aconitum

File:Aconitum-noveboracense01.jpg

The name aconitum comes from the Greek word {{lang|grc|ἀκόνιτον}}, which may derive from the Greek akon for dart or javelin, the tips of which were poisoned with the substance, or from akonae, because of the rocky ground on which the plant was thought to grow.{{cite web|url=http://penelope.uchicago.edu/~grout/encyclopaedia_romana/aconite/aconite.html|website=Penelope.uchicago.edu|title=Aconite Poisoning|access-date=15 January 2018}} The Greek name lycoctonum, which translates literally to "wolf's bane", is thought to indicate the use of its juice to poison arrows or baits used to kill wolves.{{cite web|url=http://botanical.com/botanical/mgmh/a/aconi007.html |title=A Modern Herbal | Aconite Herb |publisher=botanical.com |access-date=6 October 2014}} The English name monkshood refers to the cylindrical helmet, called the galea, distinguishing the flower.

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The dark green leaves of Aconitum species lack stipules. They are palmate or deeply palmately lobed with five to seven segments. Each segment again is trilobed with coarse sharp teeth. The leaves have a spiral (alternate) arrangement. The lower leaves have long petioles.

File:Aconitum vulparia opened flower.jpg]]

The tall, erect stem is crowned by racemes of large blue, purple, white, yellow, or pink zygomorphic flowers with numerous stamens. They are distinguishable by having one of the five petaloid sepals (the posterior one), called the galea, in the form of a cylindrical helmet, hence the English name monkshood. Two to 10 petals are present. The two upper petals are large and are placed under the hood of the calyx and are supported on long stalks. They have a hollow spur at their apex, containing the nectar. The other petals are small and scale-like or nonforming. The three to five carpels are partially fused at the base.

The fruit is an aggregate of follicles, a follicle being a dry, many-seeded structure.

Unlike with many species from genera (and their hybrids) in Ranunculaceae (and the related Papaveroideae subfamily), there are no double-flowered forms.

A medium to dark semi-saturated blue-purple is the typical flower color for Aconitum species. Aconitum species tend to be variable enough in form and color in the wild to cause debate and confusion among experts when it comes to species classification boundaries. The overall color range of the genus is rather limited, although the palette has been extended a small amount with hybridization. In the wild, some Aconitum blue-purple shades can be very dark. In cultivation the shades do not reach this level of depth.

Aside from blue-purple—white, very pale greenish-white, creamy white, and pale greenish-yellow are also somewhat common in nature. Wine red (or red-purple) occurs in a hybrid of the climber Aconitum hemsleyanum. There is a pale semi-saturated pink produced by cultivation as well as bicolor hybrids (e.g. white centers with blue-purple edges). Purplish shades range from very dark blue-purple to a very pale lavender that is quite greyish. The latter occurs in the "Stainless Steel" hybrid.

Neutral blue (rather than purplish or greenish), greenish-blue, and intense blues, available in some related Delphinium plants—particularly Delphinium grandiflorum—do not occur in this genus. Aconitum plants that have purplish-blue flowers are often inaccurately referred to as having blue flowers, even though the purple tone dominates. If there are species with true (neutral) blue or greenish-blue flowers they are rare and do not occur in cultivation. Also unlike the genus Delphinium, there are no bright red nor intense pink Aconitum flowers, as none known are pollinated by hummingbirds. There are no orange-flowered varieties nor any that are green. Aconitum is typically more intense in color than Helleborus but less intense than Delphinium. There are no blackish flowers in Aconitum, unlike with Helleborus.

Monkshood (Aconitum napellus) produces light indigo-blue flowers,{{cite book |editor=Brickell, Christopher |date=1989 |title=The Royal Horticultural Society Gardener's Encyclopaedia of Plants and Flowers |location=London |publisher=Dorling Kindersley Ltd. |page=404 |isbn=0-86318-386-7}} while Wolf's Bane (Aconitum vulparia) produces whitish or straw-yellow flowers.{{cite book |editor=Brickell, Christopher |date=1989 |title=The Royal Horticultural Society Gardener's Encyclopaedia of Plants and Flowers |location=London |publisher=Dorling Kindersley Ltd. |page=214 |isbn=0-86318-386-7}}

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The lack of double-flowered forms in the horticultural trade stands in contrast with the other genera of Ranunculaceae used regularly in gardens. This includes one major genus that is known solely by most gardeners for a double-flowered form of one species—Ranunculus asiaticus, known colloquially in the trade as "Ranunculus". The Ranunculus genus contains approximately 500 species. One other species of Ranunculus has seen minor use in gardens, the 'Flore Pleno' (doubled) form of Ranunculus acris. Doubled forms of Consolida and Delphinium dominate the horticultural trade while single forms of Anemone, Aquilegia, Clematis, Helleborus, Pulsatilla—and the related Papaver—retain some popularity. No doubled forms of Aconitum are known.

Aconitum species have been recorded as food plant of the caterpillars of several moths. The yellow tiger moth Arctia flavia, and the purple-shaded gem Euchalcia variabilis are at home on A. vulparia.{{cite book|first= Heiko|last= Bellmann|year= 2003|title= Der neue Kosmos Schmetterlingsführer|publisher= Franckh-Kosmos Verlags GmbH|location= Stuttgart}} The engrailed Ectropis crepuscularia, yellow-tail Euproctis similis, mouse moth Amphipyra tragopoginis, pease blossom Periphanes delphinii, and Mniotype bathensis, have been observed feeding on A. napellus. The purple-lined sallow Pyrrhia exprimens, and Blepharita amica were found eating from A. septentrionale. The dot moth Melanchra persicariae occurs both on A. septentrionale and A. intermedium. The golden plusia Polychrysia moneta is hosted by A. vulparia, A. napellus, A. septentrionale, and A. intermedium. Other moths associated with Aconitum species include the wormwood pug Eupithecia absinthiata, satyr pug E. satyrata, Aterpia charpentierana, and A. corticana.{{cite journal|title= Aconitum|website= Natural History Museum|year= 2023|doi= 10.5519/havt50xw|url= http://www.nhm.ac.uk/research-curation/research/projects/hostplants/search/list.dsml?searchPageURL=index.dsml&Familyqtype=starts+with&Family=&PFamilyqtype=starts+with&PFamily=&Genusqtype=starts+with&Genus=&PGenusqtype=starts+with&PGenus=Aconitum&Speciesqtype=starts+with&Species=&PSpeciesqtype=starts+with&PSpecies=&Country=&sort=Family|last1= Robinson|first1= Gaden S.|last2= Ackery|first2= Phillip R.|last3= Kitching|first3= Ian|last4= Beccaloni|first4= George W.|last5= Hernández|first5= Luis M.}} It is also the primary food source for the Old World bumblebees Bombus consobrinus and Bombus gerstaeckeri.{{cite web|url=http://www.atlashymenoptera.net/pagetaxon.asp?tx_id=2956|title=Atlas Hymenoptera - Atlas of the European Bees - STEP project|publisher=atlashymenoptera.net|access-date=6 October 2014}}{{cite book|title=Plant-Pollinator Interactions: From Specialization to Generalization|author1=Waser, N.M.|author2=Ollerton, J.|date=2006|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=9780226874005|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Fbl5c9fUxTIC|page=69|access-date=6 October 2014}}{{cite web |url=http://www.atlashymenoptera.net/page.asp?id=169 |title=Atlas of the European Bees: genus Bombus |last=Rasmont |first=Pierre |date=2014 |website=Atlas Hymenoptera |publisher=Université de Mons |access-date=23 September 2019 }}

File:Monnikskap (Aconitum), 07-09-2024. (actm.).jpg

Aconitum flowers are pollinated by long-tongued bumblebees.{{cite journal |last1=Blanché |first1=César |last2=Bosch |first2=Maria |last3=Molero |first3=Juliá |last4=Simon |first4=Joan |date=1997 |title=Pollination Ecology In Tribe Delphineae (Ranunculaceae) in W Mediterranean Area: Floral Visitors And Pollinator Behavior |url=http://institucional.us.es/revistas/lagascalia/19/Pollination%20Bosch.pdf |journal=Lagascalia |volume=19 |issue=1–2 |pages=545–562 |access-date=10 February 2019}} Bumblebees have the strength to open the flowers and reach the single nectary at the top of the flower on its inside. Some short-tongued bees will bore holes into the tops of the flowers to steal nectar. However, alkaloids in the nectar function as a deterrent for species unsuited to pollination. The effect is greater in certain species, such as Aconitum napellus, than in others, such as Aconitum lycoctonum.{{cite journal |last1=Barberis |first1=Marta |last2=Barlow |first2=Sarah |last3=Brankin |first3=Alice |last4=Farrell |first4=Ian |last5=Ma |first5=Carolyn |last6=Marr |first6=Emily |last7=Pavlik |first7=Bruce |last8=Stevenson |first8=Philip |last9=Wright |first9=Geraldine |author-link9=Geraldine Wright|date=2017 |title=Distasteful nectar deters floral robbery |url=http://gala.gre.ac.uk/17458/3/17458%20STEVENSON_Distasteful_Nectar_Deters_Floral_Robbery_2017.pdf |journal=Current Biology |volume=21;27 |issue=16 |pages=2552–2558.e3 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2017.07.012 |pmid=28803876 |s2cid=9657915 |access-date=10 February 2019|doi-access=free |bibcode=2017CBio...27E2552B }} Unlike the species with blue-purple flowers such as A. napellus, A. lycoctonum—which has off-white to pale yellow flowers, has been found to be a nectar source for butterflies. This is likely due to the nectary flowers of the latter being more easily reachable by the butterflies; however, the differing alkaloid character of the two plants may also play a significant role or be the primary influence.

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File:Aconitum in its natural habitat.png, false hellebore, yarrow, alpine rice, alpine foxtail, nootka lupine, alpine bistort, devil's club, and cow parsnip in the rocky, tundra-like, mountainous terrain of Turnagain Pass, Alaska.]]

The species typically utilized by gardeners fare well in well-drained evenly moist "humus-rich" garden soils like many in the related Helleborus and Delphinium genera, and can grow in the partial shade. Species not used in gardens tend to require more exacting conditions (e.g. Aconitum noveboracense). Most Aconitum species prefer to have their roots cool and moist, with the majority of the leaves exposed to sun, like the related Clematis. Aconitum species can be propagated by divisions of the root or by seeds, with care taken to avoid leaving pieces of the root where livestock might be poisoned. All parts of these plants should be handled while wearing protective disposable gloves. Aconitum plants are typically much longer-lived than the closely related delphinium plants, putting less energy into floral reproduction. As a result, they are not described as being "heavy feeders" (needing a higher quantity of fertilizer versus most other flowering plants)—unlike gardeners' delphiniums. As with most in the Ranunculaceae and Papaveraceae families, they dislike root disturbance. As with most in Ranunculaceae, seeds that are not planted soon after harvesting should be stored moist-packed in vermiculite to avoid dormancy and viability issues. The German seed company Jelitto offers "Gold Nugget" seeds that are advertised as utilizing a coating that enables the seed to germinate immediately, bypassing the double dormancy defect (from a typical gardener's point of view) Aconitum—and many other species in Ranunculaceae genera—use as a reproductive strategy. By contrast, seeds that are not immediately planted or moist-packed are described as perhaps taking as long as two years to germinate, being prone to very erratic germination (in terms of time required per seed), and comparatively quick seed viability loss (e.g. Adonis). These issues are typical for many species in Ranunculaceae, such as Pulsatilla (pasqueflower).

In the UK, the following have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit:

• A. × cammarum 'Bicolor'{{cite web

|title=RHS Plant Selector - Aconitum × cammarum 'Bicolor'

|url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/96594/Aconitum-x-cammarum-Bicolor/Details

| access-date=23 February 2020}}

• A. carmichaelii 'Arendsii'{{cite web

| url = https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/99571/Aconitum-carmichaelii-(Arendsii-Group)-Arendsii/Details

| title = Aconitum carmichaelii (Arendsii Group) 'Arendsii'

| publisher = RHS

| access-date = 27 February 2020}}

• A. carmichaelii 'Kelmscott' {{cite web

| url = https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/80788/Aconitum-carmichaelii-(Wilsonii-Group)-Kelmscott/Details

| title = Aconitum carmichaelii (Wilsonii Group) 'Kelmscott'

| publisher = RHS

| access-date = 27 February 2020}}

• A. 'Bressingham Spire'{{cite web

|url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/93255/Aconitum-Bressingham-Spire/Details

|title=Aconitum 'Bressingham Spire'

|publisher=Royal Horticultural Society

|access-date=30 December 2017}}

• A. 'Spark's Variety'{{cite web

|url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/89282/i-Aconitum-i-Spark-s-Variety/Details

|title=Aconitum 'Spark's Variety'

|publisher=Royal Horticultural Society

|access-date=30 December 2017}}{{cite news |last1=Bourne |first1=Val |title=How to grow: Aconitum 'Sparks Variety' |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/gardening/5947563/How-to-grow-Aconitum-Sparks-Variety.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/gardening/5947563/How-to-grow-Aconitum-Sparks-Variety.html |archive-date=2022-01-12 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |access-date=7 June 2020 |work=The Telegraph |date=31 July 2009}}{{cbignore}}

• A. 'Stainless Steel'{{cite web

| url = https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/109955/Aconitum-Stainless-Steel/Details

| title = Aconitum 'Stainless Steel'

| publisher = RHS

| access-date = 27 February 2020}}

{{See also|Aconitine}}

File:Monkshood.jpg

Monkshood and other members of the genus Aconitum contain substantial amounts of the highly toxic aconitine and related alkaloids, especially in their roots and tubers. As little as 2 mg of aconitine or 1 g of plant may cause death from respiratory paralysis or heart failure.

Aconitine is a potent neurotoxin and cardiotoxin that causes persistent depolarization of neuronal sodium channels in tetrodotoxin-sensitive tissues.{{cn|date = May 2024}} The influx of sodium through these channels and the delay in their repolarization increases their excitability and may lead to diarrhea, convulsions, ventricular arrhythmia, and death.{{cn|date = May 2024}}

Marked symptoms may appear almost immediately, usually not later than one hour, and "with large doses death is almost instantaneous". Death usually occurs within two to six hours in fatal poisoning (20 to 40 ml of tincture may prove fatal).The Extra Pharmacopoeia Martindale. Vol. 1, 24th edition. London: The Pharmaceutical Press, 1958, page 38. The initial signs are gastrointestinal, including nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. This is followed by a sensation of burning, tingling, and numbness in the mouth and face, and of burning in the abdomen. In severe poisonings, pronounced motor weakness occurs and cutaneous sensations of tingling and numbness spread to the limbs. Cardiovascular features include hypotension, sinus bradycardia, and ventricular arrhythmias. Other features may include sweating, dizziness, difficulty in breathing, headache, and confusion. The main causes of death are ventricular arrhythmias and asystole, or paralysis of the heart or respiratory center.{{cite journal |author=Chan TY |title=Aconite poisoning |journal=Clin Toxicol |volume=47 |issue=4 |pages=279–285 |date=April 2009 |pmid=19514874 |doi=10.1080/15563650902904407|s2cid=2697673 }} The only post mortem signs are those of asphyxia.

Treatment of poisoning is mainly supportive. All patients require close monitoring of blood pressure and cardiac rhythm. Gastrointestinal decontamination with activated charcoal can be used if given within one hour of ingestion.{{cite journal |vauthors=Chyka PA, Seger D, Krenzelok EP, Vale JA |title=Position paper: Single-dose activated charcoal |journal=Clin Toxicol |volume=43 |issue=2 |pages=61–87 |year=2005 |pmid=15822758 |doi=10.1081/CLT-51867|s2cid=218856921 }} The major physiological antidote is atropine, which is used to treat bradycardia. Other drugs used for ventricular arrhythmia include lidocaine, amiodarone, bretylium, flecainide, procainamide, and mexiletine. Cardiopulmonary bypass is used if symptoms are refractory to treatment with these drugs. Successful use of charcoal hemoperfusion has been claimed in patients with severe aconitine poisoning.{{cite journal |vauthors=Lin CC, Chan TY, Deng JF |title=Clinical features and management of herb-induced aconitine poisoning |journal=Ann Emerg Med |volume=43 |issue=5 |pages=574–9 |date=May 2004 |pmid=15111916 |doi=10.1016/j.annemergmed.2003.10.046}}

Mild toxicity (headache, nausea and palpitations) as well as severe toxicity may be experienced from skin contact.{{Cite journal |last=Chan |first=Thomas Y. K. |date=2012-11-30 |title=Aconite poisoning following the percutaneous absorption of Aconitum alkaloids |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22766196/ |journal=Forensic Science International |volume=223 |issue=1–3 |pages=25–27 |doi=10.1016/j.forsciint.2012.06.016 |issn=1872-6283 |pmid=22766196}} Paraesthesia, including tingling and feelings of coldness in the face and extremities, is common in reports of toxicity.{{Cite journal |last=Chan |first=Thomas Y.K. |date=2009-04-01 |title=Aconite poisoning |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/15563650902904407 |journal=Clinical Toxicology |volume=47 |issue=4 |pages=279–285 |doi=10.1080/15563650902904407 |pmid=19514874 |s2cid=2697673 |issn=1556-3650|url-access=subscription }}

File:Bushi2012.jpg) (in Japanese)]]

Aconite was described in Greek and Roman folk medicine by Theophrastus, Dioscorides, and Pliny the Elder,{{cite journal|author=Jackson, Robert|title=Notes on the History, Properties, and Uses of Aconitum napellus|journal=The Lancet|volume=67|issue=1705|year=1856|pages=478–481|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(02)53058-0 |url=https://ia800708.us.archive.org/view_archive.php?archive=/22/items/crossref-pre-1909-scholarly-works/10.1016%252Fs0140-6736%252802%252952582-4.zip&file=10.1016%252Fs0140-6736%252802%252953058-0.pdf}} Folk medicinal use of Aconitum species is practiced in some parts of Slovenia.{{cite journal|author1=Marija Povšnar|author2=Gordana Koželj|author3=Samo Kreft|author4=Mateja Lumpert|title=Rare tradition of the folk medicinal use of Aconitum spp. is kept alive in Solčavsko, Slovenia; |journal=Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine|date=2017|volume=13 |issue=1 |page=45 |doi=10.1186/s13002-017-0171-x |pmid=28789666 |pmc=5549329 |url=http://rdcu.be/uQ1i |doi-access=free }}

Aconitum chasmanthum is listed as critically endangered,{{cite web|url=http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/50126558/0|title=Aconitum chasmanthum|website=Iucnredlist.org|access-date=15 January 2018|date=2014-07-18}} Aconitum heterophyllum as endangered,{{cite web|url=http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/50126560/0|title=Aconitum heterophyllum|website=Iucnredlist.org|access-date=15 January 2018|date=2014-07-18}} and Aconitum violaceum as vulnerable due to overcollection for use as an herbal medicine.{{cite web|url=http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/50126562/0|title=Aconitum violaceum|website=Iucnredlist.org|access-date=15 January 2018|date=2014-07-18}}

A producer of Yunnan Baiyao, a traditional Chinese medicine remedy, has disclosed the remedy contains aconite.{{Cite web |title=Should Recipes for Chinese Medicine Be Open? -- Beijing Review |url=http://www.bjreview.com.cn/forum/txt/2014-05/26/content_620815.htm |access-date=2024-03-13 |website=www.bjreview.com.cn}}

The roots of A. ferox supply the Nepalese poison called bikh, bish, or nabee. It contains large quantities of the alkaloid pseudaconitine, which is a deadly poison. The root of A. luridum, of the Himalaya, is said to be as poisonous as that of A. ferox or A. napellus.

Several species of Aconitum have been used as arrow poisons. The Minaro in Ladakh use A. napellus on their arrows to hunt ibex, while the Ainu in Japan used a species of Aconitum to hunt bearPeissel, Michel. 1984. The Ants' Gold. The Discovery of the Greek El Dorado in the Himalayas. London, Harvill Press, pp. 99–100. as did the Matagi hunters of the same region before their adoption of firearms. The Chinese also used Aconitum poisons both for huntingSung, Ying-hsing. T'ien kung k'ai wu. Sung Ying-hsing. 1637. Published as Chinese Technology in the Seventeenth Century. Translated and annotated by E-tu Zen Sun and Shiou-chuan Sun. 1996. Mineola. New York. Dover Publications, p. 267. and for warfare.Chavannes, Édouard. "Trois Généraux Chinois de la dynastie des Han Orientaux. Pan Tch'ao (32-102 p.C.); – son fils Pan Yong; – Leang K'in (112 p.C.). Chapitre LXXVII du Heou Han chou.". 1906. T'oung pao 7, pp. 226–227. Aconitum poisons were used by the Aleuts of Alaska's Aleutian Islands for hunting whales. Usually, one man in a kayak armed with a poison-tipped lance would hunt the whale, paralyzing it with the poison and causing it to drown.{{cite journal|url=http://escholarship.org/uc/item/9780c95n#page-3|title=A Pacific Eskimo invention in whale hunting in historic times [eScholarship]|journal=American Anthropologist|volume=45|pages=120–122|publisher=escholarship.org|access-date=6 October 2014|date=March 1943|last1=Heizer|first1=Robert F.|doi=10.1525/aa.1943.45.1.02a00090|doi-access=free}} Aconitum tipped arrows are also described in the Rig Veda.{{Cite book|title=Goldfrank's toxicologic emergencies|others=Hoffman, Robert S. (Robert Steven), 1959-, Howland, Mary Ann,, Lewin, Neal A.,, Nelson, Lewis, 1963-, Goldfrank, Lewis R., 1941-, Flomenbaum, Neal|isbn=978-0-07-180184-3|edition=Tenth|location=New York|oclc=861895453|date = 2014-12-23}}

It has, albeit rarely, been hypothesized that Socrates was executed via an extract from an Aconitum species, such as Aconitum napellus, rather than via hemlock, Conium maculatum. Aconitum was commonly used by the ancient Greeks as an arrow poison but can be used for other forms of poisoning. It has been hypothesized that Alexander the Great and Ptolemy XIV Philopator were murdered via aconite.{{cite book |last1=Hayes |first1=Antoinette |last2=Gilbert |first2=Stephen |chapter=Historical milestones and discoveries that shaped the toxicology sciences |title=Molecular, Clinical and Environmental Toxicology |date=2009 |chapter-url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/23805736 |volume= 1: Molecular Toxicology |pages=6–7 |doi=10.1007/978-3-7643-8336-7_1 |pmid=19157056 |isbn=978-3-7643-8335-0 |access-date=11 February 2020|series=Experientia Supplementum }}

In a review of Alisha Rankin's The Poison Trials,{{cite book | author = Rankin, Alisha | date = 2021 | title = The Poison Trials | location = Chicago, IL | publisher = The University of Chicago Press | isbn = | url = |access-date = }}{{full|date = May 2024}} Alison Abbott, writing in Nature, reports Rankin's proposal of 1524 as the first human trial with a control arm, indicating the book's description of a 16th century source presenting Pope Clement VII poisoning a pair of prisoners with aconite-laced marzipan, testing an antidote on one that survived, leaving the untreated prisoner to suffer a painful death.{{cite journal |last1=Abbott |first1=Alison |date=2021 |title=The Grisly Trials That Gave Poison to Prisoners |journal=Nature |volume= 589 |issue=7842 |pages=350–3517 |doi=10.1038/d41586-021-00077-0 |pmid= |bibcode=2021Natur.589..350A | url = https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-021-00077-0 | access-date = 31 May 2024 | url-access=subscription }}

In April 2021, the president of Kyrgyzstan, Sadyr Japarov, promoted aconite root as a treatment for COVID-19. Subsequently, at least four people were admitted to hospital suffering from poisoning.{{Cite news|url=https://www.rferl.org/a/kyrgyzstan-toxic-root-president-four-patients-hospital-poisoning/31215533.html|title=Four Patients Being Treated In Kyrgyz Hospitals For Poisoning With Toxic Root Promoted By President|newspaper=Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty|date=22 April 2021 }} Facebook had previously removed the President's posts advocating use of the substance, saying "We've removed this post as we do not allow anyone, including elected officials, to share misinformation that could lead to imminent physical harm or spread false claims about how to cure or prevent COVID-19".{{Cite news|url=https://www.rferl.org/a/facebook-kyrgyz-president-toxic-root-aconite/31211493.html|title=Facebook Removes Kyrgyz President's Post Promoting Toxic Root To Fight COVID|newspaper=Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty|date=19 April 2021 }}

File:Delphinieae cladogram.png]]

Genetic analysis suggests that Aconitum as it was delineated before the 21st century is nested within Delphinium sensu lato, that also includes Aconitella, Consolida, Delphinium staphisagria, D. requini, and D. pictum. Further genetic analysis has shown that the only species of the subgenus "Aconitum (Gymnaconitum){{-"}}, "A. gymnandrum{{-"}}, is sister to the group that consists of Delphinium (Delphinium), Delphinium (Delphinastrum), and "Consolida{{-"}} plus "Aconitella{{-"}}. To make Aconitum monophyletic, "A. gymnandrum{{-"}} has now been reassigned to a new genus, Gymnaconitum. To make Delphinium monophyletic, the new genus Staphisagria was erected containing S. staphisagria, S. requini, and S. pictum.{{cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Wei |last2=Liu |first2=Yang |last3=Yu |first3=Sheng-Xiang |last4=Gai |first4=Tian-Gang |last5=Chen |first5=Zhi-Duan |date=21 August 2013 |title=Gymnaconitum, a new genus of Ranunculaceae endemic to the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau |journal=Taxon |volume=62 |issue=4 |pages=713–722 |url=http://sourcedb.cas.cn/sourcedb_ib_cas/en/eibthesis/201308/P020130826401950334253.pdf |doi=10.12705/624.10 |bibcode=2013Taxon..62..713W |access-date=21 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140223173245/http://sourcedb.cas.cn/sourcedb_ib_cas/en/eibthesis/201308/P020130826401950334253.pdf |archive-date=23 February 2014 |url-status=dead }}

{{Main|List of Aconitum species}}

{{Div col|colwidth=20em}}

• Aconitum anthora (yellow monkshood)
• Aconitum anthoroideum
• Aconitum bucovinense
• Aconitum carmichaelii (Carmichael's monkshood)
• Aconitum columbianum (western monkshood)
• Aconitum coreanum(Korean monkshood)
• Aconitum degenii (branched monkshood)
• Aconitum delphinifolium (larkspurleaf monkshood)
• Aconitum ferox (Indian aconite)
• Aconitum firmum
• Aconitum fischeri (Fischer monkshood)
• Aconitum flavum (Fluff iron hammer)
• Aconitum hemsleyanum (climbing monkshood)
• Aconitum henryi (Sparks variety monkshood)
• Aconitum heterophyllum
• Aconitum infectum (Arizona monkshood)
• Aconitum jacquinii (synonym of A. anthora)
• Aconitum koreanum (synonym of "Aconitum coreanum")
• Aconitum kusnezoffii (Kusnezoff monkshood)
• Aconitum lamarckii (northern wolfsbane)
• Aconitum lasiostomum
• Aconitum lycoctonum (northern wolfsbane)
• Aconitum maximum (Kamchatka aconite)
• Aconitum napellus
• Aconitum noveboracense (northern blue monkshood)
• Aconitum plicatum (garden monkshood)
• Aconitum reclinatum (trailing white monkshood)
• Aconitum rogoviczii
• Aconitum septentrionale
• Aconitum soongaricum
• Aconitum sukaczevii
• Aconitum tauricum
• Aconitum uncinatum (southern blue monkshood)
• Aconitum variegatum
• Aconitum violaceum
• Aconitum vulparia (wolf's bane)

{{div col end}}

{{col-begin}}

{{col-2}}

Classification of Zhang et al. 2024 (PCG):{{cite journal |date=2024-03-08 |first1=Rongxiang |last1=Zhang |first2=Niyan |last2=Xiang |first3=Changjiang |last3=Qian |first4=Shuwen |last4=Liu |first5=Yuemei |last5=Zhao |first6=Guiyu |last6=Zhang |first7=Pei |last7=Wei |first8=Jianfeng |last8=Li |first9=Tao |last9=Yuan |title=Comparative analysis of the organelle genomes of Aconitum carmichaelii revealed structural and sequence differences and phylogenetic relationships |page=260 |doi=10.1186/s12864-024-10136-1 |journal=BMC Genomics |issn=1471-2164 |volume=25|doi-access=free |pmid=38454328 }}{{rp|8}}

{{clade

|label1=Aconitum

|1={{clade

|label1=Subgenus Lycoctonum

|1={{clade

|1=Aconitum scaposum

|2={{clade

|1={{clade sequential

|1=Aconitum barbatum

|2=Aconitum sinomontanum

|3=Aconitum umbrosum

}}

|2={{clade

|1=Aconitum reclinatum

|2={{clade

|1={{clade

|1=Aconitum angustius

|2=Aconitum longecassidatum

}}

|2={{clade sequential

|1=Aconitum finetianum

|2=Aconitum pseudolaeve

|3=Aconitum quelpaertense

|4=Aconitum puchonroenicum

}}

}}

}}

}}

}}

|label2=Subgenus Aconitum

|2={{clade sequential

|1=Aconitum coreanum

|2=Aconitum tanguticum

|3={{clade

|1={{clade sequential

|1=Aconitum monanthum

|2=Aconitum austrokoreense !

|3=Aconitum chisanense

|4={{clade

|1={{clade sequential

|1=Aconitum tschangbaischanense

|2=Aconitum kusnezoffii

|3=Aconitum japonicum

|4=Aconitum ciliare

|5=Aconitum carmichaelii

}}

|2={{clade

|1={{clade

|1=Aconitum paniculigerum

|2=Aconitum austrokoreense !

}}

|2={{clade sequential

|1=Aconitum volubile

|2=Aconitum macrorhynchum

|3=Aconitum jaluense

}}

}}

}}

}}

|2={{clade

|1={{clade

|1={{clade

|1=Aconitum contortum

|2=Aconitum stylosum

}}

|2={{clade

|1={{clade

|1=Aconitum duclouxii

|2=Aconitum nagarum

}}

|2={{clade sequential

|1=Aconitum flavum

|2=Aconitum brachypodum

|3=Aconitum pendulum

}}

}}

}}

|2={{clade

|1={{clade

|1={{clade

|1=Aconitum piepunense

|2=Aconitum habaense

}}

|2={{clade sequential

|1=Aconitum ouvradianum

|2=Aconitum ramulosum

|3=Aconitum bulleyanum

}}

}}

|2={{clade

|1={{clade sequential

|1=Aconitum episcopale

|2=Aconitum forrestii

|3=Aconitum delavayi

|4=Aconitum stapfianum

}}

|2={{clade sequential

|1=Aconitum hemsleyanum

|2=Aconitum vilmorinianum

|3=Aconitum transsectum

|4=Aconitum weixiense (or A. transsectum ssp. weixiense)

}}

}}

}}

}}

}}

}}

}}

}}

{{col-2}}

Classification of Yanfei 2023 (cpDNA):{{cite journal |date=2023-02-28 |first1=Niu |last1=Yanfei |first2=Su |last2=Tai |first3=Wu |last3=Chunhua |first4=Deng |last4=Jia |first5=Yang |last5=Fazhong |title=Complete chloroplast genome sequences of the medicinal plant Aconitum transsectum (Ranunculaceae): comparative analysis and phylogenetic relationships |page=90 |doi=10.1186/s12864-023-09180-0 |journal=BMC Genomics |issn=1471-2164 |volume=24|issue=1 |doi-access=free |pmid=36855055 |pmc=9976445 }}

{{clade

|label1=Aconitum

|1={{clade

|label1=Subgenus Paraconitum

|1={{clade

|1=Aconitum scaposum

|2={{clade

|1={{clade

|1=Aconitum finetianum

|2=Aconitum longecassidatum

}}

|2={{clade

|1=Aconitum sinomontanum

|2=Aconitum barbatum

}}

}}

}}

|label2=Subgenus Aconitum

|2={{clade

|1=Aconitum tanguticum

|2={{clade

|1={{clade sequential

|1=Aconitum monanthum

|2=Aconitum kusnezoffii

|3=Aconitum volubile

|4=Aconitum carmichaelii

|5=Aconitum jaluense

}}

|2={{clade

|1={{clade

|1={{clade

|1=Aconitum stylosum

|2=Aconitum contortum

}}

|2={{clade

|1={{clade

|1=Aconitum pendulum

|2=Aconitum brachypodum

}}

|2={{clade

|1=Aconitum duclouxii

|2=Aconitum nagarum

}}

}}

}}

|2={{clade

|1=Aconitum austroyunnanense

|2={{clade

|1={{clade sequential

|1=Aconitum piepunense

|2=Aconitum bulleyanum

|3=Aconitum ramulosum

|4=Aconitum delavayi

}}

|2={{clade sequential

|1=Aconitum transsectum

|2=Aconitum vilmorinianum

|3=Aconitum episcopale

|4=Aconitum forrestii

}}

}}

}}

}}

}}

}}

}}

}}

{{col-end}}

{{primary sources|section|date = May 2024}}

Aconite and wolfsbane have been understood to be poisonous from ancient times, and are frequently represented as such in literature. In Greek mythology, the goddess Hecate is said to have invented aconite,{{cite book|first1= Maud |last1=Grieve|author-link1=Maud Grieve|editor1-first= C.F. |editor1-last=Leyel|editor-link=Hilda Leyel|title=Aconite, in: A Modern Herbal|orig-year=1931|year=1982 |publisher=Dover Publications|location=New York|isbn=0486227987|edition=Botanical.com; online |url=https://www.botanical.com/botanical/mgmh/a/aconi007.html}} which Athena used to transform Arachne into a spider.{{cn|date = May 2024}}{{cite web| author = Ovid [P. Ovidius Naso] | title = Metamorphoses (Book 6, lines 87–145) | translator = Brookes Moore | url=http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:latinLit:phi0959.phi006.perseus-eng1:6.87-6.145|website=Perseus Digital Library Project|publisher=Cornhill Publishing Co.|location=Boston|year=1922}}{{primary source inline|date = May 2024}} Medea is also said to have attempted to poison Theseus with a cup of wine poisoned with wolf's bane.{{cite book |last=Graves |first=Robert |author-link=Robert Graves |title=Greek Myths |year=1955 |publisher=Penguin |location=London |isbn=0-14-001026-2 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/greekmythsvolume00robe/page/332 332–336] |chapter=Theseus and Medea |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/greekmythsvolume00robe/page/332 }}

In the poem Metamorphoses, Ovid tells of the herb coming from the slavering mouth of Cerberus, the three-headed dog that guarded the gates of Hades.{{cn|date = May 2024}}Ovid, Metamorphoses [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0028%3Abook%3D7%3Acard%3D404 7.406 ff.]. The story is first attested by Euphorion of Chalcis, fragment 41 Lightfoot (Lightfoot, [http://www.loebclassics.com/view/euphorion_chalcis-poetic_fragments/2010/pb_LCL508.273.xml pp. 272–275]).{{primary source inline|date = May 2024}} In his Natural History, Pliny the Elder supports the legend that aconite came from the saliva of the dog Cerberus when Hercules dragged him from the underworld.{{cn|date = May 2024}}{{Cite book |last=the Elder |first=Pliny |title=The Natural History of Pliny, Book XXVII |pages=218 |language=en |translator-last=Bostock |translator-first=John |chapter=Chapter 2. Aconite, Otherwise Called Thelyphonon, Cammaron, Pardalianches, or Scorpio; Four Remedies. |translator-last2=Riley |translator-first2=Henry T. |chapter-url=https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/60688/pg60688-images.html#BOOK_XXVII_CHAP_2}}{{primary source inline|date = May 2024}} As the veterinary historian John Blaisdell has noted, symptoms of aconite poisoning in humans bear similarity to those of rabies: frothy saliva, impaired vision, vertigo, and finally, coma; thus, ancient Greeks could have believed that this poison, mythically born of Cerberus's lips, was literally the same as found inside the mouth of a rabid dog.Wasik, Bill. "Rabid: a Cultural History of the World's Most Diabolical Virus."{{full|date = May 2024}}{{full|date = May 2024}}

{{refimprove section|date = May 2024}}

As a well-known poison from ancient times, aconite (including as wolfsbane, in its various spellings) often found place in historical fiction. In I, Claudius, Livia, wife of Augustus, was portrayed discussing the merits, antidotes, and use of aconite with a poisoner.{{cn|date = May 2024}} It is the poison used by a murderer in the third of the Cadfael Chronicles, Monk's Hood by Ellis Peters, published in 1980 and set in 1138 in Shrewsbury, England.{{fcn|date = May 2024}}

The kyōgen (traditional Japanese comedy) play {{Nihongo||附子|Busu|"Dried aconite root"}},{{Cite web|url=https://en.glosbe.com/ja/en/%E9%99%84%E5%AD%90|title=附子 in English - Japanese-English Dictionary | Glosbe|website=en.glosbe.com}} which is well-known and frequently taught in Japan, is centered on dried aconite root used for traditional Chinese medicine.{{full|date = May 2024}} Taken from Shasekishu, a 13th-century anthology collected by Mujū, the story describes servants who decide that the dried aconite root is really sugar, and suffer unpleasant though nonlethal symptoms after eating it.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tolUUrDT19MC&pg=PA235|title=Traditional Japanese Theater: An Anthology of Plays|author=Brazell, Karen & Araki, James T. |publisher=Columbia University Press|year=1998|isbn=9780231108737}}

In the 16th century, Shakespeare, writing in Henry IV Part II Act 4 Scene 4, refers to aconite, alongside rash gunpowder, working as strongly as the "venom of suggestion" to break up close relationships.{{cn|date = May 2024}}

{{refimprove|section|date = May 2024}}

An overdose of aconite was the method by which Rudolph Bloom, father of Leopold Bloom in James Joyce's Ulysses, died by suicide.{{cn|date = May 2024}}

In the 1931 classic horror film Dracula starring Bela Lugosi as Count Dracula and Helen Chandler as Mina Seward, reference is made to wolf's bane (aconitum); towards the end of the film, "Van Helsing holds up a sprig of wolf's bane".{{cite quote|date = May 2024}} Van Helsing educates the nurse protecting Mina from Count Dracula to place sprigs of wolf's bane around Mina's neck for protection, instructing that wolf's bane, a plant that grows in Central Europe, is used by those dwelling there to protect themselves against vampires.{{cn|date = May 2024}}{{cite web|last=Kuehl|first=BJ|title=Count Dracula Original Movie Script|url=http://www.script-o-rama.com/movie_scripts/d/dracula-script-transcript-bela-lugosi.html|website=Script-o-rama.com|access-date=7 October 2013}}{{primary source inline|date = May 2024}}Van Helsing states that as long as the wolf's bane is present in Mina's bedroom, she will be safe from Count Dracula. During the night, Count Dracula desires to visit Mina. He appears outside her window in the form of a flying bat. He causes the nurse to become drowsy, and when she awakes from his spell, she removes the sprigs of wolf's bane, placing it in a hallway chest of drawers. With the removal of the wolf's bane from Mina's room, Count Dracula mysteriously appears and transports Mina to the dungeon of the castle.{{cn|date = May 2024}} See B.J. Kuehl, Count Dracula Original Movie Script, op cit.

In the 1941 film The Wolf Man starring Lon Chaney Jr. and Claude Rains, the following poem is recited several times:

Even a man who is pure in heart and says his prayers by night, may become a wolf when the wolf-bane blooms and the autumn moon is bright.{{cite quote|date = May 2024}}

Aconite and wolfsbane have also appeared in a references in modern settings. In the early 1980s, famed Spanish horror film star Paul Naschy named his production company "Aconito Films", an in-joke relating to the large number of werewolf movies he produced.{{cn|date = May 2024}} In the 2003 Korean television series Dae Jang Geum, set in the 15th and 16th centuries, Choi put "wolf's bane" in the previous queen's food.{{cn|date = May 2024}}

In the 1980 novel Monk's-Hood, third in Ellis Peters' series The Cadfael Chronicles and set in 1138, a wealthy donator to Shrewsbury Abbey, Gervase Bonel, is murdered with stolen Monks-hood liniment prepared by the Abbey's herbalist Brother Cadfael, who needs to identify the true culprit to exonerate Bonel's stepson Edwin.Peters, Ellis, Monks-hood, Macmillan 1980, ISBN 0333294106

In the Harry Potter series by J.K. Rowling, describing aconitum is one of three questions that Professor Snape asks Harry Potter during his first Potions class in the first novel. Snape's preparations of the drug as a treatment for lycanthropy are also an important plot point in the third novel.{{cite web|url=https://carnegiemnh.org/wolfsbane/|author=Heberling, Mason|title=Wolfsbane|publisher=Carnegie Museum of Natural History|language=en-US|url-status=live|access-date=January 12, 2025|archive-date=January 12, 2025|archive-url=https://archive.today/20250112081538/https://carnegiemnh.org/wolfsbane/}}

In the TV series Dexter, serial killer Hannah McKay (a love interest of protagonist Dexter Morgan) has a history of using aconite to murder her victims.{{citation needed|date=February 2025}}

This family of poisons makes a showing in S. M. Stirling's 2000 science fiction novel, On the Oceans of Eternity, where a renegade warlord is poisoned with aconite-laced food by his own chief of internal security.{{cn|date = May 2024}} In the 2000s television show Merlin, the titular character attempts to poison Arthur with aconite while under a spell.{{cn|date = May 2024}}

In the 2010s TV series Forever, Dr. Henry Morgan identifies the plants in the villain's greenhouse as specifically Aconitum variegatum, which he has used to create a poison to release into the ventilation system of Grand Central Terminal.{{cn|date = May 2024}} In the television series Game of Thrones (2011-2019), a Tywin Lannister's commander is assassinated by a dart, identified by Tywin as "Wolf's Bane" due to its scent.{{cn|date = May 2024}} In the second season of the BBC drama Shakespeare and Hatherway, episode 9, a tennis player is poisoned through the skin of his palm by aconite smeared on the handle of his racquet.{{cn|date = May 2024}}

Also, in the third season of "You," Love Quinn murders her first husband, James, after injecting him with Aconite after James asked for a divorce. Love admits to Joe (the protagonist) that she killed James "accidentally" and then tells Joe she poisoned him with Aconite through skin contact after he grabbed a knife to protect himself after he asks Love for a divorce. When Love approaches Joe (who is believed to be dying from Aconite and is "paralyzed"), he stabs her with a needle with his own mixture he created from Love's Aconite substance. Joe tells Love, while she is paralyzed, that he knew what was growing in their backyard and tells her, "You did this to yourself."

In the 2024 Netflix thriller Carry-On, the Traveller (played by Jason Bateman) murders some of his targets by poisoning them with aconitum.{{cite web|url=https://scrapsfromtheloft.com/movies/carry-on-2024-transcript/|title=Carry-On (2024): Transcript|publisher=Scraps From the Loft|language=en-US|url-status=live|date=December 15, 2024|access-date=January 12, 2025|archive-date=January 12, 2025|archive-url=https://archive.today/20250112083221/https://scrapsfromtheloft.com/movies/carry-on-2024-transcript/}}

Wolf's bane is used as an analogy for the power of divine communion in Liber 65 1:13–16, one of Aleister Crowley's Holy Books of Thelema.{{full|date=May 2024}} Wolf's bane is mentioned in one verse of Lady Gwen Thompson's 1974 poem "Rede of the Wiccae", a long version of the Wiccan Rede: "Widdershins go when Moon doth wane, And the werewolves howl by the dread wolfsbane."{{cite quote|date=May 2024}}

File:Aconitum napellus01.jpg|Aconitum napellus

File:Aconitum-reclinatum01.jpg|Trailing white monkshood (A. reclinatum)

File:Aconitum-uncinatum01.jpg|Southern blue monkshood (A. uncinatum)

File:Alaskan Monkshood Leaf.jpg|Wild Alaskan monkshood (A. delphinifolium) is a flowering species that belongs to the family Ranunculaceae. The picture was taken in Kenai National Wildlife Refuge in Alaska.

• Rufus T. Bush, industrial tycoon who died of accidental aconite poisoning

{{Reflist}}

{{Commons}}

{{Wikispecies|Aconitum}}

• [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/~grout/encyclopaedia_romana/aconite/aconite.html James Grout: Aconite Poisoning], part of the Encyclopædia Romana
• [http://plants.usda.gov/java/imageGallery?txtparm=aconitum&category=sciname&familycategory=all&duration=all&growthhabit=all&origin=all&wetland=all&imagetype=all&artist=all©right=all&location=all&stateSelect=all&cite=all&viewsort=15&sort=sciname&submit.x=73&submit.y=9 Photographs of Aconite plants]
• [http://ucjeps.berkeley.edu/cgi-bin/get_IJM.pl?tid=10120 Jepson Eflora entry for Aconitum]

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Category:Neurotoxins

Category:Plant toxins

Category:Ranunculaceae genera