Water landing#In distress
{{Short description|Aircraft landing intentionally on a body of water}}
{{Distinguish|Landing (water transport)|Splashdown}}
{{Redirect|Ditching|the intentional absence from school|Truancy}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2019}}
File:8Q-MAI (16252881394).jpg float plane completing a water landing]]
In aviation, a water landing is, in the broadest sense, an aircraft landing on a body of water. Seaplanes, such as floatplanes and flying boats, land on water as a normal operation. Ditching{{Cite web | url=https://www.caa.co.uk/media/a2zoddyt/safetysense_21-ditching.pdf | title=Ditching light aircraft on Water | website=www.caa.co.uk | access-date=2024-08-18}} is a controlled emergency landing on the water surface in an aircraft not designed for the purpose, and it is a very rare occurrence.{{cite web |url= https://www.ntsb.gov/aviation/codman.htm|title= NTSB Aviation Coding Manual |access-date= 29 January 2012|last= National Transportation Safety Board|author-link= National Transportation Safety Board|date= December 1998 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110604115910/https://www.ntsb.gov/aviation/codman.htm |archive-date= 4 June 2011}} Controlled flight into the surface and uncontrolled flight ending in a body of water (including a runway excursion into water) are generally not considered water landings or ditching, but are considered accidents.{{Cite web|title=Jet Airliner Ditching Events|url=http://www.airsafe.com/events/ditch.htm|access-date=2021-07-09|website=www.airsafe.com|archive-date=29 April 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060429085354/http://www.airsafe.com/events/ditch.htm|url-status=live}} Most times, ditching results in aircraft structural failure.
Aircraft water landings
=By design=
File:Apollo 15 descends to splashdown.jpg capsule descends under two of three parachutes.]]
Seaplanes, flying boats, and amphibious aircraft are designed to take off and alight on water. Alighting can be supported by a hull-shaped fuselage and/or pontoons. The availability of a long effective runway was historically important on lifting size restrictions on aircraft, and their freedom from constructed strips remains useful for transportation to lakes and other remote areas. The ability to loiter on water is also important for marine rescue operations and fire fighting. One disadvantage of water alighting is that it is dangerous in the presence of waves. Furthermore, the necessary equipment compromises the craft's aerodynamic efficiency and speed.{{Cite web |date=October 28, 2024 |title=Making a Splash |url=https://www.aerosociety.com/news/making-a-splash/ |access-date=October 28, 2024 |website=British Aeronautical Society}}{{Cite web |date=October 28, 2024 |title=Amphibious {{sic|nolink=yes|Aircrafts}} |url=https://c3.ndc.nasa.gov/dashlink/static/media/other/AMPHIBIOUS_AIRCRAFT.pdf |access-date=October 28, 2024 |website=NASA.Gov}}
==Spacecraft==
{{Main|Splashdown}}
Early crewed spacecraft launched by the United States were designed to alight on water by the splashdown method. The craft would parachute into the water, which acted as a cushion to bring the craft to a stop. Alighting over water rather than land made braking rockets unnecessary, but its disadvantages included difficult retrieval and the danger of drowning. The NASA Space Shuttle design was intended to land on a runway instead. The SpaceX Dragon uses water landings, and has carried crew since 2020.{{Cite web |last1=Tous |first1=Marcos Fernandez |last2=Conversation |first2=The |title=The science behind splashdown—aerospace engineer explains how NASA and SpaceX get spacecraft safely back |url=https://phys.org/news/2024-06-science-splashdown-aerospace-nasa-spacex.html |access-date=2024-10-28 |website=phys.org |language=en}}{{Cite web |last=Tous |first=Marcos Fernandez |date=2024-06-27 |title=The science behind splashdown − an aerospace engineer explains how NASA and SpaceX get spacecraft safely back on Earth |url=https://theconversation.com/the-science-behind-splashdown-an-aerospace-engineer-explains-how-nasa-and-spacex-get-spacecraft-safely-back-on-earth-232786 |access-date=2024-10-28 |website=The Conversation |language=en-US}}
=In distress=
File:US Airways Flight 1549 (N106US) after crashing into the Hudson River (crop 1).jpg ditched on the Hudson River in 2009 with all passengers surviving.]]
File:A330 Ditching Button.jpg]]
While ditching is extremely uncommon in commercial passenger travel, small aircraft tend to ditch slightly more often because they usually have only one engine and their systems have fewer redundancies. According to the National Transportation Safety Board, there are about a dozen ditchings per year.{{cite web |year=1999 |url=http://www.equipped.com/ditchingmyths.htm |title=Ditching Myths Torpedoed! |last=Bertorelli |first=Paul |access-date=17 January 2010 |archive-date=2 October 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101002061907/http://www.equipped.com/ditchingmyths.htm |url-status=live }} Reasons for ditching vary, but the most common are engine failure, flat spin, and pilot error.{{citation needed|date=January 2025}}
==General aviation==
General aviation includes all fields of aviation outside of military or scheduled (commercial) flights. This classification includes small aircraft, e.g., training aircraft, airships, gliders, helicopters, and corporate aircraft, including business jets and other for-hire operations. General aviation has the highest accident and incident rate in aviation, with 16 deaths per million flight hours, compared to 0.74 deaths per million flight hours for commercial flights (North America and Europe).{{Cite web |date=2020-07-21 |title=Richard G. McSpadden Report Figure View |url=https://www.aopa.org/training-and-safety/air-safety-institute/accident-analysis/richard-g-mcspadden-report/mcspadden-report-figure-view |access-date=2024-12-30 |website=www.aopa.org |language=en}}
==Commercial aircraft==
In the United States, the FAA does not require commercial pilots to train to ditch but airline cabin personnel must train on the evacuation process.[http://ecfr.gpoaccess.gov/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=ecfr&sid=40cca8a81d4453dd654a9a8e0e63e57d&rgn=div5&view=text&node=14:3.0.1.1.4&idno=14#14:3.0.1.1.4.30.3.2.13 CFR 14 Part 121 Appendix D – Criteria for Demonstration of Emergency Evacuation Procedures Under §121.291] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100625003441/http://ecfr.gpoaccess.gov/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=ecfr&sid=40cca8a81d4453dd654a9a8e0e63e57d&rgn=div5&view=text&node=14%3A3.0.1.1.4&idno=14 |date=25 June 2010 }} In addition, the FAA implemented rules under which circumstances (kind of operator, number of passengers, weight, route) an aircraft has to carry emergency equipment including floating devices such as life jackets and life rafts.
Some aircraft are designed with the possibility of a water landing in mind. Airbus aircraft, for example, feature a "ditching button" which, if pressed, closes valves and openings underneath the aircraft, including the outflow valve, the air inlet for the emergency RAT, the avionics inlet, the extract valve, and the flow control valve. It is meant to slow flooding in a water landing.{{cite web |title=Airbus Overhead Panel|url=http://www.smartcockpit.com/data/pdfs/plane/airbus/a340/instructor/A330-A340_Overhead_Pushbuttons.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120330161341/http://www.smartcockpit.com/data/pdfs/plane/airbus/a340/instructor/A330-A340_Overhead_Pushbuttons.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=30 March 2012|work=Data|publisher=smartcockpit.com|access-date=9 October 2011}}
==Airplane water ditchings==
{{split|List of aircraft ditchings|date=January 2025|section=list|discuss=Talk:Water landing#Splitting proposal}}
{{Incomplete list|date=August 2022}}
{{clear}}
{{sort under}}
==Aircraft landing on water for other reasons==
{{split|List of aircraft ditchings|date=January 2025|section=list|discuss=Talk:Water landing#Splitting proposal}}
File:Passengers being rescued from P2-PXE after it crashed on 28 September 2018.jpg landed in Chuuk Lagoon on 28 September 2018]]
Aircraft also sometimes end up in water by running off the ends of runways, landing in water short of the end of a runway, or even being forcibly flown into the water during suicidal/homicidal events. Twice at LaGuardia Airport, an aircraft has rolled into the East River (USAir Flight 5050 and USAir Flight 405).
{{Incomplete list|date=August 2022}}
- 5 September 1954: KLM Flight 633, a Lockheed L-1049C-55-81 Super Constellation, suffered a re-extension of the landing gear shortly after taking off from Shannon Airport, which the flight crew was not aware. This caused the plane to descend and ditch into the River Shannon. 28 of the 56 people on board survived.{{Cite web |last=Ranter |first=Harro |title=ASN Aircraft accident Lockheed L-1049C-55-81 Super Constellation PH-LKY Shannon Airport (SNN) |url=https://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id=19540905-0 |access-date=2022-09-14 |website=aviation-safety.net}}
- {{Timeline event |date=22 November 1968 |event=Japan Airlines Flight 2, a Douglas DC-8-62, landed short of the runway in San Francisco Bay on approach to San Francisco International Airport. There were no fatalities, and the aircraft itself was in good enough condition to be removed from the water, rebuilt, and flown again.}}{{Cite web |last=Ranter |first=Harro |title=ASN Aircraft accident McDonnell Douglas DC-8-62 JA8032 San Francisco Bay, CA |url=https://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id=19681122-0 |access-date=2022-08-16 |website=aviation-safety.net}}
- 13 January 1969: Scandinavian Airlines System Flight 933, a McDonnell Douglas DC-8-62, ditched in Santa Monica Bay while on approach to runway 07R of Los Angeles International Airport, California. Out of the 45 people on board the plane, 4 drowned, 11 are missing and presumed dead, 17 were injured, and 13 sustained no injuries.{{Cite web |last=Ranter |first=Harro |title=ASN Aircraft accident McDonnell Douglas DC-8-62 LN-MOO Los Angeles, CA [Santa Monica Bay] |url=https://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id=19690113-0 |access-date=2022-08-16 |website=aviation-safety.net}}
- {{Timeline event |date=8 May 1978 |event=National Airlines Flight 193, a Boeing 727 Trijet, unintentionally landed in the waters of Escambia Bay near Pensacola, Florida after coming down short of the runway during a foggy approach. There were 3 fatalities among 52 passengers and 6 crewmembers.[http://amelia.db.erau.edu/reports/ntsb/aar/AAR78-13.pdf Aircraft Accident Report AAR-78-13 (PDF)] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060921125755/http://amelia.db.erau.edu/reports/ntsb/aar/AAR78-13.pdf |date=21 September 2006 }}}}
- {{Timeline event |date=7 August 1980 |event=a Tupolev Tu-154B-1 operated by Tarom Romanian Airlines ditched in the water, 300m short of the runway at Nouadhibou Airport (NDB/GQPP), Mauritania. 1 passenger out of 168 passengers and crew died.}}{{Cite web |last=Ranter |first=Harro |title=ASN Aircraft accident Tupolev Tu-154B-1 YR-TPH Nouadhibou Airport (NDB) |url=https://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id=19800807-1 |access-date=2022-08-11 |website=aviation-safety.net}}
- {{Timeline event |date=13 January 1982 |event=Air Florida Flight 90 went down in the icy Potomac river after taking off from Washington National Airport during a snowstorm without proper de-icing. Only 6 out of 79 passengers and crew survived the initial crash, with one of the survivors eventually drowning after helping others to safety. The plane also hit a bridge, killing four and injuring another four motorists.}}{{Cite web |last=Ranter |first=Harro |title=ASN Aircraft accident Boeing 737-222 N62AF Washington-National Airport, DC (DCA) [Potomac River] |url=https://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id=19820113-0 |access-date=2022-08-11 |website=aviation-safety.net}}
- {{Timeline event |date=23 January 1982 |event=World Airways Flight 30, landing at Boston Logan International Airport after a flight from Newark, New Jersey, slid off the runway due to ice and landed in Boston Harbor. The cockpit area separated from the remainder of the fuselage at the first row of seats. Two passengers in the first row disappeared and were presumed dead, but the other 210 people aboard survived.{{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20121004142200/http://www.airdisaster.com/reports/ntsb/AAR85-06.pdf World Airways, Inc., Flight 30H, McDonnell Douglas DC-10-30CF, N113WA, Boston-Logan Int'l Airport, Boston, Massachusetts, 23 Jan. 1982 (Revised)]}} (AAR-85-06) Aircraft accident report by the U.S. National Transportation Safety Board, adopted 10 July 1985.}}
- {{Timeline event |date=9 February 1982 |event=Japan Airlines Flight 350 landed in shallow water in Tokyo Bay short of the runway on approach to Tokyo International Airport, after the captain engaged thrust-reversers due to mental illness. Crew members tried to stop him but were not fully successful. 24 of the 166 passengers and none of the eight crew members died. The captain was found not guilty of any crime due to insanity.{{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20110704003000/http://www.airdisaster.com/cgi-bin/view_details.cgi?date=02091982®=JA8061&airline=Japan+Air+Lines Accident Database: Accident Synopsis 02091982]}}Stokes, Henry Scott. "[https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?sec=health&res=9803E2DF1F38F937A25751C0A964948260 COCKPIT FIGHT REPORTED ON JET THAT CRASHED IN TOKYO] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080502142505/http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?sec=health&res=9803E2DF1F38F937A25751C0A964948260 |date=2 May 2008 }}," The New York Times. 14 February 1982. Retrieved on 10 November 2011.{{cite magazine |title= Troubled Pilot |magazine=Time |url= http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,922801,00.html?iid=chix-sphere |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20080502171229/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,922801,00.html?iid=chix-sphere |url-status= dead |archive-date= 2 May 2008 |access-date= 10 November 2011 |date=1 March 1982}}}}
- 28 February 1984: Scandinavian Airlines System Flight 901, a McDonnell Douglas DC-10-30, overran the runway shortly after landing at John F. Kennedy International Airport and ended up with its nose in shallow water. All 177 occupants on board survived with 12 of them sustaining injuries.{{Cite web |last=Ranter |first=Harro |title=ASN Aircraft accident McDonnell Douglas DC-10-30 LN-RKB New York-John F. Kennedy International Airport, NY (JFK) |url=https://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id=19840228-0 |access-date=2022-09-16 |website=aviation-safety.net}}
- {{Timeline event |date=27 June 1985 |event=American Airlines flight 633 took off from Muñoz Marín Airport in Puerto Rico to Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport in Texas when it overran the runway and nosedived into a nearby lake. All 257 passengers and 13 crew members were evacuated from the DC-10, with at least 25 people injured.}}{{Cite web |date=1985-06-27 |title=Airliner Plunges Into Swamp |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1985-06-27-mn-10718-story.html |access-date=2022-05-10 |website=Los Angeles Times |language=en-US}}{{Cite web |last=Ranter |first=Harro |title=ASN Aircraft accident McDonnell Douglas DC-10-10 N129AA San Juan-Luis Munoz Marin International Airport (SJU) |url=https://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id=19850627-0 |access-date=2022-05-10 |website=aviation-safety.net}}
- 31 August 1988: CAAC Flight 301, a Hawker Siddeley Trident, overran the runway at Kai Tak international Airport and ended up in Kowloon Bay, breaking into two pieces. 7 of the 89 occupants on board perished and 15 others sustained injuries.{{Cite web |last=Ranter |first=Harro |title=ASN Aircraft accident Hawker Siddeley HS-121 Trident 2E B-2218 Hong Kong-Kai Tak International Airport (HKG) |url=https://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id=19880831-1 |access-date=2022-09-16 |website=aviation-safety.net}}
- 26 September 1988: Aerolineas Argentinas Flight 648, a Boeing 737, landed hard and overran the runway at Ushuaia Airport and ended up in shallow water. All 62 people aboard survived.{{Cite web |last=Ranter |first=Harro |title=ASN Aircraft accident Boeing 737-287 LV-LIU Ushuaia Airport, TF (USH) |url=https://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id=19880926-0 |access-date=2022-09-17 |website=aviation-safety.net}}
- {{Timeline event |date=20 September 1989 |event=USAir 5050, a Boeing 737-401 with 63 people aboard, overran the runway while taking off from New York's La Guardia Airport, landing in the East River and breaking into three pieces, and sustained two deaths.{{cite web |last=Smith |first=Patrick |year=2002 |url=http://archive.salon.com/tech/feature/2002/07/26/askthepilot4/index.html |title=Ask the pilot #4: Do seat cushions actually save lives? |work=Salon.com |access-date=28 June 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060522184015/http://archive.salon.com/tech/feature/2002/07/26/askthepilot4/index.html |archive-date=22 May 2006 |url-status=dead }}}}
- {{Timeline event |date=12 September 1993 |event=while landing in poor weather conditions at Faa'a International Airport, Papeete, Tahiti, a Boeing 747 conducting Air France Flight 072 hydroplaned, overshot the runway and ended up with its nose in a lagoon. All 272 passengers and crew evacuated successfully, even though the engines were still running and there was a risk of ingestion.{{cite web |title=Boeing 747-428 F-GITA Papeete-Faaa Airport (PPT), Tahiti |url=http://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id=19930912-1 |author=Aviation Safety Network |author-link=Aviation Safety Network |access-date=17 January 2009 |archive-date=14 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120114040130/http://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id=19930912-1 |url-status=live }}}}
- {{Timeline event |date=4 November 1993 |event=China Airlines Flight 605, a Boeing 747-409, ended up in water after it overran runway 13 at Kai Tak International Airport on landing during a typhoon with wind gusting to gale force. All of the 396 occupants donned life-vests, boarded the eight slide/rafts and no fatalities resulted. The airframe remained above water even after the aircraft was evacuated.{{cite web |url=http://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id=19931104-0 |title=Boeing 747-409 B-165 – Hong Kong-Kai Tak International Airport (HKG) |access-date=26 June 2006 |author=Aviation Safety Network |author-link=Aviation Safety Network |archive-date=12 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120112212317/http://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id=19931104-0 |url-status=live }}}}
- {{Timeline event |date=3 February 2000 |event=Trans Arabian Air Transport Flight 310, a Boeing 707-351(C) carrying cargo, grossly overshot the landing strip at Mwanza Airport after a first attempt failed and eventually landed in the middle of Lake Victoria. The plane continued floating after the landing and all five crew survived, some with light injuries.{{cite web|url=http://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id=20000203-0|title=ST-APY|author=Aviation Safety Net|access-date=17 March 2009|archive-date=17 October 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111017231102/http://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id=20000203-0|url-status=live}}}}
- {{Timeline event |date=30 April 2000 |event=DAS Air Cargo DC-10-30F freighter (N800WR) approached Entebbe, Uganda runway 35 following a flight from London-Gatwick carrying over 50 tons of cargo. The airplane landed long: 4000–5000 feet down the 12000-foot runway. The nosegear touched down 13 seconds after the main undercarriage. The DC-10 could not be brought to a halt and slid off the runway into Lake Victoria about 100 meters from the southern end of the runway. The DC-10 ended up with the no. 1 and 3 engines submerged and cockpit section separated from the fuselage. The crew members were rescued with a life raft within just 10 minutes of the accident.}}{{Cite web |last=Ranter |first=Harro |title=ASN Aircraft accident McDonnell Douglas DC-10-30F N800WR Entebbe Airport (EBB) |url=https://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id=20000430-0 |access-date=2022-08-09 |website=aviation-safety.net}}
- {{Timeline event |date=13 April 2013 |event=Lion Air Flight 904, a Boeing 737-800 (registration PK-LKS) from Bandung to Denpasar (Indonesia) with 108 people on board, undershot runway 09 and ditched into the sea while landing at Ngurah Rai International Airport. The aircraft's fuselage ruptured slightly near the wings. All passengers and crew were safely evacuated with only minor injuries.{{cite web |url=http://www.thejakartaglobe.com/home/lion-air-passenger-plane-crashes-in-bali/585464 |title=Lion Air Passenger Plane Crashes in Bali |date=13 April 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130415104206/http://www.thejakartaglobe.com/home/lion-air-passenger-plane-crashes-in-bali/585464 |archive-date=15 April 2013 }}}}
- {{Timeline event |date=28 September 2018 |event=a Boeing 737-800 performing Air Niugini Flight 73 landed in a lagoon short of Chuuk International Airport. One of the passengers died, but the 46 other crew and passengers were evacuated by boats.{{cite news |title=Air Niugini plane crash turns fatal after divers find missing passenger's body |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-10-02/passengers-body-found-after-air-niugini-plane-crash/10327378 |access-date=3 November 2018 |work=ABC News |date=2 October 2018 |archive-date=26 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181026003011/https://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-10-02/passengers-body-found-after-air-niugini-plane-crash/10327378 |url-status=live }}}}
- 3 May 2019: Miami Air International Flight 293, a Boeing 737-800, hydroplaned and experienced a runway excursion upon landing at Naval Air Station Jacksonville. The airplane came to rest in the shallow waters of St. Johns River, sustaining substantial damage. All 143 passengers and crew on board the plane survived, although twenty-one people on board suffered minor injuries.{{Cite web |last=Ranter |first=Harro |title=ASN Aircraft accident Boeing 737-81Q (WL) N732MA Jacksonville Naval Air Station, FL (NIP) |url=https://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id=20190503-0 |access-date=2022-08-09 |website=aviation-safety.net}}{{Cite news |last1=Zaveri |first1=Mihir |last2=Kramer |first2=Margaret |date=2019-05-04 |title=Boeing 737 Skids Into St. Johns River in Jacksonville |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/05/03/us/jacksonville-plane-river.html |access-date=2022-08-09 |issn=0362-4331}}
==Military aircraft==
A limited number of pre-World War II military aircraft, such as the Grumman F4F Wildcat and Douglas TBD Devastator, were equipped with flotation bags that kept them on the surface in the event of a ditching.{{cite book |last1=Doyle |first1=David |title=Grumman F4F Wildcat |date=2017 |publisher=Schiffer Publishing |location=Atglen, Pennsylvania |isbn=9780764354335 |page=7}}{{cite book |last1=Kernan |first1=Alvin |title=The Unknown Battle of Midway: The Destruction of the American Torpedo Squadrons |date=2005 |publisher=Yale University Press |location=New Haven |isbn=0-300-10989-X |page=31}}
The "water bird" emergency landing is a technique developed by the Canadian Forces to safely land the Sikorsky CH-124 Sea King helicopter if one engine fails while flying over water. The emergency landing technique allows the boat-hull equipped aircraft to land on the water in a controlled fashion.{{Cite web|url=https://www.ctvnews.ca/prince-performs-waterbird-landing-but-what-is-it-1.665469|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110907012448/http://www.ctv.ca/CTVNews/TopStories/20110704/royal-water-bird-pei-110704/|url-status=dead|title=Prince performs 'waterbird' landing, but what is it?|date=4 July 2011|archivedate=7 September 2011|website=CTVNews}}
Space launch vehicle water landings
Beginning in 2013 and continuing into 2014 and 2015, a series of ocean water landing tests were undertaken by SpaceX as a prelude to bringing booster rockets back to the launch pad in an effort to reuse launch vehicle booster stages.{{cite news |last=Boyle |first=Alan |title=Cargo Launch and Rocket Test Add Up to 'Happy Day' for SpaceX |url=http://www.nbcnews.com/science/space/cargo-launch-rocket-test-add-happy-day-spacex-n84266 |access-date=20 April 2014 |newspaper=NBC News |date=18 April 2014 |archive-date=19 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140419214651/http://www.nbcnews.com/science/space/cargo-launch-rocket-test-add-happy-day-spacex-n84266 |url-status=live }} Seven test flights with controlled-descents have been conducted by April 2015.
Prior to 2013, successful water landings of launch vehicles were not attempted, while periodic water landings of space capsules have been accomplished since 1961. The vast majority of space launch vehicles take off vertically and are destroyed on falling back to earth. Exceptions include suborbital vertical-landing vehicles (e.g., Masten Xoie or the Armadillo Aerospace' Lunar Lander Challenge vehicle), and the spaceplanes that use the vertical takeoff, horizontal landing (VTHL) approach (e.g., the Space Shuttle, or the USAF X-37) which have landing gear to enable runway landings.{{cite news |last=Hanlon |first=Michael |title=Roll up for the Red Planet |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/science/10112069/Roll-up-for-the-Red-Planet.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130612212817/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/science/10112069/Roll-up-for-the-Red-Planet.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=12 June 2013 |access-date=26 October 2013 |newspaper=The Telegraph |date=11 June 2013 |quote=the space race is flaring back into life, and it's not massive institutions such as NASA that are in the running. The old view that human space flight is so complex, difficult and expensive that only huge government agencies could hope to accomplish it is being disproved by a new breed of flamboyant space privateers, who are planning to send humans out beyond the Earth's orbit for the first time since 1972.}} Each vertical-takeoff spaceflight system to date has relied on expendable boosters to begin each ascent to orbital velocity. This is beginning to change.
Recent advances in private space transport, where new competition to governmental space initiatives has emerged, have included the explicit design of recoverable rocket technologies into orbital booster rockets. SpaceX has initiated and funded a multimillion-dollar program to pursue this objective, known as the reusable launch system development program.{{cite news |last=Foust |first=Jeff |title=SpaceX wrapping up Falcon 9 second stage investigation as it moves on from Grasshopper |url=http://www.newspacejournal.com/2013/10/18/spacex-wrapping-up-falcon-9-second-stage-investigation-as-it-moves-on-from-grasshopper/ |newspaper=NewSpace Journal |date=18 October 2013 |access-date=26 October 2013 |archive-date=25 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131025130637/http://www.newspacejournal.com/2013/10/18/spacex-wrapping-up-falcon-9-second-stage-investigation-as-it-moves-on-from-grasshopper/ |url-status=live }}{{cite news |last=Klotz |first=Irene |title=SpaceX Retires Grasshopper, New Test Rig To Fly in December |url=http://www.spacenews.com/article/launch-report/37740spacex-retires-grasshopper-new-test-rig-to-fly-in-december |archive-url=https://archive.today/20131021075659/http://www.spacenews.com/article/launch-report/37740spacex-retires-grasshopper-new-test-rig-to-fly-in-december |url-status=dead |archive-date=21 October 2013 |newspaper=Space News |date=17 October 2013 |access-date=26 October 2013}}{{cite news |last=Leone|first=Dan |title=SpaceX Leases Pad in New Mexico for Next Grasshopper Tests |url=http://www.spacenews.com/article/launch-report/35306spacex-leases-pad-in-new-mexico-for-next-grasshopper-tests#.Uf0JMtLOvgQ |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130903081450/http://www.spacenews.com/article/launch-report/35306spacex-leases-pad-in-new-mexico-for-next-grasshopper-tests#.Uf0JMtLOvgQ |url-status=dead |archive-date=3 September 2013 |access-date=3 August 2013 |newspaper=SpaceNews |date=13 May 2013}}
The orbital-flight version of the SpaceX design{{cite web |title=Landing Legs |work=SpaceX |url=http://www.spacex.com/news/2013/04/12/falcon-heavy-landing-legs |date=12 April 2013 |publisher=SpaceX News |access-date=2 August 2013 |quote=The Falcon Heavy first stage center core and boosters each carry landing legs, which will land each core safely on Earth after takeoff. After the side boosters separate, the center engine in each will burn to control the booster's trajectory safely away from the rocket. The legs will then deploy as the boosters turn back to Earth, landing each softly on the ground. The center core will continue to fire until stage separation, after which its legs will deploy and land it back on Earth as well. The landing legs are made of state-of-the-art carbon fiber with aluminum honeycomb. The four legs stow along the sides of each core during liftoff and later extend outward and down for landing. |archive-date=3 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170703135207/http://www.spacex.com/news/2013/04/12/falcon-heavy-landing-legs |url-status=live |last1=Shanklin |first1=Emily }} was first successful at accomplishing a water landing (zero velocity and zero altitude) in April 2014 on a Falcon 9 rocket and was the first successful controlled ocean soft touchdown of a liquid-rocket-engine orbital booster.{{cite news |last=Belfiore |first=Michael |title=SpaceX Brings a Booster Safely Back to Earth |url=http://www.technologyreview.com/news/526806/spacex-brings-a-booster-safely-back-to-earth/ |access-date=3 July 2014 |newspaper=MIT Technology Review |date=22 April 2014 |archive-date=6 July 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140706163706/http://www.technologyreview.com/news/526806/spacex-brings-a-booster-safely-back-to-earth/ |url-status=live }}{{cite news |last=Norris |first=Guy |title=SpaceX Plans For Multiple Reusable Booster Tests |url=http://aviationweek.com/space/spacex-plans-multiple-reusable-booster-tests |access-date=3 July 2014 |newspaper=Aviation Week |date=28 April 2014 |archive-date=26 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140426201818/http://aviationweek.com/space/spacex-plans-multiple-reusable-booster-tests |url-status=live }}
Seven test flights with controlled-descent test over-water landings, including two with failed attempts to land on a floating landing platform, have been conducted by April 2015.{{cite news |last1=Bergin |first1=Chris |title=SpaceX preparing for a busy season of missions and test milestones |url=http://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2015/04/spacex-preparing-busy-season-missions-test-milestones/ |access-date=26 April 2015 |work=NASASpaceFlight.com |date=3 April 2015 |archive-date=7 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150407001148/http://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2015/04/spacex-preparing-busy-season-missions-test-milestones/ |url-status=live }}
In October 2024 the upper stage of SpaceX's Starship spacecraft performed a controlled, high accuracy water landing in the Indian Ocean near a pre-positioned buoy that captured footage of the splashdown.{{Cite web |last=McDowell |first=Jonathan |author-link=Jonathan McDowell |date=October 25, 2024 |title=Jonathan's Space Report No. 838 |url=https://planet4589.org/space/jsr/back/news.838.txt |access-date=October 28, 2024 |website=planet4589.org}}
Techniques for water landings
- Glassy water landings: Glassy water conditions, characterized by little to no wind, pose unique challenges for pilots. In such scenarios, visual cues for altitude are minimized, making it difficult to judge the aircraft's height above the water. Pilots are advised to maintain a controlled descent rate of no more than 150 feet per minute and to establish a pitch attitude before reaching the water. It's crucial to avoid turning during the final approach to prevent wingtip contact with the water.{{Cite web |date=2017-01-01 |title=Technique: Glassy water landings |url=https://www.aopa.org/news-and-media/all-news/2017/january/flight-training-magazine/technique-glassy-water-landings |access-date=2024-11-17 |website=Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association |language=en}}{{Cite web |title=Glassy Water Takeoff/Landing - |url=https://www.flytheshark.com/guide-to-seaplane-flying/takeoffs-and-landings/glassy-water-takeoff-landing/ |access-date=2024-11-17 |language=en-US}}
- Pre-landing assessment: Before landing, pilots should conduct a thorough assessment of the landing area. This includes checking for obstacles, wave height, and wind direction. A common practice is to fly over the intended landing area first to gauge conditions. Adjustments to flaps and descent rates should be made accordingly to ensure a smooth touchdown.{{Citation needed|date=November 2024}}
References
{{Reflist|30em}}
Further reading
{{Commons category|Water landings}}
{{external media
| video1 = [http://vimeo.com/371163321 Ditching of a B-24D into the James River in 1944 – Flight]
| video2 = [http://texasarchive.org/2015_02811 Ditching of a B-24D into the James River in 1944 – Preparations]
| video3 = [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LkKOMj-wvDk Ditching Procedures for a C-54]
}}
- [http://aviation-safety.net/database/events/event.php?code=RE Aviation incidents by result] from the Aviation Safety Network; see [http://aviation-safety.net/database/dblist.php?Event=REOW Off runway in water], [http://aviation-safety.net/database/dblist.php?Event=RECW CFIT into water], and [http://aviation-safety.net/database/dblist.php?Event=REED Ditching].
- {{cite web |last1=Bertorelli |first1=Paul |title=Ditching Myths Torpedoed! |url=http://www.equipped.com/ditchingmyths.htm |website=Equipped to Survive |access-date=16 February 2022 |date=1999 |archive-date=2 October 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101002061907/http://www.equipped.com/ditchingmyths.htm |url-status=dead }}, cites data that show an 88% survival rate for general aviation water ditchings.
- {{cite journal |last= Horne |first= Thomas A. |date=July 1999 |title= In-Flight Emergencies: Ditching |journal= AOPA Pilot |volume= 42 |issue= 7 |url= http://www.aopa.org/pilot/features/inflight9907.html}} (Corrected version of September; see [http://www.equipped.com/aopa-ditch-rebut.htm here] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060506230948/http://www.equipped.com/aopa-ditch-rebut.htm |date=6 May 2006 }} for some complaints.)
- {{cite book |last1=Llano |first1=George Albert |title=Airmen Against the Sea: An Analysis of Sea Survival Experience |year=1956 |publisher=Arctic, Desert, Tropic Information Center |location=Alabama |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vh4IAQAAIAAJ |access-date=1 June 2020}}
- {{cite report |last=Motley |first=Elizabeth B. |date=October 2005 |title=Survival Stressors Faced by Military Aviator/Aircrew Following Ditching Over Salt Water |url=http://apps.dtic.mil/sti/citations/ADA446408 |publisher=Naval Air Warfare Center |access-date=16 February 2022 |archive-date=29 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221129153035/https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/citations/ADA446408 |url-status=dead }}
- {{cite journal |last= Schiff |first= Barry |date=March 1983 |title= Water Ways |journal= AOPA Pilot |volume= 26 |issue= 3}} Reproduced on [http://www.equipped.com/bschiff-ditching.htm Equipped To Survive] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060506230954/http://www.equipped.com/bschiff-ditching.htm |date=6 May 2006 }}.
- {{cite report |last=Steiner |first=Margaret F. |date=November 1944 |title=Accelerations and Bottom Pressures Measured on a B-24D Airplane in a Ditching Test |url=http://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc61135 |publisher=Langley Memorial Aeronautical Library |access-date=16 February 2022}}
{{Commercial Ditchings}}
{{Types of take-off and landing}}