the country.
History
=Before 1944=
In 1893, the Russian Empire established a consular office in Damascus, then a part of Ottoman Syria.{{cite book | last1 = Kreutz | first1 = Andrej | title = Russia in the Middle East: friend or foe? | publisher = Greenwood Publishing Group | year = 2007 | location = Westport, Connecticut }} Following the October Revolution (1917), and the creation of the Soviet Union (1922), the Russian presence in Syria came to an end, which continued during the French Mandate period (1923−1946). Although the Soviet Union did not play a political role in the region, it did promote the establishment of the Syrian–Lebanese Communist Party in 1924.
=1944–1958=
{{Infobox bilateral relations|Soviet Union–Syria|Soviet Union|First Syrian Republic|flagvariant1=1936|mission1=Embassy of the Soviet Union, Damascus|mission2=Embassy of Syria, Moscow}}
{{Infobox bilateral relations|Soviet Union–Syria|Soviet Union|Ba'athist Syria|mission1=Embassy of the Soviet Union, Damascus|mission2=Embassy of Syria, Moscow|flagvariant2=1963}}
File:Hafez_Assad.ogv (1977)]]
File:USSR 1987 blok 195 3437 0.jpg project, USSR postage stamp, 1987]]
Diplomatic relations between the Soviet Union and Syria were established in July 1944. The Soviet Union commenced to take an interest in the Middle East after the Second World War. The two countries signed a secret agreement on 1 February 1946, with the Soviet envoy to Syria and Lebanon Daniel Solod as a signatory for the USSR, in which the Soviet Union agreed to provide military help in the formation of the Syrian Arab Army and prescribed Soviet diplomatic and political support in the international arena. The Soviet Union demonstrated its commitment to this treaty with Andrey Vyshinsky's 15 February 1946 address to the United Nations Security Council calling for the removal of British and French troops from the country.{{cite journal|last1=Ginat|first1=Rami|title=Soviet Policy towards the Arab World, 1945–48|journal=Middle Eastern Studies|date=Oct 1996|volume=32|issue=4|pages=321–335|doi=10.1080/00263209608701132}} The last French troops were removed from Syria on 17 April 1946. During the Cold War (1947–1991) a stronger political bond developed, and Syria was considered an ally of the Soviet Union in opposition to the Western powers.{{cite news | first = Dmitri | last = Trenin | title = Russia's Line in the Sand on Syria: Why Moscow Wants To Halt the Arab Spring | date = 5 February 2012 | url = http://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/137078/dmitri-trenin/russias-line-in-the-sand-on-syria | work = Foreign Affairs.com | access-date = 15 March 2012}}
In 1949, after the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, Syria experienced a number of military coups and the rise of the Ba'ath Party. Three coups d'état occurred by 1953, ushering in military dictatorships twice in the process. A non-aggression pact was signed on 10 April 1950 further cementing Soviet–Syrian ties. During the Cold War period, each conflict and war that broke out in the Middle East acted as a factor leading Syria to form closer ties with the Soviet Union. Following the military coup d’état of 25 February 1954, the Ba'ath Party came to the fore in Syrian politics.
The West-inspired Baghdad Pact (1955), with its ultimately unsuccessful formation of the Central Treaty Organization, brought Soviet–Syria relations closer diplomatically. In early 1956, Syria made an arms deal with the USSR. After that, in 1956, various teams of Syrians went to the Eastern Bloc countries of Czechoslovakia, Poland, and the USSR for arms, artillery, and Mig-17 training courses for pilots and ground crew. Many Syrian officers and NCOs also underwent courses led by Czechoslovak instructors in Egypt beginning in March 1956, including training for 122-mm cannons, SU-100 anti-tank guns, and T-34 tanks, among other weaponry. Meanwhile, teams from Eastern Bloc countries came to Syria to provide training to the Syrian military.{{Cite web|title=Syria's 1956 Request for Soviet Military Intervention|url=https://www.wilsoncenter.org/publication/syrias-1956-request-for-soviet-military-intervention|access-date=1 September 2020|website=www.wilsoncenter.org|language=en}} Syrians, however, perceived this agreement as a pact against themselves. Indeed, among the consequences of the Baghdad Pact was not only a deepening of Syrian relations with the Soviet Union but also an alignment of Middle Eastern countries into allied satellites of the Eastern and Western blocs.
File:Soviet_Military_Presence_In_and_Near_Syria,_December_1986.png
The response of the Soviet Union to the Suez Crisis (late October 1956) – threatening to use 'destructive weapons' against Britain and France – increased Soviet prestige in the Middle East. The Syrian President, then in the USSR, requested the Soviet government to intervene and send its pilots to increase the morale of the Arabs. Syrian Foreign Minister, in a talk with Soviet Foreign Minister, even requested the Soviet Union to deploy two squadron of planes along with their pilots after the Suez Crisis.{{Cite web|title=Syria's 1956 Request for Soviet Military Intervention|url=https://www.wilsoncenter.org/publication/syrias-1956-request-for-soviet-military-intervention|access-date=2 September 2020|website=www.wilsoncenter.org|language=en}}
Soviet aid to Syria accelerated and included military and economic agreements. Between 1955 and 1958, Syria received about $294 million from the Soviet Union for military and economic assistance. Simultaneously, the Ba'ath Party in Syria increased its power and influence, culminating in the 1963 military coup which established a one-party Ba'athist state in Syria.A History of the Middle East, Peter Mansfield, Penguin, 2010, 3rd ed., p. 293 {{ISBN|978-0-718-19231-0}} The far-left neo-Ba'athist factions that dominated the Syrian Ba'ath pursued close alliance with Soviet Union. Following the Sixth National Congress in 1963, the party publicly adopted the doctrine of ideological alliance with the Socialist Bloc:
"The Arab Socialist Ba'th Party had placed the question of the struggle against imperialism in its international and human framework and considered the socialist camp a positive, active force in the struggle against imperialism... a homeland crushed and exploited by imperialism render the fundamental starting points of the socialist camp more harmonious with the interests of our Arab homeland and more in sympathy with our Arab people."{{Cite journal |last=Ginat |first=Rami |date=April 2000 |title=The Soviet Union and the Syrian Ba'th regime: From hesitation to Rapprochement |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4284075 |journal=Middle Eastern Studies |volume=36 |issue=2 |pages=150–171 |doi=10.1080/00263200008701312 |jstor=4284075 |s2cid=144922816 |url-access=subscription }}
=1966–2010=
{{Infobox bilateral relations|Russia–Ba'athist Syria|Russia|Ba'athist Syria|filetype=svg|mission1=Embassy of Russia, Damascus|mission2=Embassy of Syria, Moscow}}
File:Dmitry Medvedev 21 August 2008-1.jpg Dmitry Medvedev whilst on a visit to Sochi in August 2008.]]
File:Dmitry Medvedev in Syria 10 May 2010-2.jpeg on 10 May 2010]]
The Syrian coup d'état of February 1966 gave the Soviet Union the opportunity to further support Syria. A new coup d’état in 1970, called the Corrective Movement, brought Hafez al-Assad to power in Syria on 13 November 1970.[http://www.erjournal.ru/journals_n/1354741741.pdf Historical Background and the Present State of the Russian-Syrian Relations]
In 1971, under an agreement with President Hafez al-Assad, the Soviet Union was allowed to open its naval military base in Tartus, giving the Soviet Union a stable presence in the Middle East. Thousands of Syrian military officers and educated professionals studied in Russia during al-Assad's presidency (1971–2000).{{cite web |last1= Peel |first1= Michael |last2= Clover |first2= Charles |date= 9 July 2012 |title= Syria and Russia's 'special relationship' |url= http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/e64a3076-c9b2-11e1-a5e2-00144feabdc0.html |work= Financial Times |access-date= 11 July 2012 }}
During the Yom Kippur War, thousands of Soviet advisors and technicians assisted the Syrian army, and 20 are believed to have died. 3,750 tonnes of aid was airlifted during the war to Syria. At the end of October 1973, the Soviet Union sealifted 63,000 tonnes, mainly to Syria to replace its losses during the war.
Nevertheless, relations with Syria became strained in 1976, as the Soviets were displeased by Assad's military involvement in Lebanon. A rift between the countries emerged, as the Soviets worried about a high risk of confrontation between the Palestinian Liberation Organization and the Assad regime, which were both Moscow clients. Indeed, the Soviet Union had promptly offered its resources both to Syria and to the PLO and did not approve the possibility of seeing two of its commercial partners confronting themselves on the ground, despite the existing hostility between Hafez al Assad and the PLO's leader Yasser Arafat. The Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev's request for the retreat was accommodated not without agitation. Moscow had frozen weapons supplies, whereas Syria had denied Soviets the access to its naval bases. It took more than two years to see a thaw in Syrian-Soviet relations when the Arab country went through dire economic conditions and turned to Moscow for help. Again, Assad's main concern was represented by Israel. Indeed, the peace sought and achieved with Egypt posed the Jewish State to exercise more pressure on Syria. These conditions created solid grounds for further closeness to the Soviets.{{cite journal |last1=Lund |first1=Aron |title=From cold war to civil war: 75 years of Russian-Syrian relations |journal=Swedish Institute of International Affairs |date=2019}}{{cite journal |last1=Ginat |first1=Rami |title=The Soviet Union and the Syrian Ba'th regime: from hesitation to rapprochement |journal=Middle Eastern Studies |date=2000 |volume=36 |issue=2 |pages=150–171|doi=10.1080/00263200008701312 |s2cid=144922816 }}
In April 1977, Hafez al-Assad visited Moscow and met with Soviet leaders Leonid Brezhnev and Alexei Kosygin among others, as a sign of improved Syrian relations with the USSR. Relevantly, Assad distanced himself from the widespread Arab opinion denouncing the 1979 Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. On the contrary, he refused to condemn the act and tightened its relationship with Moscow. In October 1980, Syria and the Soviet Union signed a twenty-year Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation. Throughout the 1980s, till the end of Cold War, thousands of Soviet military personnel were present in Syria, and the bulk of Syrian weapons came from the USSR and its allies North Korea, East Germany, Hungary, Czechoslovakia and Poland.
Between 27 and 29 April 1987, Syrian President Hafez al-Assad, along with the Defense Minister Mustafa Tlass and Vice President Abdul Halim Khaddam, visited the Soviet Union, when he asked to acquire the S-300 missile system, but Mikhail Gorbachev refused to deliver, due to U.S. and Israeli rejection and Syrian accumulated debt from previous arms deals. On 6 July 1999, Assad visited Moscow to finalize an arms deal worth $2 billion.
Syria recognized the newly formed Russian Federation on 26 December 1991 after the dissolution of the Soviet Union.
Hafez al-Assad died on 10 June 2000 and was succeeded on 10 July 2000 by his son Bashar al-Assad, who was elected President by referendum in which he ran unopposed, garnering 97.29% of the vote.{{cite web|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-vote-opposition-idUSOWE75174320070517|title=Syria's opposition boycotts vote on Assad|work=Reuters|date=17 May 2007|accessdate=7 March 2021}}
File:Vladimir Putin in Syria (2020-01-07) 22.jpg
On 10 May 2010, Dmitry Medvedev became the first Russian president to visit Syria.{{cite web|url=http://kremlin.ru/events/president/trips/by-date/10.05.2010|title=Официальный визит в Сирию|website=Kremlin|language=ru|date=10 May 2010}}
=Syrian Civil War (2011–present)=
{{main|Russian intervention in the Syrian civil war}}
During the Syrian civil war which began in 2011, Russia with China in February 2012 voted against a formal UN Security Council condemnation of the Bashar al-Assad government for alleged attacks on civilians in the city of Homs.
In September 2018, Russia announced free military education for Syrian children, with enrolment being on a competitive basis and candidates being chosen by Syria.{{Cite web |title=Syrian children to study at Russian cadet schools for free |url=https://tass.com/politics/1028547 |access-date=3 December 2024 |website=TASS}} The decision was implemented on 20 October 2018. The first batch of 8 Syrian children reached St. Petersburg in August.{{Cite web |title=Syrian children to study at Russian cadet schools for free |url=https://tass.com/politics/1028547 |access-date=9 December 2024 |website=TASS}}{{Cite web |last=Rogers |first=Imogen |date=3 September 2024 |title=Russia introduces military training for children as young as 15 as school year starts |url=https://www.forcesnews.com/services/army/mod-russia-introduces-military-training-children-young-15 |access-date=9 December 2024 |website=www.forcesnews.com |language=en}}
On 30 November, a new rebel coalition, spearheaded by the militant group Hayat Tahrir al-Sham (HTS), carried out a surprise attack, across Syria over 11 days, sweeping through major cities on the way to conquer Syria and overthrowing Assad regime. This significant development faced minimal resistance from the Syrian army.{{Cite web |first1=Rob |last1=Picheta |first2=Helen |last2=Regan |date=9 December 2024 |title=After decades of brutal rule, Bashar al-Assad’s regime has been toppled. Here’s what we know |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2024/12/09/middleeast/syria-assad-rebels-explainer-intl-hnk/index.html |access-date=10 December 2024 |website=CNN |language=en}}
File:Khmeimim_Air_Base_after_Assad's_Fall.png torn down by Russian soldiers, 18 December 2024]]
At first, the rebels took control of Syria's largest city Aleppo. The seismic move made Syrian and Russian jets struck rebel forces in Aleppo and Idlib, but opposition groups captured a second key city, Hama, and swiftly moved toward Homs, which serves as the gateway to the capital, Damascus. As Homs fell, rebels encircled and marched into Damascus.
=Post-Assad Regime=
On 8 December, Bashar al-Assad fled to Moscow and was granted political asylum by the Russian government.{{cite web |last=Gritten |first=David |date=8 December 2024 |title=Bashar al-Assad and family given asylum in Moscow, Russian media say |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cqx89reeevgo |access-date=9 December 2024 |work=BBC News}} On 9 December, the Syrian embassy in Russia raised the new opposition flag.{{cite web |author=Burc Eruygur |date=9 December 2024 |title=Syria's revolutionary flag raised over embassy in Moscow, says media |url=https://www.aa.com.tr/en/asia-pacific/syrias-revolutionary-flag-raised-over-embassy-in-moscow-says-media/3419112 |website=Anadolu Agency}} Although the Russian troops began to pull out of Syria, much of the equipment was relocated to Libya while the future of the bases located in Syria were not under current discussion.{{cite news |last1=Gumrukcu |first1=Tuvan |last2=Al-Khalidi |first2=Suleiman |last3=Faulconbridge |first3=Guy |date=14 December 2024 |title=Russia pulling back but not out of Syria, sources say |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/russia-pulling-back-not-out-syria-sources-say-2024-12-14/ |url-access=limited |access-date=31 December 2024 |publisher=Reuters}} On 29 December, HTS leader Ahmed al-Sharaa said Syria and Russia share strategic interests, and that "We do not want Russia to depart in a manner unbefitting its longstanding relationship with our country". He added that Syria's weapons were from Russia, and many power plants were managed by Russians, and that Syria did not want Russia to leave in the way that some wish.{{cite news |date=30 December 2024 |title=Syria's de facto leader outlines future ties with Russia, regional powers |url=https://www.chinadailyasia.com/hk/article/601255 |access-date=31 December 2024 |website=China Daily |agency=Xinhua}}{{cite news |date=29 December 2024 |title=Syria's De Facto Leader Wants To Maintain 'Respectful' Ties With Iran, Russia |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/syria-russia-iran-sharaa-trump-assad/33257139.html |access-date=1 January 2025 |publisher=Radio Free Europe}}
On 28 January 2025, Syrian de facto leader Ahmed al-Sharaa told Syrian diplomats that Damascus sought the extradition of Syria's former president, Bashar-al Assad.{{Cite web |last=Шрамченко |first=Антон |date=29 January 2025 |title=New Syrian government demands compensation and extradition of Assad from Russia |url=https://uatv.ua/en/new-syrian-government-demands-compensation-and-extradition-of-assad-from-russia/ |access-date=6 February 2025 |website=Freedom |language=en-US}}{{Cite web |date=29 January 2025 |title=Kremlin refuses to comment on report Syria asked for Assad to be extradited |url=https://www.politico.eu/article/russia-refuses-comment-report-syria-bashar-assad-extradition/ |access-date=6 February 2025 |website=POLITICO |language=en-GB}}{{Cite web |last=i24NEWS |date=29 January 2025 |title=Syria's new government demands Russia extradite Bashar al-Assad |url=https://www.i24news.tv/en/news/middle-east/levant-turkey/artc-syria-s-new-government-demands-russia-extradite-bashar-al-assad |access-date=6 February 2025 |website=i24NEWS |language=en}} On 29 January, a Russian delegation led by Deputy Foreign Minister Mikhail Bogdanov visited Damascus to meet Ahmed al-Sharaa, reaffirming Moscow's support for Syria's sovereignty and territorial integrity following the fall of the Assad regime.{{cite web |url=https://www.dailysabah.com/world/mid-east/russian-delegation-backs-syrias-integrity-during-damascus-visit |title=Russian delegation backs Syria's integrity during Damascus visit |publisher=Daily Sabah |date=29 January 2025 }} On 12 February, Syrian President al-Sharaa held a phone call with Russian president Vladimir Putin, in what was the latter's first contact with a Syrian head of state since Assad' overthrow.{{Cite web |date=12 February 2025 |title=Syria’s leader, Russia’s Putin make first contact since al-Assad’s fall |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2025/2/12/syrias-leader-russias-putin-make-first-contact-since-al-assads-fall |access-date=13 February 2025 |website=Al Jazeera |language=en}}{{cite news |title=Russia gambles to keep military bases in post-Assad Syria |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/russia-gambles-keep-military-bases-post-assad-syria-2025-03-02/ |last1=Nakhoul |first1=Samia |last2=Azhari |first2=Timour |publisher=Reuters |url-access=limited |date=2 March 2025 |access-date=5 May 2025}}
In February 2025, former rebel forces now part of the ruling Hayat Tahrir al-Sham Islamist government, controlled access to Russia’s Hmeimim Air Base and Tartous Naval Base. Syria’s new leadership seeks to renegotiate Russia’s long-term base leases for financial and diplomatic benefits.{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2025/02/06/syria-defense-minister-russia-bases/ |title=Syria could allow Russia to keep its bases, new defense minister says |last1=Morris |first1=Loveday |last2=Zakaria |first2=Zakaria |newspaper=Washington Post |date=6 February 2025 |access-date=5 May 2025}} Kremlin spokesman Dmitry Peskov confirmed ongoing negotiations over Russian military bases in Syria. Russia remains reluctant to abandon its strategic Mediterranean foothold, while Syria demands financial concessions and the repatriation of funds allegedly deposited in Moscow by Assad’s regime.
In March 2025, diplomatic talks between Russian and Syrian officials revealed Syria’s intent to restructure its $20-23 billion foreign debt, much of it owed to Russia. Moscow is unlikely to forgive these loans but may offer humanitarian aid instead. Meanwhile, Assad’s fate remains uncertain, with Russia refusing extradition despite Syrian calls for accountability. Syrian Alawite civilians and their families fled to Russia’s Khmeimim Air Base to seek refuge during clashes in western Syria in March 2025.{{cite news |title=Fighting continues as Syria’s president calls on Alawite to lay down arms |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2025/3/8/fighting-continues-as-syrias-president-calls-on-alawite-to-lay-down-arms |work=Al Jazeera |date=8 March 2025}}
Also in March 2025, Russian President Vladimir Putin expressed support for Syrian President Ahmed al-Sharaa, emphasizing Russia's commitment to Syria's sovereignty, independence, and territorial integrity. Putin offered practical cooperation on a range of issues to strengthen the historically friendly relations. Russia has continued to secure its key military bases in Syria, such as the Hmeimim airbase and the Tartous naval facility, despite withdrawing forces from some front-line positions in the north.{{Cite web |last=Faulconbridge |first=Guy |date=20 March 2025 |title=Putin offers Syria's Sharaa support and cooperation |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/putin-offers-cooperation-syrian-leader-backs-efforts-stabilise-country-2025-03-20/ |access-date=24 March 2025 |website=Reuters}}
Military cooperation
=Russian air base in Palmyra=
Russia had in 2013 an airbase in Palmyra (Tadmur).{{cite news|url=http://www.ansamed.info/ansamed/en/news/nations/syria/2013/01/25/Syria-Russia-evacuates-nationals-remains-close-Assad_8136864.html|title=Syria: Russia evacuates nationals, remains close to Assad|date=25 January 2013|publisher=ANSAmed|access-date=27 January 2013|location=Beirut|archive-date=28 January 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130128080829/http://www.ansamed.info/ansamed/en/news/nations/syria/2013/01/25/Syria-Russia-evacuates-nationals-remains-close-Assad_8136864.html|url-status=dead}}
=Russian air base at Latakia=
In 2015 Russia established the Khmeimim Air Base at Latakia.
=Secret Russian spy bases=
{{main|Center S}}
The journal Jane's Defence Weekly in 2006 assumed two secret, joint, Russian–Syrian signals intelligence ‘spy’ posts to exist within Syria.
The biggest Russian electronic ‘eavesdropping post’ outside Russian territory was in 2012 established in Latakia.{{cite news|title=Russian military presence in Syria poses challenge to US-led intervention|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/dec/23/syria-crisis-russian-military-presence|access-date=15 October 2015|newspaper=The Guardian|date=23 December 2012|first=Julian|last=Borger}}
Another signals intelligence base, "Center S" ("Центр С" in Cyrillic script), jointly operated by the Russian OSNAZ GRU radio electronic intelligence agency and a Syrian intelligence agency, situated near Al-Harra in Syria close to the Israeli-occupied Golan Heights, was on 5 October 2014 captured by Free Syrian Army rebels during the 2014 Daraa offensive{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/russia/11148857/Russian-spy-base-in-Syria-used-to-monitor-rebels-and-Israel-seized.html |title=Russian spy base in Syria used to monitor rebels and Israel seized|date=8 October 2014|newspaper=Telegraph.co.uk|first=Inna|last=Lazareva|access-date=14 October 2015}}{{cite web | url=http://spioenkop.blogspot.nl/2014/10/captured-russian-spy-facility-reveals.html | title=Captured Russian spy facility reveals the extent of Russian aid to the Assad regime | date=6 October 2014|work=spioenkop | access-date=15 October 2015}} before it was recaptured by SAA during 2018 Southern Syria offensive.
=Syria's air defence with Russian equipment=
After the 2007 Israeli Operation Orchard airstrikes on an alleged nuclear reactor at al-Kibar in Deir ez-Zor Governorate, and again after the March 2011 Syrian protests, Syria's air defences have been bolstered with Russian upgrades—which the Russians have repeatedly denied. According to Western experts, the Russians delivered Buk-M2 and Pantsir-S1 (also known as SA-22) mobile missile launch and radar systems. While the Syrians were not capable of using such equipment to its full capacity, the Russians also helped man the crews and train the crews. As of late 2012, Syria's air-defence command force comprised thousands of anti-aircraft guns, 130 anti-aircraft missile batteries, and an estimated 50,000 troops, and was qualified by The Guardian as "robust".
=2015 Russian military intervention=
{{main|Russian intervention in the Syrian civil war|Russia–Syria–Iran–Iraq coalition}}
File:Bashar al-Assad and Sergey Shoigu (2022-02-15) 04.jpg Sergei Shoigu, February 2022]]
File:International Mine Action Center in Syria (Aleppo) 04.jpg during the Syrian civil war, December 2016]]
On 30 September 2015, Russia began a military intervention in the Syrian Civil War in support of Bashar al-Assad's government, consisting of air strikes against Syrians who opposed the government. In addition, ISIS and Assad's forces fought against opposition groups (FSA). With Vladimir Putin's support, Assad's troops were fighting the Free Syrian Army throughout the country.{{cite news |url=http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Europe/2015/1014/Why-isn-t-Russia-singling-out-ISIS-in-Syria-Because-it-never-said-it-would |title=Why isn't Russia singling out ISIS in Syria? Because it never said it would |first=Fred|last=Weir |newspaper=Christian Science Monitor |date=14 October 2015 |access-date=17 October 2015}} Expressing Russian, Iranian, and Syrian support for each other, the Chairman of the Iranian parliament's, (aka Islamic Consultative Assembly or Majlis) National Security and Foreign Policy Committee – Heshmat-Allah Falahat Pishe – stated during an interview on Russia Today TV on 1 February 2019: "Russian, Iranian, and Syrian soldiers shed their blood together in Syria. ... I do now know why the Russians hesitate to say that our relationship is strategic. We have fought together and Russia is under American sanctions, just like us. In order to deal with that, we expect more cooperation from the Russian side."{{cite news |title=Iranian MP asks Russia to activate S-300s during Israeli strikes |url=http://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/News.aspx/258592 |access-date=4 February 2019 |agency=Arutz Sheva 7 |date=4 February 2019}}
In May 2019, The Moscow Times reported that "Fifty-five percent of Russian respondents say their country should end its military campaign in Syria, up from 49 percent in August 2017, according to a poll published by Levada".{{cite news |title=Fewer Than Half of Russians Support Syria Campaign, Poll Says |url=https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2019/05/06/fewer-than-half-of-russians-support-syria-campaign-poll-says-a65494 |work=The Moscow Times |date=6 May 2019}}
During the Northwestern Syrian offensive in 2024, the Russian Air Force conducted airstrikes in support of Assad's regime, bombing civilian targets in the Idlib and Hama regions,{{Cite web |title=More Russian strikes as Syrian rebels advance after taking Aleppo |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/czr7rkzz2gmo |work=BBC News}}{{Cite web |title=At least 25 killed as Russian, Syrian jets intensify bombing of Syrian rebel territory |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/least-25-killed-russian-syrian-jets-intensify-bombing-syrian-rebel-territory-2024-12-02/ |website=Reuters}} specifically urban neighbourhoods and refugee camps, including Morek, Khan Sheikhoun, Kafranbel, Hazarin, and Tal Kawkabah.{{Cite web |last=السوري |first=المرصد |date=1 December 2024 |title=الطيران الحربي الروسي يشن غارات جوية على مدن وبلدات بريفي حماة وإدلب {{!}} المرصد السوري لحقوق الإنسان |url=https://www.syriahr.com/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B7%D9%8A%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%B1%D8%A8%D9%8A-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B3%D9%8A-%D9%8A%D8%B4%D9%86-%D8%BA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA-%D8%AC%D9%88%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D8%B9-5/738560/ |website=syriahr.com |access-date=3 December 2024 |language=ar}} At least 50 people are reported to have been killed by the airstrikes.{{Cite web |title=مجزرتان ارتكبتهما الطائرات الروسية.. مقتل واستشهاد 49 شخصا بينهم 17 من قوات النظام {{!}} المرصد السوري لحقوق الإنسان |url=https://www.syriahr.com/%D9%85%D8%AC%D9%80-%D9%80%D8%B2-%D8%B1-%D8%AA%D9%80-%D9%80%D8%A7%D9%86-%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AA%D9%83%D8%A8%D8%AA%D9%87%D9%85%D8%A7-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B7%D8%A7%D8%A6%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1%D9%88/738644/ |website=syriahr.com}} After a phone conversation between Iranian and Russian presidents, the Kremlin released a statement that "Unconditional support was expressed for the actions of the legitimate authorities of Syria to restore constitutional order and the territorial integrity of the country".{{Cite news |title=Syrian forces regroup with Russia, Iran's help after rebel advance |newspaper=The Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2024/12/02/syria-rebels-russia-iran-assad/|first=Susannah|last=George|date=2 December 2024|access-date=12 December 2024}}
=Russian invasion of Ukraine=
In May 2022, The Guardian reported that 50 Syrian specialists skilled in making and delivering barrel bombs have been in Russia for several weeks working alongside officials from the Russian military to help potentially deliver a bombing campaign similar to the Syrian barrel bomb campaign.{{Cite news |last=Chulov |first=Martin |date=22 May 2022 |title=Syria's barrel bomb experts in Russia to help with potential Ukraine campaign |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/may/22/syrias-barrel-bomb-experts-in-russia-to-help-with-potential-ukraine-campaign}}
=Joint military exercises=
Syria and Russia regularly conduct joint military drills. In February 2022, the two countries conducted drills a week before Russia began its invasion of Ukraine. In June 2022, the Syrian and Russian air forces conducted drills over different parts of the country including the edge of the Golan Heights. In October 2022, Syrian state media reported that Syrian and Russian troops had conducted military drills simulating attacking enemy positions.{{Cite news |title=Syrian and Russian troops conduct joint drills in Syria |language=en-US |newspaper=Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/syrian-and-russian-troops-conduct-joint-drills-in-syria/2022/10/26/58843bf2-5565-11ed-ac8b-08bbfab1c5a5_story.html |access-date=28 October 2022 |issn=0190-8286}}
= Intervention in the Northwestern Syrian offensive =
{{Main|2024 Syrian opposition offensives}}
In December 2024, during the Northwestern Syrian offensive in 2024, the Russian Air Force conducted airstrikes in support of Assad's regime, bombing civilian targets in the Idlib and Hama regions, specifically urban neighbourhoods and refugee camps, including Morek, Khan Shaykhun, Kafr Nabl, Hazarin, and Tal Kawkabah. At least 50 people are reported to have been killed by the airstrikes. After a phone conversation between Iranian and Russian presidents, the Kremlin released a statement that "Unconditional support was expressed for the actions of the legitimate authorities of Syria to restore constitutional order and the territorial integrity of the country".
Economic relations
Russia has significant economic interests in Syria. Its investments in the country were valued at $19.4 billion in 2009, according to "The Moscow Times", and its exports to Syria were worth $1.1 billion in 2010.{{cite web|title=Syria: EU Bilateral Trade and Trade with the World|url=http://trade.ec.europa.eu/doclib/docs/2006/september/tradoc_113451.pdf|publisher=European Commission|access-date=18 September 2011|archive-date=1 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170801235525/http://trade.ec.europa.eu/doclib/docs/2006/september/tradoc_113451.pdf|url-status=dead}}
=Arms sales=
The Soviet Union's military sales to Syria in the 1970s and 80s accounted for 90% of all Syrian military arms imports, according to a United States Congressional Research Service Report released in 2008.{{citation | first = Jeremy M. | last = Sharp | contribution = Syria: Background and U.S. Relations | title = CRS Report for Congress | place = Washington, DC | date = 1 May 2008 }} The report noted that Syria purchased several billions of dollars' worth of military equipment from the Soviets, including SS-21 "Scarab" short-range missiles (range 70 km).
After the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, Syria found itself deprived of arms imports but continued to seek them through former Soviet satellite states. The establishment of the Russian Federation in 1992 saw the re-introduction of the patron-vendor relationship and the cancellation of almost 73% of Syria's debt. According to reports, 2.4% of Russia's total exports come from defense-related sales.{{cite news | first = Henry | last = Meyer | title = Putin Pins Hope on Syria Cease-Fire to Combat U.S. Supremacy | date = 20 April 2012 | url = http://www.teamsoldier.com/ | work = Team Soldier | access-date = 3 November 2015 | archive-date = 4 November 2017 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20171104222936/http://www.teamsoldier.com/ | url-status = dead }}
From 2000 to 2010, Russia sold around $1.5 billion worth of arms to Syria, making Damascus Moscow's seventh-largest client, according to Dmitri Trenin in the New York Times.{{cite news|last=Trenins|first=Dmitri|title=Why Russia Supports Assad |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/10/opinion/why-russia-supports-assad.html?_r=2&partner=rss&emc=rss|access-date=9 February 2012|newspaper=New York Times |date=9 February 2012}}
In 2008, Syria agreed to purchase modern weapons including modern anti-tank and anti-air missile systems from Russia, including MiG-29SMT fighters, Pantsir S1E air-defense systems, Iskander tactical missile systems, Yak-130 aircraft, and two Amur-1650 submarines. Russia's foreign minister Sergei Lavrov said his country's sale of weapons to Syria would not upset the balance of power in the Middle East. The sales he stated are "in line with the international law" and "in the interests of strengthening stability and maintaining security" in regions close to Russian borders, Lavrov told reporters.[http://www.upi.com/Top_News/2008/09/29/Russia_defends_arms_sales_to_Syria/UPI-28611222726785/ ‘Russia defends arms sales to Syria’]. UPI.com, 29 September 2008.
During the 2011 Syrian uprising Russia allegedly shipped arms to Assad's government for use against rebels.{{cite web|last=Barry |first=Anya |url=http://www.fpif.org/articles/adding_fuel_to_syrias_fire |title=Adding Fuel to Syria's Fire |publisher=FPIF |date=9 February 2012 |access-date=16 February 2012}}
Syria's arms contracts with Russia in 2011 and 2012 amounted to $687 million, according to the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI).{{cite web|title=SIPRI Arms Transfers Database|url=http://armstrade.sipri.org/armstrade/page/values.php|publisher=Stockholm International Peace Research Institute|access-date=17 November 2013|archive-date=25 November 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151125105813/http://armstrade.sipri.org/armstrade/page/values.php|url-status=dead}} But according to The Moscow Times, Russia and Syria had in 2011 well over $4 billion in active arms contracts.
=Other economic sectors=
Russian firms in 2011 had a substantial presence in Syria's infrastructure, energy, and tourism industries. Stroitransgaz, a natural gas facility construction company, has the largest Russian operation in Syria. In 2010, it was involved in projects worth $1.1 billion and had a staff of 80 Russians working in Syria. Stroitransgaz is building a natural gas processing plant 200 kilometers east of Homs in the Raqqa region and is involved in technical support for the construction of the Arab Gas Pipeline. Tatneft is the most significant Russian energy firm in Syria. The company began in 2010 through a joint venture with the Syrian national oil company to pump Syrian oil and it planned to spend $12 million on exploratory wells near the Iraqi border.{{cite news|last=Amos|first=Howard|title=Billions of Dollars of Russian Business Suffers Along With Syria|url=http://www.themoscowtimes.com/business/article/billions-of-dollars-of-russian-business-suffers-along-with-syria/443078.html|access-date=17 September 2011|newspaper=The Moscow Times |date=2 September 2011}} Other firms with large business interests in Syria include steel pipe manufacturer TMK, gas producer ITERA, and national carrier Aeroflot.{{cite news|last=Amos|first=Howard|title=News Analysis: Russia Damages Image in Arab Spring|url=http://www.themoscowtimes.com/business/article/news-analysis-russia-damages-image-in-arab-spring/442712.html|access-date=17 September 2011|newspaper=The Moscow Times|date=26 August 2011}}
= Trade relations =
In recent years, Russia has emerged as a vital supplier of essential commodities to Syria, including wheat, which is crucial for Syria's food security, and steel, pivotal for reconstruction efforts. The export basket also includes a variety of industrial goods, pharmaceutical products, and technology.{{Cite web |last=Briefing |first=Middle East |date=13 November 2023 |title=Syria and Russia: The 2023-24 Trade and Investment Dynamics |url=https://www.middleeastbriefing.com/news/syria-and-russia-the-2023-24-trade-and-investment-dynamics/ |access-date=25 March 2024 |website=Middle East Briefing}}
Syria's exports to Russia traditionally include agricultural products, textiles, and minerals. These exports are vital for Syria's economy, providing essential revenue streams and supporting the livelihoods of those involved in the agricultural and mining sectors. The trade dynamics between the two countries reflect a synergistic relationship that benefits both economies.
In 2025, Russia increasingly supported Syria’s economy, such as through printing the Syrian pound under a multi-million dollar contract following European sanctions on Syria.{{Cite web |title=Syria gets new cash shipment from Russia in sign of warming ties |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/syria-gets-new-cash-shipment-russia-sign-warming-ties-2025-03-06/}}
On 14 February 2025, it was reported that the new Syrian government through the Syrian Central Bank received an huge amount of Syrian pounds from the Russian government via Damascus International Airport.{{cite web|title=Syrian Central Bank confirms arrival of Syrian pounds from Russia, denies inaccurate claims|url=https://www.aa.com.tr/en/europe/syrian-central-bank-confirms-arrival-of-syrian-pounds-from-russia-denies-inaccurate-claims/3482430|date= 14 February 2025}}
On 6 March 2025, it was reported that Russia has again shipped Syrian pounds in cash to Syria via Damascus International Airport{{Cite web |title=Syria gets new cash shipment from Russia in sign of warming ties |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/syria-gets-new-cash-shipment-russia-sign-warming-ties-2025-03-06/}}
See also
References
{{Reflist|30em}}
Further reading
- {{cite journal |title=Russia and Syria: Explaining Alignment with a Regime in Crisis |first=Roy |last=Allison |year=2013 |doi=10.1111/1468-2346.12046 |journal=International Affairs |volume=89 |issue=4 |pages=795–823 |s2cid=154221279 |doi-access= }} [https://academic.oup.com/ia/article-pdf/89/4/795/19401675/1468-2346.12046.pdf online]
- Allison, Roy. Russia, the West and military intervention (Oxford University Press, 2013)
- Averre, Derek, and Lance Davies. "Russia, humanitarian intervention and the Responsibility to Protect: the case of Syria." International Affairs 91.4 (2015): 813–834. [https://www.academia.edu/download/51469411/inta12343.pdf online]{{dead link|date=January 2025|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}
- Baev, Pavel K. "Russia as opportunist or spoiler in the Middle East?." International Spectator 50.2 (2015): 8–21. [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/03932729.2015.1019250 online]
- Crosston, Matthew D. "Cold War and Ayatollah residues: Syria as a chessboard for Russia, Iran, and the United States." Strategic Studies Quarterly 8.4 (2014): 94–111. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/26270818.pdf online]
- Lund, Aron. "From cold war to civil war: 75 years of Russian-Syrian relations." (Swedish Institute of International Affairs, 2019). [https://www.ui.se/globalassets/ui.se-eng/publications/ui-publications/2019/ui-paper-no.-7-2019.pdf online]
- Phillips, Christopher. The battle for Syria (Yale University Press, 2020).
- Pieper, Moritz. "‘Rising Power’ Status and the Evolution of International Order: Conceptualising Russia's Syria Policies." Europe-Asia Studies 71.3 (2019): 365–387. [http://usir.salford.ac.uk/id/eprint/44732/3/EAS%20MPieper%20accepted%20version%2012_17.pdf online]
- Souleimanov, Emil Aslan, and Valery Dzutsati. "Russia's Syria War: A Strategic Trap?" Middle East Policy 25.2 (2018): 42–50. [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Valery-Dzutsati/publication/325566219_Russia's_Syria_War_A_Strategic_Trap/links/5f839a8492851c14bcc1384a/Russias-Syria-War-A-Strategic-Trap.pdf online]
- Trenin, Dmitri. What Is Russia Up to in the Middle East? (Polity Press, 2018).
- Van Dam, Nikolaos. The Struggle for Power in Syria: Politics and Society under Asad and the Ba’th (I.B. Tauris, 4th ed., 2011)
- Van Dam, Nikolaos. Destroying a Nation: The Civil War in Syria (I.B. Tauris, 2017)
- Vasiliev, Alexey. Russia's Middle East Policy: From Lenin to Putin (Routledge, 2018).
External links
{{commons category|Relations of Russia and Syria}}
- {{in lang|ar|en|ru}} [http://www.ruemsy.org.ru/ Embassy of Russia in Damascus] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160403235930/http://ruemsy.org.ru/ |date=3 April 2016 }}
{{Foreign relations of Russia|Asia}}
{{Foreign relations of Syria}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Russia-Syria relations}}